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THE    BIBLE   HAND-BOOK 


THE  BIBLE  HAND-BOOK 
AN    INTRODUCTION   TO    THE 
STUDY  OF  SACRED  SCRIPTURE 

by/the  lat 
JOSEPH^NGUS, 


A  NEW  EDITION,  THOROUGHLY   REVISED 
AND   IN    PART   RE-WRITTEN 

BY 

SAMUEL   G.    GREEN,   D.D. 

AUTHOR    OF    'HANDBOOK   TO   THE    GRAMMAR   OF   THE   GREEK   TESTAMENT 
'  HANDBOOK   OF   CHURCH    HISTORY.'   ETC.    ETC. 


FLEMING    H.    REVELL   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK,  CHICAGO,  TORONTO 


The  Editor  of  the  present  Volume  desires  to  acknowledge 

much    valuable    assistance    received  in    its   preparation ; 

especially/  from  Prof  S.    W.  Green,  M.A.,  Eegenfs  Park 

College,  University  of  London,  and  the  late  Bev.   W.  H. 
Beckett,  of  Chelmsford, 


PREFACE 

1%  yrORE  than  a  half-century  has  passed  since  the  pub- 
-^-^  lication,  in  1853,  of  Dr.  Angus's  Bible  Handbook. 
The  discoveries  and  research  of  the  intervening  years  have 
furthered  our  knowledge  of  the  Bible  in  a  degree  perhaps 
unequalled  by  any  previous  period,  and  the  results  have 
appeared  in  a  wealth  of  literature  accessible  to  the  English 
student. 

For  some  years  before  his  death  in  1902  it  had  been 
the  intention  of  Dr.  Angus  himself  to  undertake  a  new 
edition  of  his  work,  a  desire  accentuated  by  his  own  share 
in  the  Revised  Version  of  the  Nev\"  Testament  issued  in 
1881.  That  the  task  has  fallen  into  other  hands  must 
inevitably  mean  loss,  especially  in  unity  of  treatment. 
But  it  is  believed  that  the  Handbooh  still  holds  unchal- 
lenged the  place  it  has  made  for  itself  among  aids  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  by  the  bold  compre- 
hensiveness of  its  plan,  carried  out  with  rare  combination 
of  scholarship  and  profound  reverence  for  the  Bible  as 
the  inspired  and  authoritative  Word  of  God. 

In  this  reissue  the  original  plan  has  been  retained, 
with  some  rearrangement,  substantially  unaltered.  The 
matter  of  the  book  liowever  has  been  freely  dealt  with. 
While  large  portions  most  characteristic  of  the  author's 


vi  PREFACE 

standpoint  and  purpose  have  been  kept,  with  but  slight 
revision,  much  else  has  been  rewritten  or  added  in  view 
of  later  scholarship,  and  much  omitted  under  necessities  of 
space.  The  book  is,  therefore,  a  combination  of  old  and 
new,  and  here  and  there  the  seams  may  possibly  be 
apparent.  Yet  it  is  hoped  that  even  students  of  the  old 
Handbook  will  welcome  the  new,  and  that  after  more 
than  fifty  years  of  usefulness  it  may,  in  spite  of  the  in- 
evitable limitations  under  which  this  revision  has  been 
conducted,  fulfil  still  more  amply  the  aim  stated  in  the 
original  Preface,  ^  to  teach  men  to  understand  and  appre- 
ciate The  Bible.' 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 

THE  BIBLE  AS  A  BOOK 

Chapter  I 

PAOK 

Introductory 3 

§§  1-3  Claims  of  the  Bible  ;  Spirit  in  which  to  study  it. 
4-8  Its  Titles  :  Bible,  Scriptures,  Testaments,  Old  Testament, 
Law  and  Prophets.  9  The  Canon  of  Scripture.  10  Extra- 
Canonical  Books  :  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha. 

Chapter  II 

The   Old    Testament  :     Language,    Canon,    Trans* 

mission.  Versions 12 

§§  11  External  features.  12-18  Hebrew  :    the  Language 

of  Canaan.  Aramaic  admixture.  Cognates :  Arabic,  Ethiopic. 
19  Importance  of  Cognate  Languages.  20  History  of  the 
Hebrew.  21,  22   History   of    the   Old    Testament   Canon, 

General   Considerations.  23,    24   The   Canon    in   Christian 

and    pre-Christian  times.  25,  26    Transmission    of    the 

Text  ;    Fidelity  in  copying.  27    The  pre-Massoretic  Text, 

28-32  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  :  TheTargums  ;  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  ;  Septuagint,  and  other  Greek  Versions  (Origen's 
Hexapla)  ;  Old  Latin  and  Jerome's  Vulgate  ;  Syriac  (the  Feshitta), 
Ethiopic,  Coptic,  Gothic,  Armenian,  &c.  33  Preservation 

of  the  Original  Text. 

Chapter  III 
The  New  Testament 36 

§§34    General    View.  35-37    Gradual    Formation   of  the 

Canon  ;  the  Gospels  ;  the  Epistles  of  Paul ;  the  remaining 
Books.  38  Early   Catalogues.  39,  40  Language  of  the 


viii  CONTENTS 


PAOS 

New  Testament :  Hellenistic  Greek ;  a  mixture  of  Dialects. 
41,  42    Manuscripts  :    Uncial    and   Cursive.  42    Threefold 

Division   of  the    New   Testament.  43,  44    Enumeration   of 

MSS.  :  Uncial,  Cursive.  "  45  Lectionaries.  46,  47  Ancient 
Versions  :  Syriac,  Armenian,  Coptic  ;  Old  Latin,  Vulgate. 
48,  49   Early  Quotations  :    Ecclesiastical    Witnesses.  50-54 

Editions  of  the  Text :  Textus  Receptus  ;  Critical  Editions  ;  Pleas 
for  the  Traditional  Text ;  Editions  for  the  General  Reader. 


Chapter  IV 
On  the  Text  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments     .     66 

§§55  Twofold  Method  of  Criticism.  56  External  Testimony 
to  the  Text.  57-59  Textual  Variations  :  Accidental  Errors  ; 

Intentional  Changes;  the  Text  not  materially  affected.  60-64 
Principles  and  Rules  of  Criticism  :  External  Evidence  ;  Internal 
Evidence  ;  Application  of  Critical  Canons  (to  i  Jn  5*^  and  other 
passages). 

Chapter  V 
The  Credentials  and  Claims  of  the  Bible     .        .     85 

§§  65,  66  The  Claims  of  the  Scriptures  themselves  ;  the 
Mission  of  our  Lord,  of  the  Apostles,  of  Paul  ;  the  Apostolic 
Writings  generally  ;  Testimony  of  the  New  Testament  to  the 
Old.  67  Genuineness  involves  Authenticity.  68  Evidence 
Classified  ;  Syllabus.  69-71  External  Evidence  :  I.  Miracle 

(Exploded  Objections)  ;  the  Evangelic  Testimony  ;  Meaning  of 
Miracles.  72,  73  II.  Prophecy  :  its  Nature  and  Fulfilment. 

74-78  Internal  Evidence  :  Morality  of  the  Bible  ;  Comparison 
with  human  ethical  systems  ;  the  Character  of  our  Lord  ;  of 
Christians  ;    the   Harmonies   of   Revelation.  79  Spiritual 

Evidence  :  Experimental.  80,  81  Summary  of  the  Evidence ; 
universally  accessible  ;  Hindrances  to  its  reception. 

Chapter  VI 
Inspiration  and  Revelation 116 

§§  82  The  Bible  as  Inspired:  the  Divine  Word.  83,84 

Method  of  Inspiration  ;  Theory  of  the  Reformers.  85  Divine 
and  Human  Elements  in  Scripture.  86  DiflSculties.  87  The 
Bible  as  Revelation.  88  Harmony  between  Natural  and 

Revealed  Religion.  89,  90  Meaning  of  Revelation  ;  Written 

Revelation.  01-05  Method  of  Revelation  :  its  matter  Religious 
Truth  ;  its  course  gradual  and  progressive ;  Relation  of  Prophecy 


CONTENTS 


PAGE. 

to  Practice  ;  Unity  of  Revelation  ;  manifest  in  Diversity.          96 
Essential   things   in    Revelation.  97-99  Its   unsystematic 

character  ;  fitting  it  for  every  country  and  age  :  Character  above 
System.  100,  lOi    Revelation   authoritative  ;  the   Seat   of 

Authority  in  religion. 


Chapter  VII 
The  Bible  as  Translated 147 

§§  102  Latin   Versions.  103,   104  The  German   Bible 

and  Versions  founded  thereon.  105  French  translations. 

106  Versions  in  other  European  Languages.  107  Versions 

by  Missionaries.  108  The  English  Biele.  109  Early 

Versions.  110  The  Wyclif  Bible.  Ill  Tindale's  Versioia 

and  others.  112  The  Authorized  Version.  113  Proposals 

for  Revision.  114  The   Revised  Version.  115  English 

Translations  compared  with  the  Original ;  Different  classes  of 
E.MENDATION  illustrated.  116  Archaic  and  obsolete  words  and 
phrases,  with  List.  117-119  Special  features  of  the  English 

Versions:  (i)  the  use  of  italics,  (2)  the  Marg'n,  {3)  Summaries  of 
Chapters  (in  A.  V.) ;  Titles  of  the  Psalms  (from  Heb.) ;  Subscrip- 
tions to  the  Epistles ;  Chapters,  Verses,  and  Paragraplis. 


Chapter  VIII 
On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture.— I .        ,        .  176 

§§  120,  121  Importance  of  the  Study  ;    Mental  and  spiritual 
prerequisites.  122-130  Rules  of  Interpretation  :  (i)  Inter- 

pret grammatically,  (2)  according  to  the  context,  (3)  according 
to  the  scope  or  design  of  the  book,  (4)  by  comparison  of  Scrip- 
ture with  Scripture.  131-133  Helps  from  the  Original 
Scriptures  ;  Etymology  ;  Grammatical  peculir.rities.  134-138 
Interpretation  of  Figurative  Language  ;  Classification  of  Figures ; 
Definitions  ;  Laws  of  Symbolic  Language.  139-141  Allegory, 
Type,  and  Parable.  142-151  Prophecy  and  its  Interpreta- 
tion ;  Succession  of  Prophets  in  Israel  ;  Nature  of  the  Prophetic 
Gift ;  History,  Type,  Prediction  ;  Specialities  of  Prophetic  Lan- 
guage ;  Principle  of  Interpreting  Prophecy  ;  New  Testament 
Applications;  Various  Interpretations  of  Expositors.  152-157 
Quotations  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New  ;  Sources  of  Quota- 
tions ;  LXX  and  Hebrew  ;  Beaiings  of  Quotations  upon  Doctrine  ;. 
Old  Testament  foreshadowings  of  the  Gospel.  158-166  Scrip- 
ture Difficulties:  to  be  expected  ;  Difficult  phrases,  passages, 
allusions ;  Apparent  discrepancies  ;  Alleged  contradictions  to 
Secular  History  ;  Summary  of  Difficulties  in  the  Revelatiui> 
itself,  and  in  Doctrine  ;  how  to  be  settled. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  IX 


PAOB 


On   the    Interpretation    of    Scripture.— 11.  On   the 

Use  of  External  Helps 276 

§§  167-177  Geography:  Bible  Lands;  Palestine;  Names, 
Boundaries,  Divisions  ;  Jerusalem  ;  the  Highland  region  ;  the 
Jordan  Valley  ;  Transjordanic  Country  ;  Inhabitants  of  Canaan, 
earlier  and  later  ;  Climate  ;  Applications  of  Geographical  Facts  ; 
Modern  local  names  (Arabic).  178-182  Historv:  (i)  Egypt, 

the  Hyksos  ;  the  Oppression ;  the  Exodus  ;  Subsequent  relations 
with  Egypt ;  Palestine  between  great  empires.  183  (2)  Moab, 
relations   with   Israel.  184  (3)  Phoenicia,    relations  with 

Israel.  185  (4)  Syria  and  Hamath  :  Petty  northern  states. 

186  (5)  The  HiTTiTES,  a  great  forgotten  empire.  187-190  (6) 

Assyria.  Kings  mentioned  in  Old  Testament :  Tiglath-pileser, 
Jargon,  Sennacherib.  191,192  (7)  Babylon:  Second  Baby- 

lonian Empire ;  Narrative  in  Daniel.  193  New  Testament  and 
■Contemporary  History.  194  Historical  illustrations  of  Bible 

passages ;  Light  from  heathen  religions.  195-200  Chronology  : 
Old  Testament  period,  in  six  divisions.  201  Chronological 

Eras  of  different  nations.  202  New  Testament  Chronology. 

203  Incidental  Lessons  of  Chronology.  204,  205  Natural 

History  :  the  Vegetable  World  ;  the  Animal  Kingdom.  206- 
210  Manners  and  Customs  :  Habitations  ;  Cities  and  Towns  ; 
Dress ;    Food  ;    Taxation   and  Tribute.  211-214  Modes   of 

Reckoning  :  Linear  Measure  ;  Measures  of  Capacity  ;  Weights 
and  Coins  ;  Lessons  of  the  Tables.  215-217  Reckoning  of 

Time:  the  Day;  the  Year;  the  Jewish  Calendar  (Table);  the 
Seasons  as  a  Note  of  Time.         218  Miscellaneous  Customs. 


Chapter  X 

On  the  Study   of    the    Scriptures   in    Relation   to 

Doctrine  and  to  Life 358 

§§  219  Great  Purposes  of  Bible  Study.  220-223  System  in 
Doctrine  :  Method  of  Investigation  ;  Relative  Importance  of 
Truths;  Rules  and  their  Application.  224-228  The  Guidance 
OF  Life  :  Doctrine  and  Practice  ;  Moral  and  Positive  Precepts  ; 
Example  a  Guide  to  Conduct ;  Promises  and  their  Application  ; 
Conditions  of  Scripture  Promises. 


CONTENTS  xi 

PART    II 
THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Chapter  XI 

PAGE 

introductory 381 

§§  229  Recapitulation.  230  The  two  parts  of  Scripture. 

231  Use  of  the  respective  Testaments.  232  Summary  of  the 

whole.  233  True  Place  of  the  Old  Testament.  234  Classi- 
fication of  Old  Testament  Books. 

Chapter  XII 
The     Pentateuch :     Its    Genuineness,    Unity,    and 

Authenticity 387 

§§  235  The  Five  Books.  236  Genuineness  :  Difficulties  at 
the  Outset  ;  how  met.  237  Moses  the  author.  238-240 

Unity  :  the  Mosaic  Origin ;  Critical  Theories  ;  the  Proposed 
Reconstruction  criticized.  241  Authenticpty  :  Truth  of  the 

record.  242-245  The  Separate  Books  :  Genesis,  Divisions,  and 
New  Testament  references.  246,  247  Exodus,  and  New  Testa- 
ment references.  248,  249  Leviticus,  and  New  Testament 
references.  250,  251  Numbers,  and  New  Testament  references. 
252,  253  Deuteronomy:  its  variations  from  preceding  books,  and 
New  Testament  references.  254  Design  of  the  Law  :  Hypo- 
thetical and  actual  methods  of  Revelation.  255,  256  Theo- 
cracy :  the  Sanctuary  and  Priesthood.  257,  258  Sacrifices  : 
their  Material,  Method,  "Varieties,  and  Significance.  259 
Festivals  :  their  Threefold  significance ;  Passover,  Pentecost, 
Tabernacles.  Fasts  :  the  Day  of  Atonement.  The  Sabbatic 
Year  ;  the  Jubilee.     Objects  of  the  Festivals. 

Chapter  XIII 
Historical  Books:  From  the  Entrance  into  Canaan 

to  the  Death  of  Solomon      ....  434 

§§  260-263  Historical  Books  enumerated  :  their  Inspiration. 
Characteristics  of  Bible  History.  Divisions  of  the  History. 
264-267  Book  of  Joshua  :  his  name  and  career  ;  Main  divisions 
of  the  Book  ;  Fulfilment  of  the  Divine  Purposes ;  New  Testa- 
ment references.  268-270  Book  of  Judges  :  Authorship ; 
Outline  ;  New  Testament  references.  271-273  Book  of  Ruth  : 
its   design  ;    Outline    and    lessons ;    New  Testament   reference 


xii  CONTENTS 

rAQE 

274-284  Books  of  Samuel:  General  View  ;  Book  I,  clis.  i-8,  Eli 
and  Samuel;  Book  I,  clis.  9-31,  Designation  of  Saul  as  King; 
Saul  and  David;  Book  II,  David  king  in  Jei-usalein  ;  his 
thanksgiving  and  last  words  ;  References  in  the  Psalms  and  in 
the  New  Testament ;  Revival  of  the  Prophetic  Spirit  in  Samuel 
and  David.  285-287  Books  of  Kings:  General  View;  Com- 
parison with  Chronicles  ;  Theocratic  character  of  the  History. 
288  Death  of  David  and  Accession  of  Solomon.  289-292 

Books  of  Chronicles  :  General  View  ;  Comparison  with  Samuel 
and  Kings;  Books  I-II.  9,  Outline;  Note  on  the  Reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon. 

Chapter  XIV 

Historical  and  Prophetical  Books :  From  the  Death 

of  Solomon  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity      .  467 

§§  293  Division  of  the  Kingdom.  294,  295  The  Northern 
Kingdom  :  its  successive  dynasties  and  history  ;  Alliance  with 
heathen  powers  ;  Subjugation  by  Assyria  (origin  of  Samaritans). 
296-298  Kingdom  of  Judah  :  Outlines;  External  Dangers, 
specially  from  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylon ;  tlie  Captivity. 
299,  300  References  to  the  History  in  the  Psalms,  and  to  Kings 
and  Chronicles  in   New  Testament.  301-304  Prophets  of 

this    Period  ;    Chart  of  the  Prophets.  302    Revival  of  the 

Prophetic  spirit.  303  General  Lessons  of  Prophecy.  304 

Prophets  in  two  gro\ips  ;  the  Assyrian  period.  305-307  The 

Book  of  Jonah  :  an  Israelite  prophet ;  Outline  and  spiritual 
lessons.  308-310  The  Book  of  Amos  :  Sent  from  Judah  to 
Israel  ;  Outline  ;  New  Testament  references.  311  The  Book 

of  HosEA  :  a  prophet  of  Israel.  312-314  Personal  history  of 
Hosea  ;  its  application  ;  New  Testament  references.  315-317 

Book  of  Joel  :  a  prophet  in  Jerusalem  ;  Outline  ;  Joel  and 
Amos  ;  New  Testament  references.  318-320  Book  of  Isaiaii  : 
his  Personal  History  ;  the  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  in  his 
time  ;    his   earlier   propliecies.  321-325    Later   prophecies  ;. 

their  Date  and  Authorship:  the  'Servant  of  Jehovah';  the 
Evangelical  Prophet ;   New  Testament  quotations.  326-328 

Book  of  Micah  :  his  personality  and  prophecies  ;  New  Testament 
quotations.  329-331  Book  of  N ahum:  his  personal  history  and 
prophecies ;  New  Testament  reference.  Prophets  of  the  Chaldiean. 
period.         332  Book  of  Zephaniah.  333,  334  His  prophecies, 

and  New  Testament  references,  335-337  Book  of  Habakkuk  : 
liis  times  and  prophecies ;  New  Testament  references.  338,330 
Book  of  Jeremiah  :  his  personal  history  and  prophetic  con- 
temporaries. 340,341  Arrangement  of  Jeremiah's  discourses; 
New   Testament   quotations  and    references.  342  Book    of 

Lamentations.  343    Book    of  Ezekiel  :    his   position   and 

history.  344,    345    His   prophecies   and    New   Testament 

references.         346,  347  Book  of  Obadiah  :  his  prophecies. 


CONTENTS  xiii 


PAGE 


Chapter  XV 

Historical  and  Prophetical  Books :  From  the 
Babylonian  Captivity  to  the  Close  of  the 
Old  Testament  Canon 528 

§§  348,  349  The  Captivity  and  its  Duration.  350  Events 

in  Judaea.  351  Life  in  Babylonia.  352  Literature  of  the 

Period.  353,  S54  Book  of  Daniel  :  his  personal  liistory,  and 

Outline  of  the  Book.  £55  Parallels  to  Daniel  in  the  Apoca- 

lypse. 350  The  Restoration,  according  to  tlie  decree  of  Cyrus. 
357-360  Book  of  Ezra  :  Contents  ;  Connexion  with  prophecy  ; 
Tr;iditions  respecting  J'zra  ;  the  *  Great  Synagogue.'  361,  3&2 

Bock  of  Nehejiiah  :  Authorship  and  Contents.  363,  364  Book 
of  Esther  :  Jews  in  foreign  lands  ;  an  episode  in  the  history  ; 
Lo-sons  ;  the  Fen st  ofPurira,  365-367  Book  of  Haggai  :  its 

Period  and  Contents  ;   New  Testament  reference.  368,  369 

Book  of  Zechariah  :  its  Contents  ;  Divisions  of  the  Book  ; 
1  heories  ;    New   Testament   references.  370-372    Book    of 

Malachi  :  Name  and  ministry  of  the  prophet  ;  Contents  ;  New 
Testament  references.  Contents  of  the  Prophetical  Books  in 
chronological  order :  Table,  pp.  556,  557. 

Chapter  XVI 
Poetical  Books  and  'Wisdom-Literature'     .         .  558 

§§  373-375  Characteristics  of  Hebrew  Poetry;  Parallelism 
and  its  Varieties.  376-381  Book  of  Job  :  its  Title,  Subject, 
Age,  Contents  ;  Comparison  with  other  Old  Testament  Books  ; 
References  in  New  Testament.  382-385  Book  of  Psalms  ;  Title  ; 
Arrangement  (the  Five  Books)  ;  Authorship,  and  Value.  386- 
£89  Titles  of  the  Psalms  ;  their  Historical  Circumstances  ;  their 
Character  and  Contents  ;  the  later  Psalms.  390-392  Classi- 

li cation  and  approximate  chronological  arrangement  ;  New 
Testament   quotations   and   references.  393,   394    Wisdom- 

Literature  of  the  Old  Testament ;  Solomon  and  his  followers. 
S95-397  Book  of  Proverbs  :  Contents  ;  Outline ;  their  applica- 
tion illustrated.  398,  399  Book  of  Ecclesiastes  :  Title,  Age, 
Authorship,    and   Design.  400-403    The   SoNO   op   Songs 

(Canticles):  Authorsliip  and  Cnnonicity;  Personages  of  the 
poem  ;  Scenes  and  dialogue  ;  Dififerent  interpretations  (the 
Shepherd-Lover,  Wedding-songs)  ;  Allegorical  use  of  the  poem. 

Chapter  XVII 

Jewish  History  from  Malachi  to  John  the  Baptist    597 

§5  404  The  Successive  Periods.  405  The  Persian  Rule  : 

its  duration  and  character.  406  Rise  of  Samaritan  worship. 


xiv  CONTENTS 


PAGl 

407  Persia  and  Egypt.  408  Alexander  and  his  successors. 

409    Egyptian   Rule ;    the   Ptolemies.  410    Syrian   Rule ; 

Antiochus  Epiphanes.  411,  412  The  Maccabaean  uprising ; 

Reconsecration   of  the   Temple.  413  The   Jews   in   Egypt. 

414    Palestine  under  Maccabaean  rule ;    the  Brothers.  415 

Hyrcanus   I ;    Line    of  Priest-Kings.  416    Intervention    of 

Rome.  417    Genealogical  Table  of  Priest-Kings  ;    the  High- 

Priests.  418  Supremacy  of  Rome  ;  Herod  the  Great.         419 

Governors  of  Judaea  ;  Table  of  the  Herodian  Family.  420 
Moral  and  Religious  History  ;  Adhesion  to  Mosaism.  421  The 
Septuagint.  422  Apocryphal  Books.  423-425  Jewish  Sects : 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  Essenes.  426-428  Tradition  :  the  Talmud, 
Massora,  Kabbalah.  429  The  Scribes.  430  Synagogues.  431 
The  Sanhedrin.  432  Zealots,  Herodians,  Proselytes.  433 

The  Samaritans  :  their  Pentateuch  and  Worship. 


Chapter  XVIII 

The  New  Testament :   the  Gospels         .         .         .  627 

§§  434,  435  Meaning  of  Gospel'  ;  The  Four  Gospels.  436- 
439  The  Synoptic  Problem  ;  Sources  of  the  first  three  Gospels  ; 
Use  of  Mark  and  *  Logia '  by  Matthew  and  Luke  ;  Luke's 
Prologue.  440  Table  of  Early  Witnesses  to   the  Gospels. 

441-446  Gospel  according  to  Mark:  its  Author;  his  personal 
history  ;  Date  and  Integrity  of  the  Gospel  (the  last  twelve 
verses)  ;    Contents   and    Characteristics.  447-449    Gospel 

according  to  Matthew  :  Author;  Genuineness;  Integrity  ;  Date  ; 
Contents ;    Characteristics.  450-452    Gospel   according   to 

Luke  :  Author  ;  Genuineness  ;  Integrity  ;  Date  ;  Contents  ; 
Characteristics.  453  Details  peculiar  to  Luke.  454-456 

Gospel  according  to  John  :  his  personality  ;  Relationship  to 
Jesus  ;  his  place  in  the  Apostolic  history.  457-459  Genuine- 

ness of  this  Gospel  ;  External  testimony  ;  Internal  evidence  ; 
Objections  and  Difficulties  considered.  460-462  Integrity  of 

this    Gospel  ;    Date  ;    Summary   of  contents.  463    Details 

peculiar  to  John  (Note  on  works  advocating  the  Genviineness 
and  Authority  of  the  Fourth  Gospel).  464,  465   Tables  of 

Parables  and  Miracles  recorded  in  the  several  Gospels. 


Chapter  XIX 
The  Acts  of  the  Apostles 667 

§§  466  Title  and  Plan  of  the  Book  ;  its  relation  to  the  Gcspels. 
467-470  Author,    Date,    Historical    Value.  471  Objections 

and   Difficulties   considered.  472,    473    Its    Contents    and 

Chronology. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter  XX 


XY 


PAOK 


The  Epistles 6^^ 

§§  475  Purpose  of  the  Epistles,  and  rules  for  studying  them. 
476  Reception  of  the  Epistles  in  the  Church  (Table).  477- 
479  I  Thessalonians  :  Thessalonica  ;  Paul's  labours  there  ;  Con- 
tents of  the  Epistle  :  Key- words  and  notable  expressions.  480- 
482  2  Thessalonians  :  Object  of  the  Epistle ;  its  contents 
and  special  teachings.  483-485  i  Corinthians  :  Corinth  ;  its 

Position  and  Character  ;  the  Church  there  founded  ;  Time  and 
place  of  writing  the  Epistle  ;  Special  questions  considered  ;  Place 
of  the  Epistle  in  the  series.  486-488  2  Corinthians  :  Occa- 

sion of  the  Epistle  ;  Contents  and  general  lessons  ;  Key-words 
and  peculiar  expressions.  489-492  Galatians  :  Position  and 
Extent  of  the  Province  ;  Occasion  and  tenor  of  the  Epistle  ;  Con- 
tents; Key-words  and  peculiar  expressions.  493-496  Romans: 
Jewish,  Gentile,  and  Christian  Communities  in  Rome ;  Date  of  the 
Epistle ;  Contents  (detailed  analysis) ;  Key-wordsand  expressions. 
497-499  The  Prison  Epistles  :  'Ephesians' :  to  whom  addressed; 
Character  and  contents  of  the  Epistle  ;  Key-words  and  charac- 
teristic expressions.  500-503  Colossians  :  the  city  of  Colossae  y 
Place  and  time  of  writing  the  Epistle  (comparison  with  '  Ephe- 
sians')  ;  Contents;  Key-words  and  phrases.  504,505  Phile- 
mon :  a  private  letter  ;  subject,  contents,  and  characteristics  ;. 
Key- words  and  phrases.  506-509  Philippians  :  Introduction 
of  the  Gospel  to  Europe  ;  Place  and  time  of  writing  ;  Character 
of  the  Church  at  Philippi ;  Contents  of  the  Epistle  ;  Key-words 
and  phrases.  510-512  The  three  Pastoral  Epistles  :  their 

characteristics.  i  Timothy  :    Training   and   character   of 

Timothy  ;  Date  of  the  Epistle.  513,  514  Its  purpose  and  con- 
tents ;  Views  of  the  Christian  Ministry  ;  Key-words  and  memor- 
able sayings.  515-518  Titus  :  Notices  of  his  life  ;  the  Gospel 
in  Crete;  Contents  of  the  Epistle ;  Key-words  and  special  phrases. 
519-521  2  Timothy  :  When  and  where  written  ;  its  purpose  and 
contents;  Key-words  and  special  allusions.  522,523  Hebrews: 
occasion  and  object  of  the  Epistle  ;  Time  and  place  of  writing. 
524  Authorship  of  the  Epistle  ;  Various  views.  525  To  whom 
addressed.  526,  527  Outline;  Characteristic  words  and  special 
passages.  528  The  Seven  Catholic  Epistles.  529-531  James  : 
writer  of  the  Epistle  ;  Contents  ;  Key- words  and  unusual  expres- 
sions. 532-535  I  Peter  :  the  writer's  history  (his  alleged- 
residence  in  Rome)  ;  Destination,  character,  ar.d  contents  of  the 
Epistle  ;  Leading  ideas  and  peculiar  expressions.  536- 
538  2  Peter  :  Destination  and  purpose  of  the  Epistle  ;  Question 
of  its  authenticity ;  Special  words  and  phrases.  539-541  Jude  : 
his  personality ;  Purport,  contents,  and  date  of  the  Epistle ;. 
Peculiar  expressions  and  allusions.  542-544  i  John  :  Char- 
acter and  destination  of  the  Epistle  ;  Errors  denounced  ;  Truths- 
enforced  ;  Leading  words  and  phrases.  545,  546  2  John  : 
Letter   to  a   Christian   lady ;    its    main   topics    and    language^ 


xvi  CONTENTS 


PAOB 

547,  548  3  John  :  a  Letter  to  one  Gaiua  ;  Characteristic  words 
(Insight  into  the  character  of  the  Church  at  the  close  of  first 
century). 


Chapter  XXI 

The  Revelation  of  John 758 

§§  549  Place  and  date  of  writing  (the  word  Apocalypse). 
550  Character  of  the  Book.  551,  552  Contents,  in  two  main 
divisions  ;  Sevenfold  arrangement.  553  Various  Interpreta- 

tions of  the  Visions  ;  the  'Praeterist,'  'Historical'  or  'Continuous,' 
'■  Futurist/  and  '  Ideal.'  554  Distinct  and  Certain  Prophecies; 
*  Babylon'  and  the  '  Heavenly  Jerusalem.'  555  Peculiar  words 
and  phrases  in  the  Apocalypse  ;  Conclusioa. 

APPENDICES 

Appendix  I.  Chronology  of  the  Bible,  with  Contemporary 
Annals  ;  Old  Testament  History  ;  Interval  between  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  ;  New  Testament  History        ....    •n'j-2 

Appendix  II.  Natural  Hlstory  of  the  Bible :  the  Animal  and 
Vegetable  Kingdoms  ;  Minerals •rpg 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX  ,       ,  .       .   815 


Part  j 

the  bible  as  a  book 

Its  Characteristics,  Literary  History,  and 
Interpretation 


*I  use  the  Scriptures  not  as  an  arsenal  to  be  resorted  to  only  for 
arms  and  weapons  .  .  .  but  as  a  matchless  temple,  where  I  delight  to 
contemplate  the  beauty,  the  symmetry,  and  the  magnificence  of  the 
structure  ;  and  to  increase  my  awe  and  excite  my  devotion  to  the  Deity 
there  preached  and  adored.'— Boyle  :  On  the  Shjle  of  Scripture,  3rd  obj.  8. 
*  Scarcely  can  we  fix  our  eyes  upon  a  single  passage  in  this  wonderful 
book  which  has  not  afforded  comfort  or  instruction  to  thousands,  and 
been  met  with  tears  of  penitential  sorrow  or  grateful  joy  drawn  from 
eyes  that  will  weep  no  more.' — Payson  :  The  Bible  above  all  Price. 
'This  lamp,  from  off  the  everlasting  throne, 
Mercy  took  down,  and  in  the  night  of  time 
Stood,  casting  on  the  dark  her  gracious  bow, 
And  evermore  beseeching  ruHn  with  tears 
And  earnest  sighs,  to  hear,  believe,  and  live.'— Pollok 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTORY 

1.  The  Claims  of  the  Bible. — Even  as  a  literary  com- 
position, the  sacred  Scriptures  form  the  most  remarkable 
book  the  world  has  ever  seen.  They  are  of  high  antiquity. 
They  contain  a  record  of  events  of  the  deepest  interest. 
The  history  of  their  influence  is  the  history  of  civilization. 
The  wisest  and  best  of  mankind  have  borne  witness  to  their 
power  as  an  instrument  of  enlightenment  and  of  holiness  ; 
and  having  been  prepared  by  men  who  *  spake  from  God, 
being  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost  '\'  to  reveal  '  the  only  true 
God  and  Him  Whom  He  did  send,  even  Jesus  Christ  b,'  they 
have  on  this  ground  the  strongest  claims  upon  our  attentive 
and  reverential  regard. 

The  use  of  a  handbook  of  Scripture  requires  one  or  two 
cautions,  which  both  writer  and  readers  need  to  keep  before 
them. 

2.  First,  we  are  not  to  contemplate  this  glorious  fabric 
of  Divine  truth  as  spectators  only.  It  is  not  our  business 
to  stand  before  Scripture  and  admire  it :  but  to  stand 
within,  that  we  may  believe  and  obey  it.  In  the  way  of 
inward  communion  and  obedience  only  shall  we  see  the 
beauty  of  its  treasures.  It  yields  them  to  none  but  the 
loving  and  the  humble.  We  must  enter  and  unite  ourselves 
with  that  which  we  would  know,  before  we  can  know  it 
more  than  in  name  °. 

•  a  Pet  i2i  R.  V.  *  Jn  17S  R.  V.  •  Pr  a^-*  .In  f\ 

B  2 


4  INTRODUCTORY 

3.  Secondly,  the  study  of  a  help  to  Scripture  must  not 
be  confounded  with  the  study  of  Scripture  itself.  Such  helps 
may  teach  us  to  look  at  truth  so  as  to  see  its  position  and 
proportions,  but  it  is  the  entrance  of  truth  alone  v/hich  gives 
light.  The  road  we  are  about  to  travel  may  prove  attractive 
and  pleasing,  but  its  great  attraction  is  its  end.  It  leads 
to  the  'wells  of  salvation.'  To  suppose  that  the  journey, 
or  the  sighi  of  the  living  water — perhaps,  even  of  the  place 
whence  it  springs — will  quench  our  thirst,  is  to  betray 
most  mournful  self-deceit  or  the  profoundest  ignorance. 
Our  aim — '  the  sabbath  and  port  of  our  labours  ' — is  to 
make  more  clear  and  impressive  the  Book  of  God,  'the 
god  of  books,'  as  it  has  been  called,  the  Bible  itself. 

4.  Titles. — The  names  by  which  this  volume  is  desig- 
nated are  The  Bible  or  The  Sckiptures  :  it  is  divided  into 
The  Old  Testament  and  The  New  Testament,  while  the 
Old  Testament  or  parts  of  it  are  referred  to  in  the  New 
as  The  Law  or  The  Law  and  the  Prophets. 

5.  Bible. — The  term  Bible,  hook,  is  one  which  affirms 
two  things,  unity  and  pre-eminence.  We  use  it  as  a  singu- 
lar, '  Book '  not  '  Books,'  and  without  any  distinguishing 
adjective.  The  Bible  is  one  book,  and  in  a  sense  is  the 
only  book.  The  appropriateness  of  such  a  title  can  hardly 
be  questioned  :  this  conception  of  oneness  through  all  its 
parts,  of  unity  amid  diversity,  has  been  endorsed  by  the 
Christian  consciousness  and  has  had  far-reaching  influence. 

It  is  curious  that  this  title  should  have  been  due  in  part  to  a  mistake. 
'  Bible'  is  the  English  form  of  the  name  given  to  the  Latin  Scriptures, 
Biblia.  This  also  is  a  singular,  but,  in  turn,  it  is  the  Latin  form  of  the 
Greek  word  Pi^Kia,  which  is  not  singular,  but  the  plural  of  (Si^Kiov, 
book,  a  diminutive  of  fii^Xa,  a  name  given  to  the  outer  coat  of  the 
papyrus  reed.  This  was  stripped  off  and  glued  together  to  form  writing 
material :  thus,  by  transference  from  material  to  the  use  made  of  it, 
tii^Kos  came  to  mean  book  and  liifiXiov  a  little  book.  (So  in  Latin  '  liber  * 
first  means  bark,  then  book;  the  diminutive  Mibellus'  is  a  little  book; 
our  English   libel  suggests  the  use   sometimes  made  of    little   books 


THE   SCRIPTURES  5 

or  pamphlets  as  the  vehicle  of  abu.^e  and  calumny.)  In  the  New 
Testament  the  terms  Pi^Xos  and  pi^Kiov  are  applied  to  a  single  book  of 
the  Old  Testament  or  to  such  a  group  as  the  Pentateuch  *.  In  the 
Old  Testament  we  find  the  plural  used  of  the  Prophets  ^,  and  once 
in  the  Apocrypha  "  the  Old  Testament  generally  is  spoken  of  as  '  the 
holy  books/  It  was  this  plural  use  that  passed  over  into  the  Christian 
Church :  from  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  Scriptures  are 
spoken  of  as  'the  books,'  tlie  'holy,'  'divine*  or  'canonical  books.* 
The  same  notion  of  plurality  rather  than  unity  is  seen  in  another  term 
applied  to  the  Scriptures  by  certain  of  the  Latin  Fathers  and  later 
writers,  Bibliotheca,  '  Library  '  or  the  '  Divine  Library.'  But  when 
once  the  Greek  plural  noun  0iP\ia  was  adopted  in  Latin,  its  original 
force  was  forgotten.  Biblia  in  grammatical  form  may  be  either 
a  neuter  plural  or  a  feminine  singular  :  the  growing  conception  of 
unity  in  the  sacred  writings  helped  to  its  interpretation  as  a  singular ; 
and  so,  by  error,  out  of  biblia,  books,  came  biblia,  book,  i.  e.  Bible.  In 
our  study  of  the  Bible  we  may  need  to  return  to  the  primitive  and 
proper  significance  of  the  term,  considering  first  the  parts  rather  than 
the  whole.  But  we  may  also  thankfully  retain  the  changed  signifi- 
cance as  one  that  has  wonderfully  helped  to  give  sharpness  and  fixity 
to  the  conception  of  one  Word  of  God,  constant  and  uniform  amid  all 
the  separateness  and  diversity  of  His  words  to  men.  The  Bible  is  at 
once  a  Library  and  a  Book. 

6.  Scriptures. — The  name  applied  in  the  New  Testament 
to  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  collectively  is  at  ypacfjai, 
the  writings,  or  in  Latin  The  Scriptures  d.  Once  we  find 
the  phrase  'holy  scriptures %'  and  once,  with  a  different 
form  of  the  Greek  word,  'sacred  writings  f.' 

When  the  singular  occurs,  it  is  with  reference  not  to  the  whole  but 
to  some  particular  passage,  e.  g.  '  To-day  is  this  scripture  fulfilled  in 
your  ears «,' following  a  quotation  from  Is  6i.  The  collective  use  of 
'  Scripture,'  familiar  to  us  and  embodying  the  sense  of  oneness  already 
referred  to,  was  still  in  the  making.  The  earlier  usage  is  writings, 
books :  the  later,  though  not  the  less  true,  is  Scripture,  Bible. 

7.  Testament. — The  application  of  the  term  Testament 
carries  us  beyond  the  simple  fact  of  books  or  writings  to 
some  indication  of  their  main  theme.    Woven  into  the  very 

"    Mk    1226    Lu    ^17    20<2.  b    p^  98.  c    i   Mac    I2'\ 

•^   Mt  21*2  2229  Jn  53''.  «  Ro  i2.  *  a  Tim  s^^  R.  V. 

«  Lu  421 :  see  also  Mk  iqI"  Jn  738.42^ 


6  INTRODUCTOEY 

texture  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  idea  of  a  Covenant 
between  God  and  man.  First  made  with  Noah,  repeated 
with  Abraham,  renewed  with  Israel  on  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  symbolized  in  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  it  recurs 
again  and  again  throughout  history,  psalm,  and  prophecy, 
as  the  relation  into  which  God  entered  with  His  chosen 
people.  In  Jeremiah,  prophecy  reaches  its  height  in  tiie 
sublime  prediction  of  the  new  covenant,  a  prediction  de- 
clared by  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  to  be 
fulfilled  in  Jesus  Christ  \  The  phrase,  New  Covenant,  was 
appropriated  by  Christ  at  the  Last  Supper,  and  is  claimed 
by  Paul  as  the  substance  of  the  ministry  to  which  he  was 
called^.  This  distinction  of  a  new  covenant  involved  a 
contrast  with  the  old,  and  it  was  but  a  step  to  speak  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures  as  pertaining  to  the  old  covenant.  Thus 
Paul  refers  to  the  Pentateuch  in  the  words,  '  at  the  reading 
of  the  old  covenant*^.'  As  the  Gospels  and  other  apostolic 
writings  gradually  took  their  place  as  Scripture  they  were 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  'the  new  covenant,'  a  usage 
established  by  the  beginning  of  the  third  century,  when 
Origen  can  speak  of  'the  Divine  Scriptures,  the  so-called 
Old  and  New  Covenants.' 

The  Hebrew  term  for  covenant,  bSrlth,  is  rendered  in  the  Greek  Old 
Testament  by  SiaO'jKr],  and  this  is  the  word  used  in  the  New  Testament 
writings  and  afterwards  applied  to  the  collection  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment books,  T/  KQivj)  diaOrjKr],  '  the  New  Covenant.'  The  Latin  Vulgate 
renders  this  by  Novum  Testamentum,  whence  our  title,  New  Testa- 
ment. If  the  Latin  teslamentum  were  the  equivalent  of  hiaO-qurj^ 
covenant,  no  more  would  need  to  be  said.  But,  properly,  it  is  not ;  nor 
is  it  certain  that  centuries  of  usage  have  quite  succeeded  in  fixing  this 
alien  meaning  upon  the  title.  The  Greek  hiadrjKr]  has  a  double  mean- 
ing, (i)  disposition,  will,  testament,  (2)  covenant  ;  tlie  student  may 
note  how  in  Heb  9^^-^''  the  writer  avails  himself  of  this  double  force 
to  illustrate  a  twofold  significance  of  the  death  of  Christ,  as  ratifying 
a  covenant  and  as  securing  an  inheritance  ^.     The  Latin  teslamentum 

•  Jer  3i"-3*  Heb  S^-'^  iqIs-i'.  b  Lu  aa'^"  1  Cor  ii^s  a  Cor  3«. 

«=  a  Cor  3I*  R.  V.  «*  K.  V.  mg. 


THE    LAW   AND   THE   PROPHETS  7 

has  only  the  former  of  these  meanings  :  it  is  the  proper  rendering  of 
diaerj/cT],  will,  not  of  SiadrjKT],  covenant.  In  the  Latin  New  Testament, 
however,  perhaps  because  of  this  passage  in  Hebrews,  it  is  employed 
in  this  second  sense  in  place  of  the  more  correct  Old  Testament 
rendering  of  herith  by  fcedus  or  pactum,  and  so  came  to  be  the  title  of 
the  completed  book, 

8.  The  Law  and  the  Prophets. — The  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  fall  into  several  divisions,  the  grouping  of  the 
English  version  differing  from  that  of  the  original. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  are  divided  into — The  Law 
(Torali),  The  Prophets  (Ncbhiim),  The  Writings  (Kethu- 
hhwi).  This  last  division  was,  by  a  pardonable  paraphrase, 
rendered  by  the  Greek  translators  Ilagiographa,  sacred 
writings. 

Among  the  Prophets  are  reckoned  in  a  separate  class 
certain  of  the  historical  books.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  number  of  books  in  the  Hebrew  Bible  is  considerably 
less  than  in  the  English  Old  Testament,  twenty-four  against 
thirty-nine.  This  is  because  the  following  are  reckoned  as 
one  book  each — i  and  2  Samuel,  i  and  2  Kings,  i  and 
2  Chronicles,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  the  twelve  Minor 
Prophets. 

Thus  the  grouping  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  is  as  follows  :— 
Law. 

I  Genesis  2  Exodus  3  Leviticus 

4  Numbers  5  Deuteronomy 

Prophets. 
Former.       6  Joshua      7  Judges  8  Samuel       9  Kings 

Latter.       10  Isaiah      11  Jeremiah     12  Ezekiel     13  The  Twelve 

Writings  {Hagiographa). 

14  Psalms  15  Proverbs  16  Job 

17  Song  of  Songs  > 
i8  Ruth 

19  Lamentations  L  The  five  EoUs  (Megilloth) 

20  Ecclesiastes 

21  Esther  / 


82  Daniel  23  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  24  Chronicles 


8  INTEODUCTORY 

The  five  Megilloth  are  so  called  because  each  was  written  on  a  roll 
for  reading  at  Jewish  festivals,  the  Song  of  Songs  at  Passover,  Ruth 
at  the  Feast  of  Weeks  or  Pentecost,  Ecclesiastes  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  Esther  at  the  Feast  of  Purim,  while  Lamentations  was 
recited  on  the  anniversary  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

There  was  also  current  a  grouping  into  twenty -two  books, 
given  by  Josephus  and  adopted  by  Jerome.  It  joins  Euth 
to  Judges  and  Lamentations  to  Jeremiah,  and  is  probably 
intended  to  correspond  to  the  twenty-two  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet. 

The  grouping  of  the  English  version  follows  that  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate,  which  in  turn  is  based  upon  that  of  the 
Septuagint  (LXX)  or  Greek  version,  which  receives  its  name 
from  the  tradition  of  its  seventy  (septuaginta)  translators. 
The  division  is  obviously  according  to  subject-matter,  viz. 
Law  (five  books),  History  (twelve  books),  Poetry  (five  books), 
and  Prophecy  (seventeen  books).  A  glance  at  the  grouping 
of  the  Hebrew  books  will  show  that  its  principle  is  not 
so  obvious.  Probably  the  three  divisions  mark  three  stages 
in  the  process  of  collecting  the  sacred  writings — in  other 
words,  in  the  history  of  the  Canon.  The  earliest  Jewish 
Bible  was  the  Law,  the  five  books  of  Moses  or  Pentateuch. 
Later  on,  this  expanded  into  the  '  Law  and  the  Prophets ' : 
later  still,  a  final  group  was  recognized  as  of  Divine 
authority,  its  general  title  suggesting  the  miscellaneous 
character  of  its  contents  ;  and  the  Canon  was  complete  — 
Law,  Prophets,  and  Writings. 

The  New  Testament  references  to  this  ancient  grouping  of  the 
Jewish  Scriptures  are  interesting.  TJie  first  division  is  referred  to  as 
'The  Law  '  in  places  where  there  is  clearly  an  allusion  to  or  a  quota- 
tion from  the  Pentateuch*.  But  in  accordance  with  the  peculiar 
reverence  attached  by  the  Jews  to  this  portion  of  the  sacred  writings, 
the  terra  Law  becomes  a  designation  of  Old  Testament  Scripture 
generally,  and  is  so  used  in  reference  to  citations  from  the  Psalms  •* 
and  from  Isaiah", 

A  fuller  title  for  the  Old  Testament  combint-s  the  first  two  of  its 

•  Mt  12'^  2a'^6  Lu  io''8.  "  Jn  lo^*  12'*  15-='.  «=    i  Cor  14'^^ 


THE    CANON  9 

three  divisions,  '  The  Law  and  the  Prophets  *.'  Only  once  is  there 
a  distinct  reference  to  the  threefold  grouping  :  '  that  all  things  must 
needs  be  fulfilled  which  are  written  in  the  Law  of  Moses  and  the 
Prophets  and  the  Psalms  concerning  me  \'  Here  either  '  the  Psalms,' 
as  the  first  book  of  the  Hagiographa,  stands  for  the  whole  of  the  third 
division,  or  our  Lord  adds  to  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  the  one  other 
Old  Testament  book  which  is  most  familiar  and  precious,  as  well  as 
clearest  in  its  Messianie  prediction. 

9.  Canon. —  The  twenty -four  books  of  the  Hebrew- 
Scriptures,  or  the  thirty-nine  of  the  English  version,  con- 
stitute what  is  termed  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Each  book  is  spoken  of  as  Canonical  (in  distinction,  as  will 
be  explained,  from  books  that  are  regarded  as  Apocryphal) : 
the  terms  are  similarly  applied  to  the  New  Testament. 
Thus  the  Canon  of  Scripture  means  the  complete  collection 
of  the  books  which  are  regarded  as  of  Divine  authority. 

The  word  Canon  is  Greek  {Kavuv)  and  means  literally  a  straight  rod, 
rule  or  measure  :  this  essential  idea  of  straightness  is  easily  discei-nible 
in  other  words  from  the  same  root,  e.  g.  cane,  canal,  cannon.  The 
term  came  into  metaphorical  use,  and  by  a  transference  of  meaning 
common  in  the  history  of  words  was  applied  not  only  to  that  which 
measures,  but  to  that  which  is  so  measured.  Thus  we  speak  of  the 
canons  of  art,  of  taste,  of  grammar,  and  so  forth.  A  canon  of  the 
Church  is  so  called,  not  because  the  lesser  clergy  are  expected  to 
mould  their  lives  on  the  pattern  and  measure  of  his,  but  because 
he  was  originally  a  member  of  a  clergy  house,  a  community  of  which 
all  the  members  were  bound  to  conform  to  a  certain  rule  of  faith 
and  conduct :  the  word  was  transferred  from  the  rule  to  the  man 
who  was  subject  to  the  rule. 

In  its  primary  metaphorical  sense  of  a  standard  rule  of  faith, 
the  word  occurs  in  the  New  Testament :  '  as  many  as  shall  walk  by 
this  rule  («ava;i/),  peace  be  upon  them  <'.*  It  may  hav^  been  in  this 
most  appropriate  sense  that  in  the  fourth  century  the  word  came 
to  be  applied  to  Scripture,  as  containing  the  authoritative  Rule  by 
which  human  thought  and  life  are  to  be  moulded.  But  it  was  the 
Church  that  under  Divine  guidance  formed  the  Canon,  determining 
only  after  ages  of  doubt  and  debate  what  books  should  be  received 
as  Scripture  and  what  rejected.     Hence  it  is  probable  that  we  must 

»  Mt  51"  712  22*"  Lu  i629  342^  Ko  321.  ^  Lu  24**  K.  V. 

"  Gal  619:   bee  also  2  Cor  lo"-^''-!®. 


10  INTRODUCTORY 

rather  look  to  the  secondary  sense  of  tlie  word,  and  suppose  that  the 
books  were  first  termed  Canonical,  not  as  ruling,  but  as  ruled,  i.  e. 
declared  by  authority  of  the  Church  to  be  of  Divine  inspiration.  To 
canonise  a  book  was  to  include  it  by  ecclesiastical  sanction  among  the 
books  of  Holy  Scriptuje.     See  further  on  Church  authority,  §  34. 

10.  Apocrypha. — The  Latin  Vulgate,  the  Bible  of  the 
Roman  Church,  contains  the  following  books  in  addition  to 
those  of  the  Hebrew  Canon :  Tobit;  Judith  ;  Esther  io*-i6-*; 
The  Wisdom  of  Solomon  ;  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  ben  Sirach 
or  Ecclesiasticus  ;  Baruch  ;  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren, The  History  of  Susanna,  Bel  and  the  Dragon  (these 
three  are  additions  to  the  Book  of  Daniel) ;  The  Prayer  of 
Manasses,  3  and  4  Esdras  (these  three  are  placed  at  the  end 
of  the  New  Testament ;  i  and  2  Esdras  of  the  Vulgate  are  the 
canonical  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah) ;  i  and  2  Maccabees. 

These  additions  are  derived  from  the  Greek  (Septuagint) 
Version,  though  with  some  differences  in  detail  both  as  to 
amount  and  arrangement.  Broadly  speaking,  the  Apocrypha 
is  the  excess  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  over  the  Hebrew  Old 
Testament.  The  sixth  Article  of  the  Church  of  England,  after 
enumerating  the  canonical  books  (Ezra  and  Nehemiah  being 
cited  as  i  and  2  Esdras),  prefaces  a  list  of  these  additional 
books  with  these  words,  *  And  the  other  books  (as  Hierome 
saith)  the  Church  doth  read  for  example  of  life  and  instruc- 
tion of  manners  ;  but  yet  doth  it  not  apply  them  to  establish 
any  doctrine.'     See  Part  II,  §  422,  pp.  612-614. 

This  limitation  of  the  use  of  the  word  Apocrypha  is  convenient,  but 
does  some  violence  both  to  the  original  meaning  of  the  word  and 
to  the  character  of  certain  of  the  writings  to  which  it  is  applied.  It 
means  literally  hidden  away  (^diroKpv^pa),  and  properly  designates  books 
dealing  with  what  is  secret,  mysterious,  occult.  The  remains  of  later 
Jewish  and  of  early  Christian  literature  afford  examples  of  works 
of  an  apocalyptic  character,  dealing  with  the  mysteries  of  the  spirit 
world  and  revealing  in  symbol  and  allegory  the  future  of  Israel. 
Instances  are  the  Book  of  Enoch*,  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  the 
Apocalypse  of  Baruch,  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah.     It  was,  indeed,  from 

•  Ju". 


APOCRYPHA  11 

very  early  times  a  common  practice  of  religious  and  philosophical 
sects  to  have  their  secret  literature,  books  for  the  initiated,  literally 
hidden  away  from  all  but  the  elect.  In  sharp  distinction  from  all  such 
esoteric  teaching,  Christianity  claimed  to  be  for  all  men.  There  are 
traces  in  the  New  Testament  of  this  antithesis,  in  the  studied  associa- 
tion of  the  word  mystery  (fxvaT-qpiov)  with  the  opposite  idea  of  revelation 
or  knowledge*,  in  Paul's  contention  with  those  at  Corinth  who  loved 
a  hidden  wisdom  ^,  and  especially  in  the  declaration  to  the  Colossians 
that  in  Christ  are  all  the  treasures  of  knowledge  and  wisdom  hidden 
away  {diroKpvcpoi)  •.  There  is  no  knowledge  hidden  away  except  in 
Him,  and  He  may  be  known  by  all. 

Now,  since  publicity  and  accessibility  to  all  are  obvious  marks  of 
truth,  while  what  is  false  and  fraudulent  loves  the  darkness,  apocryphaX 
easily  passed  from  its  sense  of  hidden  aicay  to  that  of  spurious,  and  so 
came  to  be  applied  to  books  whose  claim  to  a  place  in  the  Christian 
Bible  was  disallowed.  In  Keformation  times  it  was  definitely  so 
applied  to  the  books  contained  in  the  Vulgate  but  excluded  from  the 
Hebrew  Canon,  and  to  this  opposition  to  canonical  it  lent  the  dis- 
paragement which  attached  to  its  use  in  connexion  with  the  Jewish 
and  Jewish-Christian  occult  apocalyptic  literature  already  referred  to, 
and  with  the  apocryphal  Gospels.  But  the  Reformed  Church  regarded 
the  uncanonical  books  as  valuable  '  for  example  of  life  and  instruction 
of  manners,'  though  not  of  authority  in  matters  of  faith.  Some  of 
them  are  of  high  value,  literary,  historical,  and  ethical  ;  notably 
I  Maccabees  and  Ecclesiasticus.  The  Apocrypha  is  to  be  regarded  as 
holding  an  intermediate  place,  in  parts  higher,  in  parts  lower,  between 
inspired  Scripture  and  that  secret  apocalyptic  literature  to  which  the 
name  originally  attached.     See  further,  Part  II,  Ch.  XVII. 

•  Mt  13I1  Col  t2«.  b  I  Cor  I,  2.  «  Col  2\ 


CHAPTER  II 

THE   OLD  TESTAMENT:    LANGUAGE, 
CANON,  TRANSMISSION,  VERSIONS 

11.  External  features  of  the  Old  Testament. — Before 
dealing  with  the  Old  Testament  as  Scripture  it  is  necessary 
to  inquire  what  it  is  as  a  book,  and  how  on  the  human  side 
it  came  to  be.  What  is  the  language  in  which  it  was 
written  ?  It  consists  of  many  books  widely  separated  in 
date :  when  and  how  were  these  brought  together  ?  How 
may  we  be  assured  that  the  books  have  come  down  to  us  as 
they  were  written  ?  These  questions  of  Language,  Canon, 
and  Text  are  prior  to  that  deeper  study  suggested  by  the 
inspired  declaration  that  God  of  old  time  spake  '  unto  the 
fathers  in  the  prophets  by  divers  portions  and  in  divers 
manners,'  and  that  'men  spake  from  God,  being  moved  by 
the  Holy  Ghost.' 

The  Language  of  the  Old  Testament 

12.  The  English  versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
A.  V.  of  1611  and  the  K.  V.  of  1885,  are  of  course  transla- 
tions from  the  Hebrew.  There  are  other  earlier  versions 
which  are  of  great  importance,  especially  the  Septuagint 
(begun  in  the  third  century  B.C.)  and  the  later  Greek 
versions  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and  Symmachus,  as  well 
as  the  Old  Latin,  and  Jerome's  Vulgate  (c.  a.  d.  400),  partly 
a  revision  of  this,  and  partly  a  new  translation.  But  the 
actual  Old  Testament  is  the  twenty-four  books  as  they 
are  preserved  in  the  original  Hebrew,  and  to  them  a  first- 
hand study  must  always  direct  itaelf. 


THE   HEBREW   LANGUAGE  13 

13.  The  Hebrew  language  was  the  language  of  the 
Hebrews  or  Israelites  during  their  independence.  The 
people  themselves  were  known  among  other  nations  by 
the  name  of  Hebrews  and  Jews,  not  by  the  name  of  Israel- 
ites. The  epithet  of  Hebrew,  however,  applied  to  their  lan- 
guage, occurs  first  in  the  Prologue  to  the  apocryphal  Book  of 
Ecclesiasticus  (c.  b.  c.  130).  Josephus  also  uses  the  term 
Hebrew  language  (rAoio-cra  twv  'E^paiW)  of  the  old  Hebrew, 
and  this  is  the  uniform  meaning  of  the  phrase  in  his  writ- 
ings. The  Targums  call  the  Hebrew  '  the  sacred  tongue,' 
and  in  the  Old  Testament  it  is  called  the  'lip  of  Canaan %* 
or  the  'Jews'  language^.' 

14.  Canaanitish. — That  the  Hebrew  language  was  the 
common  tongue  of  Canaan  and  Phoenicia  is  indicated  by 
such  monuments  of  the  Canaanitish  dialects  as  we  possess, 
especially  the  glosses  on  the  Tel  el-Amarna  tablets  (fifteenth 
century  b.c),  borrowed  Semitic  words  found  in  Egyptian 
papyri  of  a  still  earlier  date,  and  a  few  Phoenician  inscrip- 
tions. 

The  silence  of  Scripture  as  to  any  difference  between  the  language 
of  Canaanites  and  of  Hebrews  is  also  noteworthy.  They  both  dwelt 
in  the  land,  and  yet  no  difference  of  speech  is  noticed,  though  tlie 
difference  between  the  language  of  Hebrew  and  Egyptian  (Ps  81^  114^) 
is  recognized,  and  even  between  the  Hebrew  and  cognate  languages  ;  as 
in  the  case  of  the  Aramaic  used  by  the  Assyrians  (Is  36^^),  and  of  the 
Eastern  Aramaic  used  by  the  Chaldees  (Jer  5^^). 

15.  Aramaic  admixture. — Hebrew,  then,  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  Israelitish  dialect  of  the  Canaanitish  language. 
But  Israel  was  surrounded  by  peoples  speaking  the  cognate 
Aramaic,  the  language  of  Aram,  a  district  including  northern 
Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  a  large  portion  of  Arabia  Petraea. 
The  pressure  of  these  Semitic  tribes  was  increased  after  the 
fall  of  Samaria  and  disappearance  of  the  Northern  Kingdom 
(B.C.  722),  and  Hebrew  began  to  suffer  a  process  of  decay 

•  Is  19I8  mg.  »»  Is  3613  a  Ki  i82«-«». 


14  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   LANGUAGE 

which  ended  in  its  extinction  as  a  spoken  language.  It 
was  still  the  language  of  Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Nehe- 
miah  (13^*),  about  b.c.  430,  but  long  before  the  time  of 
Christ  it  had  been  entirely  superseded  by  Aramaic,  and  its 
literature  was  intelligible  only  to  scholars. 

16.  This  Aramaean  or  Aramaic,  like  Hebrew,  is  of 
Semitic  origin.  From  a  very  early  date  it  was  probably 
spoken  in  the  vernacular  in  Babylon  and  Assyria,  even 
while  Assyrian  was  the  official  language.  Some  few  in- 
scriptions in  this  old  Aramaic  still  remain.  The  language 
spread  widely,  ultimately  dispossessing  Hebrew  in  Palestine 
itself.  It  was  the  language  commonly  spoken  by  Christ  and 
His  Apostles.  Its  most  important  literary  remains  are, 
portions  of  the  Old  Testament  (Ezr  48-6^^,  7I2-26.  Dn  2*- 
7^8)  and  the  Jewish  Targums  or  Paraphrases  of  the  Old 
Testament  books.  The  term  Syriac  is  properly  applied  to 
the  Aramaic  of  Edessa  in  Western  Mesopotamia,  where  the 
language  received  a  literary  form.  But  by  usage  the  term 
came  to  cover  other  Aramaic  dialects,  including  the  verna- 
cular of  Palestine.  The  important  Syriac  versions  of  the 
New  Testament  will  be  dealt  with  later. 

The  term  Chaldee  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  Aramaic  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  is  so  used  by  Jerome,  but  incorrectly.  The 
Chaldaeans  pursued  for  ages  a  hostile  immigration  into  Babylonia  from 
the  south,  and  finally  won  the  kingdom,  Chaldaea  becoming  by  the 
sixth  century  b.c.  identical  with  Babylonia.  The  Chaldee  language 
was  the  Babylonian  cuneiform,  almost  the  same  as  that  of  Assyria. 
The  only  correct  term  for  these  Old  Testament  passages  is  Aramaic. 

17.  Of  all  Semitic  languages  the  Arabic  has  by  far  the 
richest  modern  literature  :  and  next  to  the  Hebrew  it  is 
the  most  important.  It  is  still  spoken  in  a  large  portion 
of  Asia,  and  in  part  of  Africa.  The  two  chief  dialects  of 
it  are  the  Himyaritic,  formerly  spoken  in  Yemen,  and  now 
extinct,  and  the  Coreitic,  spoken  in  the  north-west  of  Arabia, 
and  especially  at  Mecca.     This  was  a  spoken  language  long 


SEMITIC   LANGUAGES    GENERALLY  15 

before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  and  is  still  the  popular 
dialect.  The  old  Arabic  differs  from  this  language  in  its 
forms,  which  are  more  various,  and  in  its  matter,  which  is 
more  copious. 

18.  A  colony  of  Arabians,  speaking  the  Himyaritic,  early 
settled  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Red  Sea  in  Ethiopia,  and 
introduced  their  language  into  that  country.  This  language, 
modified  by  time  and  circumstances,  is  the  ancient  Ethiopic, 
which  is  closely  related  to  the  Arabic.  The  district  where 
it  was  spoken  is  the  modern  Abyssinia,  and  Amharic,  or 
Giz,  is  the  present  language  of  the  people. 

19.  All  these  Semitic  languages  are  of  value  in  guiding  the  student 
of  tlie  Old  Testament  to  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  original  tongue, 
and  no  Hebrew  Lexicon  can  be  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  authority 
unless  compiled  with  a  constant  reference  to  the  meaning  of  the  roots 
of  Hebrew  words  in  the  cognate  tongues.  It  Is  upon  the  knowledge 
and  use  of  these  tongues  that  the  superiority  of  modern  lexicographers 
cliiefly  depends. 

20.  History  of  the  Hebrew. — The  Hebrew  language 
undoubtedly  underwent  modifications  in  the  period  covered 
by  the  Old  Testament  writings.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  mark  off  successive  stages  in  this  development  and  to 
assign  certain  books  to  certain  periods  on  linguistic  grounds. 
The  data,  however,  are  too  scanty  and  too  uncertain  for 
this  to  be  done  with  any  confidence.  Some  books  contain 
Persian  and  Aramaic  words  which  suggest  a  late  date,  as 
well  as  other  common  elements  which  may  be  regarded 
as  characteristic  of  '  New  Hebrew.'  To  this  post-classical 
period  are  generally  assigned  the  Books  of  Chronicles,  Ezra, 
Nehemiah,  Esther,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Daniel.  The  golden 
age,  or  classical  period,  is  best  exhibited  in  Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  Deuteronomy.  Of  the  ante-classical  or  early 
Hebrew  too  little  is  known  to  warrant  confident  statements 
as  to  the  date  of  Old  Testament  writings. 


16  THE   OLD    TESTAMENT   CANON 


The  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament 

21.  History  of  the  Old  Testament  Canon. — The  mean- 
ing of  the  term  Canon  and  the  actual  contents  of  the  Old 
Testament  Canon  have  already  been  dealt  with^  The 
question  now  arises,  how  did  the  books  come  together? 
What  evidence  have  we  as  to  the  age  in  which  the  Canon 
was  formed  and  as  to  the  authority  by  which  the  inclusion 
or  exclusion  of  individual  writings  was  determined?  Is  the 
Canon  in  its  completeness  due  to  a  single  epoch  and  a  single 
decision  of  the  Church,  or  may  we  distinguish  the  different 
stages  of  its  beginnings,  its  extension,  and  its  close  ? 

It  is  important  to  keep  this  inquiry  within  its  proper 
historical  limits.  It  does  not  ignore  the  Divine  control ; 
indeed,  its  issue  is  to  bring  this  element  in  the  case  into 
sharp  relief ;  but  its  immediate  concern  is  with  the  human 
facts.  It  recognizes  that  each  of  the  canonical  books  pos- 
sesses a  quality  which  determined  its  acceptance.  A  book 
is  not  raised  to  the  dignity  and  authority  of  Scripture  by 
the  Church's  acceptance  of  it :  it  was  accepted  because  first 
perceived  to  be  of  Divine  origin,  and,  theoretically  at  least, 
the  same  insight  may  yet  lead  to  the  widening  or  the 
narrowing  of  the  Canon.  Questions  of  authenticity  and 
inspiration  lie  in  the  background,  but  for  the  present  they 
must  be  kept  there.  An  historical  fact  lies  before  us  in 
a  completed  Old  Testament  Canon :  our  business  is,  if  we 
can,  to  date  that  fact  and  to  trace  the  earlier  historical 
facts  in  which  it  has  its  explanation.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  evidence  is  of  a  fragmentary  nature.  A  few  out- 
standing facts  must  be  pieced  together  into  a  consistent 
narrative  by  the  help  of  scattered  indications ;  even  the 
probabilities  of  the  case  must  be  relied  on  where  direct 
testimony  is  wanting. 

»  See  §§  8,  9. 


GENERAL   CONSIDERATIONS  17 

22.  General  Considerations. — There  are  certain  general 
considerations  which  may  help  us  to  interpret  the  evidences 
for  the  formation  of  the  Canon. 

I.  The  Canon  is  the  result  of  a  gradual  groictli.  Ecclesi- 
astical authority  did  not  create  it :  all  it  could  do  was  to 
give  formal  sanction  and  fixity  to  that  collection  of  writings 
which  had  gradually  won  recognition  as  Divine. 

Several  indications  converge  upon  this  natural  probability 
of  gradual  formation. 

a.  It  is  suggested,  as  already  pointed  out,  by  the  threefold  division 
of  the  Canon.  The  Law  stands  first,  not  only  because  it  deals  with 
the  beginnings  of  Jewish  history,  but  because  the  Pentateuch  formed 
the  first  collection  of  books  recognized  as  of  Divine  authority.  The 
group  known  as  the  Writings,  or  Hagiographa,  owes  its  geneial  title 
and  the  varied  character  of  its  contents  to  the  fact  that  it  represents 
the  final  stage  in  the  canonization  of  the  Jewish  sacred  books. 

h.  It  is  certain  that  Ezra  had  some  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Canon.  But  as  the  Canon  includes  the  Books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah 
he  must  have  left  it  incomplete. 

c.  Ezra  gave  the  people  *  the  Book  of  the  Law  of  Moses*'.  Tlie  title 
and  other  indications  in  the  narrative  make  it  probable  that  this  was 
the  Pentateuch  only. 

d.  This  priority  ©f  the  Law  in  a  gradual  process  of  canonization  is 
confiimed  by  the  exceptional  reverence  which  the  Jews  have  always 
attached  to  this  portion  of  their  sacred  writings.  This  appears  in  the 
later  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  itself,  Psalm  119  being  a  conspicuous 
example.  The  last  of  the  Prophets  admonishes  the  people  almost  in 
his  final  words,  '  Remember  ye  the  law  of  Moses  My  servant.'  When 
we  turn  to  the  New  Testament  we  find  the  Old  Testament  generally 
quoted  as  the  Law  ^  The  perplexity  of  the  Sadducees  as  to  the  resur- 
rection and  our  Lord's  choice  of  a  proof-text  °  are  more  easily  under- 
stood, if  we  may  suppose  that  this  sect  not  only  rejected  the  authority 
of  oral  tradition,  but  exalted  the  Law  in  their  estimate  of  the  Old 
Testament  writings. 

c.  The  Samaritan  Temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  was  founded  by 
Manasseh,  grandson  of  Eliashib,  a  renegade  Jewish  priest  expelled  by 
Nehemiah.  To  this  day  the  Samaritan  Bible  consists  of  the  Penta- 
teuch only.  An  explanation  of  this  fact  would  be  that  at  the  time 
of  the  rupture  the  only  Jewish  Scriptures  which  had  been  formally 

•  Ne  81.  *  See  §  8.  «  Mt  aa^^-s'. 

C 


18  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT  CANON 

*  canonized '  were  the  five  books  of  the  Law.     This  is  confirmed  by  the 
archaic   characters  in  which  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch   is  written 

(see  §  28,  2,  Versions). 

2.  The  beginnings  of  the  Canon  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  beginnings  of  Hebreiv  sacred  literature.  The  writings 
must  first  be  there  before  that  process  of  selection  could 
begin  which  would  issue  in  a  Canon  of  Scripture  having 
religious  authority.  To  canonize  a  book — the  word  belongs 
to  Christian  times,  but  the  fact  is  pertinent  to  the  Old 
Testament  Canon — meant  (i)  the  recognition  that  its  teach- 
ing was  in  a  unique  sense  Divine  ;  (2)  the  consequent  ascrip- 
tion to  it  of  a  religious  authority  by  a  community  or  its 
leaders.  See  §  9.  It  is  quite  possible  that  writings  of  this 
sort  might  exist  for  ages  in  a  community  overlooked,  or  even 
forgotten,  until  some  national  crisis  might  awaken  the 
people  to  discern  anew  their  value,  and  bring  home  the 
need  of  separating  them,  and  of  putting  upon  them  this 
seal  of  Divine  authority. 

3.  A  book  may  have  had  a  long  literary  liistory  before  its 
adm,ission  into  the  Canon.  This  is  perhaps  most  obvious  in 
regard  to  the  Book  of  Psalms.  Many  of  those  inspired  songs 
were  certainly  held  to  be  of  Divine  authority  before  all  were 
written,  and  therefore  before  the  Psalter  as  a  whole  was 
'canonized.'  In  other  books  we  may  clearly  discern  the 
inclusion  of  fragmentary  material,  venerable  for  its  anti- 
quity. 

In  the  Pentateuch  are  imbedded  separate  codes  of  Law  which  in  all 
probability  are  older  than  the  books  in  which  they  appear.  A  store  of 
national  religious  poetry  is  indicated  by  the  Song  of  Deborah,  the 
Song  of  Moses  and  the  Children  of  Israel  after  the  crossing  of  the  Red 
Sea,  the  Dirge  of  David  over  Saul.  The  titles  of  two  such  collections 
are  preserved  in  '  The  Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord'  Nam  21^*  and 
'The  Book  of  Jasher'  (the  Upright)  Jos  10",  2  Sa  i^^.  History 
was  preserved  in  the  same  way  :  tbe  historical  books  contain  refer- 
ences to  such  earlier  chronicles  as  *  Tbe  iiistory  of  Samuel  the  seer  and 
the  history  of  Nathan  the  prophet  and  the  history  of  Gad  the  seer'  i  Ch 
ag'^R.  V.  :  'The  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon'  i  Ki  ii*^  'The  histories 


THE   CANON   IN   CHRISTIAN   TIMES  19 

of  Shemaiah  the  prophet  and  of  Iddo  the  seer'  2  Ch  12^^,  and  others. 
The  prophetical  books,  again,  are  obviously  collections  of  utterances 
sepai-ately  spoken  and  separately  preserved.  Behind  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  we  may  frequently  discern  an  earlier  literature,  the 
primitive  records  in  song,  law,  history,  prophecy,  of  the  nation's  life 
and  the  nation's  faith.  And  we  may  recognize  in  the  making  of  an 
Old  Testament  book  the  three  stages— the  primitive  material,  the  editing 
into  present  literary  form,  and  the  canonization  or  final  acceptance  as 
Scripture.  It  need  hardly  be  added  that  to  acknowledge  this  principle 
of  literary  growth  neither  impairs  the  Divine  authority  of  the  books 
nor  involves  the  extravagant  analysis  of  some  modern  imaginative 
criticism. 

23.  The  Canon  in  Christian  times. — The  Jewish  litera- 
ture of  the  second  century  a.  d.  shows  clearly  that  the  Canon 
was  then  complete,  though  the  right  of  some  few  books  to 
a  place  in  it  was  not  free  from  criticism. 

The  earliest  decisive  witness  is  that  of  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus, 
who  about  a.d.  90  writes'*:  *  For  we  have  not  (i.  e.  as  the  Greeks  have) 
myriads  of  books  disngreeing  and  contradicting  one  another,  but  only 
twenty-two  .  .  .  justly  believed  in.  And  of  these,  five  are  the  books  of 
Moses  which  comprise  the  laws  and  the  traditions  of  the  origin  of 
mankind  till  his  death.  .  .  .  The  pi'ophets  who  were  after  Moses  wrote 
down  what  was  done  in  their  times  in  thirteen  books.  The  remaining 
four  books  contain  hymns  to  God  and  precepts  for  the  conduct  of 
human  life.'  The  '  twenty-two '  is  probably  reached  as  explained  in  §  8. 
In  the  context  Josephus  gives  emphatic  expression  to  the  reverence 
with  which  his  countrj^men  regard  their  collections  of  sacred  writings, 
no  one  venturing  '  to  add  or  to  remove  or  to  niter  a  syllable.'  By  this 
time,  then,  the  Canon  was  virtually  settled.  The  testimony  of 
Josephus  is  the  more  striking  because  he  is  writing  in  Greek  to  Greeks. 
Both  he  and  they  were  fomiliar  Avith  the  LXX  version,  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  contains  the  apocryphal  books.  But  writing  as  the  spokes- 
man of  his  nation  he  expressly  limits  the  Old  Testament  Canon  to  the 
writings  contained  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  And  his  evidence  leads 
us  to  look  for  the  mark  of  canonicity,  rather  in  long  recognition  of 
these  books  as  ancient  and  as  divinely  inspired  than  in  some  formal 
ecclesiastical  decision.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  probable  that  such 
a  decision,  endorsing  received  opinion,  was  pronounced  at  the  Council 
of  Jamnia,  near  Jaffa,  the  chief  centre  of  Palestinian  Judaism  after 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  The  scattering  of  the  nation  and  destruction  of 
the  Temple  might  well  lead  to  increased  care  for  the  sacred  virritings. 

*  Against  Apion,  i.  8. 
C  2 


20  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   CANON    - 

It  is  certain  that  about  a.d.  90  thei-e  were  debates  at  Jamnia,  of  which 
the  outcome  was  to  give  greater  fixity  to  the  Canon. 

Of  its  virtual  completion  long  before  this  date  of  a.d.  90 
we  have  decisive  evidence  in  the  New  Testament.  There  is 
no  need,  and  this  is  not  the  place,  to  speak  of  the  reverence 
accorded  by  Christ  and  His  Apostles  to  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures,  or  of  the  extent  to  which,  both  in  direct  quotation 
and  in  allusion,  they  pervade  the  whole  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. This  recognition  of  inspired  '  oracles  of  God '  is 
indubitable  :  the  question  is  whether  it  enables  us  to  de- 
termine the  limits  of  the  Canon  in  New  Testament  times. 
It  has  been  held  on  various  grounds  that  the  apostolic 
writings  do  not  give  satisfactory  evidence  of  a  closed  Canon 
identical  with  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  the  matter  is  of 
sufficient  importance  to  call  for  some  examination. 

1.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  Apostles'  Bible,  from  which  they 
habitually  quote,  was  the  LXX,  and  that  this  version  contains  the 
apocryphal  books.  That  they  used  the  LXX  is  true,  and,  unless  they 
quote  its  Apocryjjha  as  Scripture,  is  also  irrelevant.  Whether  they  do 
will  be  considered  below  (see  3  infra).  Josephus  used  the  LXX,  but 
distinguishes  with  precision  between  its  canonical  books  and  Hhose 
which  have  not  been  accounted  equally  worthy  of  credit.' 

2.  It  is  further  noted  that  some  books  of  the  Jewish  Canon  have  no 
direct  quotation  in  the  New  Testament.  The  fact  is  as  stated  :  the  wonder 
is  that  these  books  are  so  few  in  number — Obadiah  and  Nahum  among 
the  Prophets,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  Esther,  Song  of  Songs,  Ecclesiastes. 
But  no  question  can  arise  as  to  the  canonicity  of  Obadiah  and  Nahum, 
for  they  form  part  only  of  a  single  book  of  which  there  is  ample 
recognition,  the  Book  of  the  Twelve  Prophets.  As  to  the  rest  we  have 
only  to  consider  whether,  assuming  them  to  be  in  the  Canon,  they  con- 
tain matter  likely  to  have  been  quoted,  to  see  how  futile  this  argument 
from  silence  is.  Moreover,  Esther,  Song  of  Songs,  Ecclesiastes  belong 
to  a  single  group  of  five  (the  Megilloth),  of  which  the  remaining  two  do 
receive  a  recognition  which,  it  may  fairly  be  argued,  applies  to  the 
whole  group.  Ezi'a  (including  Nehemiah)  again  stands  in  a  final 
group  of  three,  with  Daniel  and  Chronicles.  The  Book  of  Daniel 
lias  specific  mention*.  There  are  also  words  of  our  Lord  referring  to 
a  Chronicles,  which  gain  new  point  if  we  suppose  that  He  is  passing 

•  Mt  24^'*. 


THE    CANON    IN    PRE-CHRISTIAN   TIMES      21 

in  review  not  so  much  the  rnngo  of  Jewish  history  as  the  range  of 
the  Canon  from  its  first  book  to  its  last,  Genesis  to  a  Chronicles  : 
'from  the  blood  of  Abel  the  righteous  unto  the  blood  of  Zachariah 
son  of  Barachiah,  whom  ye  slew  between  the  sanctuary  and  the  altar  *. 
3.  The  apostolic  writers  are  said  to  show  an  acquaintance  with  and 
even  to  cite  as  Scripture  certain  of  the  apocryphal  books.  The 
acquaintance  is  undoubted  :  the  writer  to  the  Hebrews  makes  use  of 
I  and  2  Maccabees^  :  the  citation  cannot  be  maintained.  The  alleged 
instances  "  cannot  be  assigned  to  any  passages  of  the  Apocrypha,  and 
may,  with  one  exception,  be  explained  as  presenting  the  substance  of 
several  Old  Testament  utterances  as  a  single  quotation.  The  exception 
is  Jude  ^*-^6 .  but  as  the  Book  of  Enoch  there  cited  is  not  in  the 
Apocrypha,  and  never  had  any  pretensions  to  canonicity,  Jude's  use 
of  it  has  no  bearing  upon  this  question  of  the  New  Testament  evidence 
to  the  Old  Testament  Canon. 

The  attempt,  therefore,  to  show  that  the  New  Testament 
writers  are  not  clear  in  their  witness  to  the  limits  of  Old 
Testament  Scripture  breaks  down.  The  facts  are  all  the 
other  way.  Though  there  is  only  one  distinct  reference  to 
the  threefold  division  ^^,  the  evidence  is  decisive  that  not 
only  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  but  the  Writings  also,  had 
full  recognition  as  long-established  Scripture  from  Christ 
and  His  Apostles,  and  that  the  Word  of  God,  which  fed  the 
springs  of  their  life,  fashioned  their  thought,  and  inspired 
their  message  to  the  world,  was  that  Old  Testament  which  is 
in  our  hands  to-day. 

24.  The  Canon  in  pre-Christian  times. — Tracing  back 
still  farther  the  history  of  the  Canon,  we  come  upon  two 
important  pieces  of  evidence  in  the  apocryphal  Book  of 
Ecclesiasticus  or  'the  Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach.' 
The  prologue  to  the  book  is  by  the  author's  grandson,  who, 
c.  B.C.  130,  translated  his  grandfather's  Hebrew  work  into 
Greek.  It  contains  three  distinct  references  to  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  under  the  threefold  division  of  the  Jewish 
Canon — '  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and  the  others  that  have 


»  Mt  2335  E.  V.  2  Ch  24-1.  ''  Heb  ii»'-3». 

"  Mt  279  Lu  11*9  Jn  f'-'''  I  Cor  a^  Eph  5'*  Ju  '*- 


«*  See  §  8. 


22  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   CANON 

followed  in  their  steps,'  Hhe  Law  and  the  Proi^hets  and  the 
other  books  of  our  fathers,'  'the  Law  itself,  and  the  prophecies 
and  the  rest  of  the  books '  E.  V. 

Further,  Jesus  ben  Sirach  wrote  his  book  soon  after 
B.C.  200.  In  chapters  44-50  he  has  a  long  eulogy  of  the 
great  men  of  Israel,  beginning,  '  Let  us  now  praise  famous 
men,  and  our  fathers  that  begat  us.'  His  descriptions  are 
mostly  taken  from  the  canonical  books,  to  the  reading  of 
which  his  grandson  tells  us  he  had  *  much  given  himself.* 
There  is  specific  reference  to  every  book  of  the  Law  and  the 
Prophets  and  to  most  of  the  Hagiographa.  The  order  of 
their  narrative  is  followed,  while  an  express  mention  of  'the 
Twelve  Prophets '  shows  that  in  his  time  this  collection  as 
it  appears  in  the  Hebrew  Canon  had  long  been  formed. 

Here  then  is  proof  that  two  centuries  before  the  Christian 
era  the  Law  and  the  Prophets  and,  at  least,  the  greater  part 
of  the  Hagiographa  had  taken  their  place  as  Scripture. 
The  250  years  which  lie  between  ben  Sirach  and  Ezra  yield 
no  evidence,  yet  it  is  almost  certain  that  within  this  period 
the  Canon  was  gradually  formed.  Ages  before  Ezra  the 
Jews  had  had  their  sacred  writings.  Law,  Prophecy, 
History,  Psalms  were  treasured  and  revered,  as  many  Old 
Testament  passages  plainly  show  ^.  But  the  peculiar  task 
of  Ezra  was  to  lead  the  people  to  accept  a  written  and  sacred 
code  of  law  as  the  absolute  rule  of  faith  and  life  ^\  This 
is  to  establish  a  Canon,  and,  by  common  consent,  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Old  Testament  Canon  is  to  be  found  in  Ezra's 
promulgation  of  the  Law  (b.  c.  444).  So  far  as  the  evidence 
goes  this  is  the  extent  of  Ezra's  connexion  with  the  Canon. 
To  him  and  his  coadjutors  is  due  the  first  division  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  the  Law  (cp.  §  22,  i). 

The  fantastic  Jewish  legend  found  in  the  Fourth  *  Book  of  Esdras 
(c.  A.  D.  100%  and  repeated  by  many  Christian  Fathers   and  divines 

*  e.g.  Ex  31 '8  4o'^o  Dt  3120  ^  ^.^  ^q-jg  j^  3^16  ^  Ki  22»-i». 
^  See  Ne  8- 10.  "^  '  Second  '  of  A.  V. 


THE   CANON   IN   PKE-CHEISTIAN   TIMES      23 

down  to  Reformation  times,  how  that  all  the  books  of  Scripture 
perished  by  fire  when  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  and  that  Ezra  was 
inspired  to  recall  them  to  memory  and  commit  them  to  writing,  is  not 
worthy  of  further  notice.  Its  place  was  taken,  from  the  sixteenth 
century,  by  a  tradition  of  the  '  Men  of  the  Great  Synagogue,'  a  Council 
of  which  Ezra  was  President,  and  which  included  among  its  120 
members  Nehemiah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Malachi,  Daniel,  and  Simon 
the  Just.  To  this  Council  is  attributed  the  work  of  separating  out 
the  inspired  Scriptures  from  spurious  writings,  of  rectifying  the  sacred 
text,  and  of  fixing  once  for  all  the  Canon  with  its  triple  division. 
But  the  evidence  for  this  tradition  will  not  bear  examination  :  by 
a  consensus  of  modern  scholars  the  very  existence  of  the  Great 
Synagogue  is  regarded  as  a  Rabbinic  fiction  * ;  and  Ezra's  work,  so  far 
as  it  can  be  known,  was  limited  to  the  canonizing  of  the  Pentateuch. 

How  soon  the  Law  was  supplemented  by  the  second 
division — the  Prophets  (including  the  historical  Books  of 
Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings),  cannot  be  determined. 
A  tradition,  which  may  be  based  on  truth,  is  preserved  in 
2  Maccabees  ^\  asserting  of  Nehemiah  that  '  he,  founding  a 
library,  gathered  together  the  books  about  the  kings  and 
prophets,  and  the  books  of  David,  and  letters  of  kings  about 
sacred  gifts.'  This  would  be  at  any  rate  the  preparation 
for  the  enlargement  of  the  Canon,  but  when  the  second 
division  was  formally  canonized  we  cannot  say.  What  is 
certain  is  that  in  the  250  years  from  Ezra  to  ben  Sirach 
(B.C.  444 — c.  200)  a  Canon  of  sacred  books  was  formed  prac- 
tically identical  with  that  of  the  Hebrew  Scrij^tures. 

It  should  be  added  that  nearly  two  centuries  before  Ezra, 
there  is  mention  of  an  authoritative  book.  In  the  eighteenth 
year  of  King  Josiah  (b.  c.  621)  repairs  were  being  made  in 
the  Temple,  and  'Hilkiah  the  high  priest  said  to  Shaphan 
the  scribe,  I  have  found  the  book  of  the  Law  in  the  houst 
of  the  Lord^.'  Shaphan  read  it  himself,  and  again  before 
the  king,  who  rent  his  clothes  in  consternation.  After 
appeal  to  Huldah  the  prophetess,  the  king,  undaunted  by 

*  See  Ryle,   Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  Excursus  A. 
^  a  Mac  a^'.  «  2  Ki  22**. 


24  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

the  threatened  woes,  read  in  the  ears  of  all  the  people  '  llie 
words  of  the  book  of  the  covenant  which  was  found  in  the 
house  of  the  Lord.'  Vigorous  religious  reforms  followed,  *to 
confirm  the  words  of  this  covenant  that  were  written  in  this 
book.' 

There  can  hardly  be  a  doubt  that  this  book,  so  strangely- 
recovered  and  recognized  at  once  as  of  Divine  authority,  was 
among  the  writings  afterwards  canonized  by  Ezra.  The 
narrative  of  2  Kings  22  and  23  would  seem  to  point  to  some- 
thing considerably  briefer  than  the  Pentateuch,  clear  and 
emphatic  in  its  teaching  concerning  national  duty.  Many 
indications  suggest  that  what  Hilkiah  found,  and  the  king 
used  to  correct  religious  abuse  and  neglect,  was  the  Book 
of  Deuteronomy. 

The  Transmission  of  the  Text  of  the 
Old  Testament 

25.  Transmission  of  the  Text. — We  pass  from  the 
question  of  the  formation  of  the  Canon  to  that  of  the  trans- 
mission of  its  contents  to  modern  times.  In  a.  d.  1477, 
twenty-seven  years  after  the  invention  of  printing,  the  first 
portion  of  a  printed  Hebrew  Bible  appeared — the  Book  of 
Psalms.  In  1488  came  the  first  complete  Hebrew  Bible. 
For  the  purposes  of  our  inquiry  we  must  of  course  pass 
beyond  the  printed  text  to  the  MSS.  which  preceded  it,  and 
trace  back  as  far  as  we  may  the  history  of  the  sacred  text 
transmitted  from  age  to  age  by  the  labour  of  the  copyists. 

At  once  we  encounter  two  striking  facts:  (i)  The  earliest 
MS.  which  has  been  preserved  is  that  of  the  latter  prophets 
dated  a.d.  916,  while  the  oldest  MS.  of  the  entire  Old  Testa- 
ment is  100  years  later,  a.d.  ioio.  Both  these  are  preserved 
in  the  Imperial  Library  of  St.  Petersburg.  (2)  The  existing 
MSS.  show  no  divergence  of  text,     That  is,  from  the  tenth 


TRANSMISSION   OF   THE   TEXT  25 

century  onwards  we  possess  a  fixed  text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, but  a  gap  of  1,500  years  separates  this  from  the  days 
of  Ezra. 

The  difference  between  the  textual  history  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  that  of  the  New  is  very  marked.  The  two  oldest  MSS.  of  the 
Greek  Testament  may  be  dated  about  a.  d.  350,  i.  e.  nearly  300  years 
after  the  books  were  written.  Moreover,  while  the  bulk  of  the 
available  MSS.  present  a  certain  uniformity  of  text,  among  the  minority 
there  are  considerable  divergences.  All  textual  critics  are  agreed 
that  the  true  text  is  to  be  reached  by  an  elaborate  process  of  com- 
parison between  the  existing  materials.  A  good  critical  edition  of 
the  New  Testament  contains  in  all  probability  a  much  purer  text 
than  would  be  gained  by  printing  any  single  manuscript,  even  the 
most  ancient,  as  it  stands. 

Now  this  fixity  of  the  Old  Testament  text  declares  to  us  the  fidelity 
with  which  the  copyists  have  done  their  work,  guarding  the  trust 
committed  to  them  from  those  perils  of  corruption  which  inevitably 
attend  the  process  of  copying,  and  handing  down  through  the  ages 
the  text,  lett(ir  for  letter,  as  they  received  it.  Even  the  strange 
disappearance  of  more  ancient  MSS.  has  been  ascribed  to  the  same 
fidelity  ;  it  is  said  that  when  too  much  worn  for  use  they  were 
destroyed,  lest  they  should  suffer  any  profanation. 

The  question  remains :  when,  and  under  what  conditions 
did  the  text  receive  its  fixity  ?  Has  it  been  so  from  the  first, 
so  that  we  may  believe  that  the  sacred  autographs  have  come 
down  to  us  practically  without  change  ?  Or  must  we  rather 
suppose  that  at  some  period  one  form  of  the  text  was  declared 
by  authority  to  be  the  true  one,  deviations  from  it  being 
suppressed  and  rapidly  becoming  extinct  ?  It  is  important 
to  determine  what  it  is  that  the  scribes  have  passed  on 
through  the  ages  w^ith  such  reverent  care. 

We  have  seen  that  we  can  trace  back  the  stream  of  manu- 
script copies  to  the  opening  of  the  tenth  century  a.d.  :  there 
it  is  lost,  but  we  know  it  must  have  flowed  down  con- 
tinuously from  the  time  of  Ezra.  Are  there  indications 
which  enable  us  to  say  anj^thing  about  it  beyond  mere 
speculation  ? 

In  reply,  it  is  impo^-tant  to  note,  in  the  first  place,  that 


26  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT 

the  work  of  transmitting  the  text  was  entrusted  to  a  guild 
of  specially  trained  scholars. 

We  shall  better  realize  the  necessity  of  this  when  we  remember 
that  already  at  the  time  of  Christ  Hebrew  had  ceased  to  be  a  spoken 
language.  The  'holy  tongue,'  as  it  was  called,  in  which  the  sacred 
books  were  written,  was  handed  down  by  oral  tradition.  The  scribe 
had  his  MS.  to  copy,  but  apart  from  the  interpretation  the  text  was 
practically  in  an  unknown  tongue.  Hence  his  work  was  not  simply 
to  copy,  but  to  transmit  what  his  teacher  communicated  to  him  of 
the  meaning. 

1.  Apart  from  the  unfamiliarity  of  what  was  now  only  a  written 
literary  language,  not  the  spoken  dialect  of  ordinary  life,  there  was 
a  special  source  of  ambiguity  common  to  Hebrew  with  other  Semitic 
languages.  As  originally  written,  it  consisted  of  consonants  only, 
the  vowel  sounds  being  supplied  by  the  reader.  But  it  is  obvious 
that  there  might  be  words  of  widely  different  meaning  consisting 
of  the  same  consonants  variously  vocalized.  The  word  as  written 
is  in  fact  ambiguous  ;  its  interpretation  depends  upon  the  accuracy 
of  tradition.  An  actual  instance  may  be  quoted  by  way  of  illustration. 
In  Heb  ii'^^  it  is  said  of  Jacob  that  he  'worshipped  leaning  upon 
the  top  of  his  staff,'  whereas  in  Gen  47^^  the  words  run,  'He  bowed 
himself  upon  the  bed's  head'  R.V.,A.  V.  The  Hebrew  for  both  bed 
and  staff  consists  of  the  three  consonants  MTH,  which  in  the  Hebrew 
text  are  thus  vocalized,  M'TT'^H,  htd  ;  the  author  of  Hebrews  quotes 
from  the  Septuagint,  which  reads  the  word  thus,  M'^TT^H,  staff. 

2.  Again,  the  connexion  of  words  is  often  ambiguous.  Take  an 
illustration  from  the  New  Testament  in  Ro  9^  'of  whom  is  the  Christ 
as  concerning  the  flesh,  He  Who  is  over  all,  God  blessed  for  ever.'  The 
words  as  they  stand  are  a  unique  assertion  of  the  deity  of  Christ. 
But  if  a  full  stop  be  put  at '  flesh ' — *  of  whom  is  the  Christ  as  concerning 
the  flesh.  He  Who  is  over  all,  God,  blessed  for  ever* — the  whole 
sense  of  the  passage  is  altered.  Again,  in  Is  40^,  are  we  to  read 
'  the  voice  of  one  that  crieth  in  the  wilderness.  Prepare  ye  the  way 
of  the  Lord,'  or  '  the  voice  of  one  that  crieth,  In  the  wilderness 
prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord'? 

3.  All  such  matters  of  interpretation  of  individual  words  and  the 
general  sense  of  tlio  passage  were  handed  down  by  tradition.  They 
were  not  discussed  or  altered,  but  simply  passed  on  with  absolute 
unchanging  authority.  In  our  printed  Hebrew  Bibles  they  are  settled 
for  us,  for  there  an  elaborate  system  of  accents  fixes  the  meaning 
of  each  word,  its  pronunciation,  its  exact  cadence  in  the  synagogic 
recitation  and  the  connexion  of  the  words.  But  this  was  not  invented 
and  worked  out  till  about  a.  d.  800.   It  reduces  to  written  form  a  body 


FIDELITY   IN  COPYING  27 

of  tradition — Massora— collected  and  handed  down  by  the  Massoretes; 
and  the  text  thus  interpreted  is  called  the  Massoretic  Text. 

26.  Fidelity  in  copying. — There  are  in  Hebrew  MSS. 
and  our  printed  Bibles  curious  indications  of  the  exact 
fidelity  with  which  the  original  MS.  we  have  spoken  of  was 
reproduced.  Some  words  have  odd  marks  over  them  not 
understood,  perhaps  originating  in  an  accidental  splutter  of 
the  pen,  but  faithfjuUy  repeated  in  every  copy. 

Sometimes  we  find  a  letter  almost  double  the  ordinary  size 
and  sometimes  one  unusually  small — again,  possibly,  a  per- 
petuation of  mere  accident.  Sometimes  a  letter  is  placed 
above  the  line.  The  books  have  notes  appended,  stating  such 
points  as  the  number  of  words  and  the  middle  word.  In 
addition  to  what  appears  in  our  Bibles,  there  are  huge 
collections  of  Massoretic  notes,  dealing  with  such  matters  as 
how  often  each  letter  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  occurs  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  how  many  verses  contain  all  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet.  All  this  fills  us  with  amazement,  and  with 
thankfulness  for  the  microscopic  accuracy  with  which  these 
men  did  their  work  oi  preserving  the  sacred  text.  To  a  small 
extent  also  they  hand  down  authoritative  criticism  of  the  text. 
They  make  us  aware  that  the  text  perpetuated  is  not  faultless ; 
here  and  there  a  word  ought  to  be  inserted  or  changed,  or  left 
out.  But  all  such  traditional  criticism — it  does  not  amount 
to  much — is  in  the  margin  :  the  text  is  too  sacred  to  be 
tampered  with  even  when  declared  to  be  wrong.  But  we 
have  seen  that  the  consonants  were  the  real  text,  the  vowels 
a  human  device  of  interpretation.  Accordingly,  if  a  word  in 
the  text  was  judged  to  be  superfluous,  it  was  left,  but  was 
not  provided  with  any  vowels  ;  if  a  word  was  to  be  inserted, 
its  vowels  were  written  without  consonants  ;  if  a  word  was 
to  be  changed,  its  consonants  were  left,  but  were  provided 
with  the  vowels  of  the  word  to  be  substituted.  The  con- 
sonants of  the  correct  word  are  given  in  the  margin  with 
a  note  to  the  effect  that  so-and-so  is  written  (Kethibh),  but 
so-and-so  is  to  be  read  (Qeri), 


28  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   VERSIONS 


Versions  of  the  Old  Testament 

27.  The  Text  in  pre-Massoretic  times. — By  the  work 
of  the  Massoretes,  then,  and  their  predecessors  from  the 
close  of  the  first  century  onwards,  the  stream  of  the  trans- 
mitted Hebrew  text  was  made  to  run  in  a  clear-cut  channel 
and  guarded  from  the  possibility  of  defilement.  They  have 
given  us  with  extraordinary  fidelity  what  they  received. 
It  only  remains  to  consider  whether  the  same  process  of 
faithful  preservation  and  reproduction  can  be  traced  back 
from  apostolic  times  to  the  days  of  Ezra  and  beyond. 
It  must  be  frankly  admitted  that  it  cannot,  and  that  we  are 
dependent  for  the  purity  of  the  Hebrew  text  on  the  skill 
with  w^hich  the  Massoretic  text  was  determined  and  the 
scrupulous  care  with  which  it  has  been  transmitted.  Im- 
portant evidence  is  here  afforded  by  the  Versions,  which 
indicate  more  or  less  precisely  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  age 
in  which  they  were  made. 

28.  Semitic  Versions. — i.  Among  these  versions,  the  first 
place  must  be  given  to  the  Targums,  as  the  nearest  in 
language  to  the  Hebrew  original. 

When  the  Jews  returned  from  Babylonian  exile  they 
had  to  a  great  extent  lost  the  use  of  their  own  language. 
It  was  needful,  therefore,  not  only  to  read  the  Scriptures 
to  them  in  the  original,  but  to  '  give  the  meaning '  (see 
Ne  8^).  This  was  done  orally,  paraphrastically.  After  a 
while,  the  paraphrased  translation  was  written  down  in 
a  series  of  targums  ('  interpretations ')  in  the  '  Chaldee,'  or 
more  correctly,  the  Eastern  Aramaic  dialect.  These  tar- 
gums were  no  doubt  numerous  ;  those  which  have  descended 
to  us  are  all  dated  after  the  Christian  era.  The  oldest  are 
that  on  the  Law,  by  Onkelos,  a  friend  of  Gamaliel,  and  that 
on  the  Prophets,  by  Jonathan  ben  Uzziel,  said  to  have  been 
a   disciple  of  Hillel.     Two    others  on   the  Pentateuch  are 


THE   SAMARITAN   PENTATEUCH  29 

earlier  than  the  seventh  century  :  one  wrongly  attributed 
to  this  same  Jonathan,  the  other  (now  existing  only  in 
fragments)  known  as  the  Jerusalem  Targum.  All  of  these, 
with  others  of  less  imiDortance  on  the  Hagiographa,  contain 
vapid  paraphrases  and  fabulous  additions,  but  are  useful, 
with  due  caution,  in  the  examination  of  the  Hebrew  text  ^ 

2.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  —  This,  in  a  dialect 
kindred  with  the  Hebrew,  and  written  in  the  old  Hebrew 
characters,  is  rather  a  recension  than  a  translation  of  the 
Hebrew  text.  Copies  are  referred  to  by  Eusebius  and  Cyril, 
but  it  was  long  thought  that  the  whole  had  perished.  In 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  however,  a  copy 
was  transmitted  from  Constantinople  to  Paris.  Ussher  after- 
wards procured  six  copies,  and  Kennicott  collated  sixteen. 
The  account  of  this  recension,  regarded  as  most  probable 
by  Kennicott  and  many  subsequent  critics,  is  that  it  was 
carried  into  the  northern  kingdom  at  the  time  of  the 
secession  of  the  Ten  Tribes.  Could  this  view  be  substan- 
tiated, it  would  form  important  evidence  for  the  antiquity 
of  the  Pentateuch.  National  animosity,  it  was  contended, 
would  prevent  this  reception,  in  the  Israelite  kingdom,  of 
the  Prophets  and  Hagiographa.  The  ancient  form  of  the 
letters,  it  was  also  maintained,  would  prove  an  early  date — 
at  the  latest,  some  time  before  the  Babylonian  captivity. 

It  is  now,  however,  held  by  most  scholars  that  this  copy 
of  the  Pentateuch  was  carried  to  Samaria  by  Manasseh,  at 
the  establishment  of  rival  worship  on  Mount  Gerizim.  The 
question,  which  has  given  rise  to  much  controversy,  cannot 
yet  be  regarded  as  fully  settled. 

The  critical  value  of  the  readings  of  this  recension  was  at  first 
over-estimated,  but  now  they  are  lield  to  be  not  at  all  superior  to  the 
Hebrew.     The  LXX  seems  to  have  followed  it  more  frequently  than 

*  The  Targums  on  the  Pentateuch,  by  Onkelos  and  the  Pseudo- 
Jonathan,  have  been  translated  into  English  by  J.  W.  Etheridge 
(Longmans,  1862,  1865^ 


30  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT  VERSIONS 

the  present  Hebrew  text,  from  which,  however,  it  does  not  materially 
differ.  Gesenius  deems  its  readings  preferable  to  the  Hebrew  in 
Gen  4^,  wliere  it  supplies  the  words  'Let  us  go  into  the  field'; 
in  Gen  14^*,  wliere  it  reads  *  he  numbered,' instead  of  'he  armed'; 
in  Gen  22^^,  where  it  omits  the  words  '  beliind  him' ;  and  in  Gen  49^*, 
wliere  the  difference  is  in  expression  only  and  not  in  sense.  The 
Samaritan  copy  is  of  great  value  in  determining  the  history  of  the 
Hebrew  vowels,  and  in  confirming  the  general  accuracy  of  the  present 
text,  but  it  is  not  a  source  of  valuable  independent  emendation. 

The  ancient  Samaritan  Pentateuch  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  more  modern  Samaritan  version,  which  is  printed  with  tlie  other 
in  the  Polyglots.  This  is  a  very  literal  translation  into  modern 
Samaritan. 

29.  Greek  Versions  :  the  Septuagint. — The  version  by 
*  the  seventy '  was  made  in  Egypt  by  Alexandrian  Jews. 
The  story  of  Aristeas,  a  writer  who  pretended  to  be  a  Gentile 
and  favourite  at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  is  that 
this  version  was  made  by  seventy-two  Jews  (six  from  each 
tribe)  sent  to  Alexandria  (b.  c.  285)  by  Eleazar  at  the  request 
of  Demetrius  Phalareus,  the  king's  librarian,  and  that  the 
whole  was  completed  in  seventy-two  days.  To  this  story 
various  additions  were  made,  claiming  miraculous  interposi- 
tion for  the  work,  and  infallibility  for  the  translators. 
Dr.  Hody  conclusively  proved  that  the  narrative  could  not 
be  authentic :  though  nothing  has  been  discovered  that 
materially  affects  either  the  value  or  the  date  of  the  version, 
which  was  probably  made  at  different  times  after  the  date 
assigned.  When  it  was  completed,  there  is  no  evidence  to 
show.  Kegarding  the  work  critically,  it  may  be  observed 
that  it  contains  many  Grreco-Egyptian  words,  and  that  the 
Pentateuch  is  translated  with  much  more  accuracy  than  the 
other  books.  The  Book  of  Job,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Prophets, 
are  all  inferior,  and  especially  Isaiah  and  Daniel.  The  his- 
torical books  are  often  inaccurately  translated. 

In  the  early  Christian  Church  this  version  was  deemed 
of  great  value,  though  writers  often  appealed  against  it  to 
the  Hebrew.    Witli  the  view  of  correcting  it,  Origen  formed 


GREEK   VERSIONS:    THE   SEPTUAGlNT       31 

his  Hexapla,  or  six-columned  version  (a.d.  228),  containing, 
besides  the  LXX,  Greek  translations  of  the  Old  Testament 
by  Aquila  of  Pontus  (about  a.  d.  130),  Theodotion  of  Ephesus 
(about  A.D.  160),  and  Symmachus,  a  Samaritan  (a.d.  218). 
The  other  two  columns  contained  (i)  the  Hebrew  text,  and 
(2)  the  same  in  Greek  characters.  This  work,  which  made 
altogether  fifty  volumes,  perished  probably  at  the  sacking 
of  Caesarea  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  653  ;  but  happily  the  text 
of  the  LXX  (which  formed  one  of  the  columns)  had  been 
copied  by  Eusebius,  together  with  the  corrections  or  addi- 
tions which  Origen  had  inserted  from  the  other  translators. 
This  Hexaplarian  text,  as  it  is  called,  was  published  by 
Montfaucon  at  Paris,  in  17 14.  The  principal  MSS.  of  the 
LXX  are  the  Vatican  (B),  the  Sinaitic  (n),  the  Alexandrian 
(A),  together  with  fragments  of  Codex  Ephraemi  (C). 

Among  printed  editions  of  the  LXX  are — the  Complu- 
tensian  (151 7),  which  often  follows  the  Massoretic  Hebrew 
and  Origen's  Hexa]}la  ;  the  Aldine  (1518),  exhibiting  many 
of  the  readings  of  B  ;  the  Roman  or  Vatican  (1587),  based 
on  B  ;  the  Grabian  (i 707-1 720),  which  is  taken  chiefly  from 
A ;  and  the  Cambridge  critical  edition  of  H.  B.  Swete 
(1887-1894). 

The  version  is  rather  free  than  literal,  and  frequently 
misses  the  sense  of  the  original.  It  is  to  a  great  extent 
useful  in  settling  the  original  text,  but  is  more  valuable 
in  interpretation,  although  it  often  fails  in  difficult  passages, 
from  the  freeness  of  its  renderings,  the  carelessness  and 
ignorance  of  the  translators,  and  the  absence  of  fixed  rules 
of  translation.  Allowing  for  these  sources  of  error,  it  must 
be  added  that  the  LXX  often  indicates  an  underlying  text 
different  from  the  Massoretic. 

'At  some  time/ writes  Dr.  Swete,  'between  the  age  of  the  LXX  and 
that  of  Aquila,  a  thorough  revision  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  must  have  taken 
place,  probably  under  official  direction.'  Again,  '  It  is  sufficient  to  warn 
the  beginner  that  in  the  LXX  he  has  before  him  the  version  of  an 


32  THE   OLD    TESTAMENT   VERSIONS 

early  text  which  often  fliffered  materially  from  the  text  of  the  printed 
Hebrew  Bible  and  of  all  existing  Hebrew  MSS.'  Again,  '  We  are 
driven  to  the  conclusion  that  the  transition  from  a  fluctuating  to 
a  relatively  fixed  text  took  effect  during  the  interval  between  the 
fall  of  Jerusalem  and  the  completion  of  Aquila's  version.' 

30.  Old  Latin.  — Among  the  earliest  versions  founded  on 
the  LXX  was  the  Latin,  made  in  Africa,  and  often  transcribed 
in  whole  or  part  in  various  districts  of  the  empire.  Some 
have  thought,  from  the  differences  in  the  copies,  that  several 
distinct  versions  were  made;  but  the  more  probable  opinion 
is  that  they  were  all  recensions  of  the  same  original.  Of 
these  recensions,  the  most  important  was  made  in  Italy, 
partly  with  a  view  to  correct  the  provincialisms  and  other 
defects  in  the  African  translation.  Augustine ^  refers  to  this 
version  as  the  Itdla.  Jerome  bears  testimony  to  its  general 
excellence.  Its  prevailing  type  of  text,  as  may  be  gathered 
from  fragments  which  still  remain^,  accords  with  the 
Alexandrian  MS.,  and  the  version  may  be  traced  back,  by 
quotations  in  Tertullian,  at  least  to  the  latter  part  of  the 
second  century. 

The  diversities  and  imperfections  of  the  Latin  copies 
mduced  Jerome  (a.  d.  382)  to  revise  the  text,  as  Origen  had 
previously  revised  that  of  the  LXX.  He  employed  for  this 
purpose  the  Hexapla,  by  which  he  carefully  corrected  the 
whole  of  the  Old  Testament ;  though  portions  only  of  his 
revision  remain.  But  as  his  labours  were  drawing  to  a  close, 
the  LXX,  long  favourably  received  by  the  Jews,  began  to 
fall  into  disrepute,  on  the  ground,  probably,  that  it  was 
appealed  to  by  Christians.  To  meet  this  feeling,  Jerome 
undertook  to  prepare  a  translation  into  Latin  direct  from 
the  Hebrew.  He  devoted  the  larger  portion  of  twenty  years 
to  this  work,  which  was  completed  in  a.  d.  405.  A  super- 
stitious reverence  for  the  LXX  led  many  to  oppose  this 
version,  but  it  gradually  gained  influence,  and  in  the  time  of 

*  De  Dodrina  Chrifitiana.  ii.  15. 

**  Job,  Psalms,  some  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  parts  of  other  books. 


VULGATE   AND   SYRIAC  $3 

Gregory  the  Great  (a.  d.  604)  it  had  at  least  a  co-ordinate 
authority,  and  was  dignified  with  the  name  of  the  Vulgate 
('versio  vulgata,'  the  current  version).  The  text  was  made 
up  in  part  from  the  old  Latin,  in  part  from  Jerome's 
improved  edition  of  that  version,  and  is  in  part  a  new 
version  formed  immediately  from  the  Hebrew.  Jerome 
was  acquainted  with  Hebrew  expositors,  and  many  of  their 
interpretations  are  embodied  in  the  Vulgate  ;  but  generally 
it  follows  the  LXX,  even  when  that  version  difi^ers  from  the 
Hebrew.  It  is  more  useful  for  interpretation  than  for  criti- 
cism of  the  text,  though  for  both  it  is  of  value.  The  version 
of  the  Psalms  was  made  from  the  HcxapJa,  and  is  called  the 
Psalterium  GaUicanum.  The  text  was  early  corrupted,  and 
various  learned  men  undertook  to  revise  it,  among  whom 
were  Alcuin  and  Lanfranc.  An  authorized  edition  was 
issued  in  1590  by  Sixtus  V,  only,  however,  to  be  immedi- 
ately withdrawn,  and  superseded  by  that  of  Clement  VIII 
(1592).  Critical  editions  are  those  of  Vercellone  (1861)  and 
Tischendorf  (1864)^ 

31.  The  Syriac  or  Western  Aramaic  Versions. — The 

Peshitta  ('correct'  or  'simple')  version  of  the  Scriptures 
was  made  direct  from  the  Hebrew,  and  agrees  closely  with 
the  Massoretic  Text.  Neither  time  nor  place  of  this  trans- 
lation is  known,  but  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  probable 
that  Syrian  Christians  would,  at  a  very  early  period,  obtain 
the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue.  From  internal  evidence 
it  is  believed  that  the  translators  were  Jewish  Christians, 
and  that  they  translated  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original 
Hebrew.  This  version  contains  all  the  canonical  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  all  those  of  the  New,  except  2  Peter, 
2  and  3  John,  Jude,  and  Revelation.  The  text  differs  from 
all  the  chief  families  of  MSS.,  and  each  in  succession  has 

'  Of  the  Vulgate  as  prepared  by  Jerome,  the  most  important  MS. 
is  the  CocUx  Amiatimis  now  at  Florence.  It  was  written  in  North- 
umberland about  the  close  of  th«  seventh  century  a.i>. 

D 


34  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   VERSIONS 

claimed  it.  It  was  first  printed  in  the  Paris  and  London 
Polyglots,  and  is  of  great  critical  value.  Its  important  place 
in  New  Testament  criticism  will  be  shown  in  the  next 
chapter,  when  other  Syriac  versions,  of  the  New  Testament 
alone,  will  also  be  described. 

32.  other  ancient  Versions.  Ecclesiastical  history  places  the  con- 
version of  Ethiopia  about  a.  n.  330,  and  to  the  same  or  following  cen- 
tury belongs  the  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Gis  or  EtMopic ; 
see  §  18.  Its  author  is  not  known.  Pei-fect  copies  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  not  common,  though  Bruce  states  that  he  found  several ; 
and  there  are  MSS.  of  this  version  in  some  of  the  libraries  of  Europe. 
Only  fragments  have  been  printed.  The  text  is  founded  entirely  on 
the  LXX,  and  follows  the  readings  of  A. 

Tlie  greater  part  of  the  Old  Testament  is  also  extant  in  the  Coptic 
dialects  of  Egypt  {Memphitic  in  the  N.,  Thebaic  in  the  S.),  though  only 
a  portion  has  been  printed.  Tlie  most  probable  date  of  their  origin  is 
the  third  and  fourth  century,  though  some  suppose  them  to  have  been 
made  as  early  as  the  first  and  second.  Both  are  founded  on  the  LXX, 
and  generally  follow  the  readings  of  A.  The  translators  are  not  known. 

The  Gothic  version  of  the  Bible  was  made  by  Ulphilas,  a  bishop  of 
the  Moeso-Goths,  who  assisted  at  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  in  a.d. 
360.  The  version  was  made  from  the  LXX,  and  is  of  considerable 
critical  value,  though  unhappily  only  fragments  of  it  remain. 

Of  the  Armenian  version  little  more  is  known  than  that  it  was 
made  about  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  and  based  upon  the 
Syriac,  though  afterwards  revised  from  the  LXX.  The  translator 
was  the  patriarch  Mesrob.  The  Georgian  version  was  made  in  the 
following  century,  from  copies  of  the  Armenian  translation.  The 
Armenian  version  has  been  repeatedly  printed  (the  best  edition  being 
that  by  Zohrab,  Venice,  1805) ;  and  the  whole  Bible,  in  Georgian, 
was  printed  at  Moscow  in  1743,  parts  of  it  having  been  previously 
printed  at  Tiflis. 

To  the  ninth  century  belongs  the  Slavic  or  Slavonic  version, 
made  by  the  brothers  Cyril  and  Methodius  of  Thessalonica,  mission- 
aries to  Bulgaria  and  Moravia,  who  rendered  this  great  work  possible 
by  first  reducing  the  Slavonic  language  to  writing.  It  is  generally 
regarded  as  a  descendant  of  the  LXX,  though  ancient  testimony  states 
that  it  was  made,  in  great  part,  from  the  Latin,  a  statement  which 
recent  collation  has  confirmed.  The  text  was  early  corrected  from 
Greek  MSS.,  and  it  is  hence  deemed  of  considerable  critical  value. 
The  whole  was  printed  in  1576,  and  several  editions  have  since  been 
issued  from  Moscow 


OTHER   ANCIENT  VERSIONS  36 

The  Arabic  versions  of  several  of  the  books  of  Scripture,  as  given 
in  the  Paris  and  London  Polyglots,  were  mado  from  the  LXX,  by 
different  authors  between  the  eighth  and  twelfth  centuries  ;  and  of 
Job,  Chronicles,  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  and  parts  of  other  books,  from 
the  Peshitta  Syriac. 

From  these  facts  it  is  clear  that  the  Targums,  the  Sama- 
ritan Pentateuch,  the  LXX,  part  of  the  Vulgate,  and  the 
Peshitta  Syriac,  are  all  more  or  less  valuable  for  ascertaining 
the  text  of  the  original  Hebrew  ;  but  that  other  versions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  being  made  from  these  and  not  from  the 
original,  are  of  little  or  no  critical  value,  except  for  ascertain- 
ing the  text  of  those  versions  from  which  they  were  made. 

33.  And,  on  the  whole,  though  we  may  be  sure  that  we 
have  the  books  substantially  as  they  were  written,  not  a 
promise  dimmed  or  a  truth  distorted,  and  though  at  least 
from  the  close  of  the  first  century  the  purity  of  the  letter 
has  been  almost  miraculously  preserved,  we  must  rest 
content  with  something  short  of  the  sacred  autographs. 
The  imperfections  of  the  letter  may  well  lead  us  to  look 
to  the  spirit,  from  the  words  to  the  Word,  that  abides 
unshaken  and  grows  in  meaning  through  the  ages. 


oa 


CHAPTER    III 

THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 

The  Canon 

34.  General  view. — The  remarks  on  Canonicity  in  Chapter 
II  apply  also  to  the  New  Testament.  The  facts  which 
prove  the  several  books  to  belong  to  the  accredited  catalogue 
of  sacred  writings  are  accessible,  simple,  and  decisive.  To 
take  the  literary  ground  alone — there  is  the  same  kind  of 
evidence  that  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  are  of  apos- 
tolic origin  as  that  the  works  of  Xenophon,  Cicero,  or 
Plutarch  proceeded  from  the  authors  whose  names  they 
bear.  Added  to  this,  the  great  religious  interest  and  im- 
portance of  these  books  would  prevent  their  reception  on 
insufficient  grounds,  while  watchful  adversaries  would  be 
alert  to  mark  any  inadequacy  in  the  evidence.  Apostolicity 
was  the  great  test ;  and  this  being  established,  there  was  no 
longer  any  question  as  to  recognition. 

The  Christian  Consciousness.— Nor  was  this  all.  The 
appeal  of  the  writings  was  to  the  Christian  consciousness. 
The  Holy  Spirit,  given  to  the  Church,  quickened  holy 
instincts,  aided  discernment  between  the  genuine  and  the 
spurious,  and  thus  led  to  gradual,  harmonious,  and  in  the 
end  unanimous  conclusions.  There  was  in  the  Church  what 
a  modern  divine  has  happily  termed  an  '  inspiration  of 
selection.' 

The  appeal,  it  should  be  especially  noted,  was  to  the 
Church  universal.  The  phrase  '  Church  authority,'  as 
sometimes  used,  is  misleading.  It  is  very  remarkable 
that  no  General  Council  from  the  earliest  times  undertook 


THE   CANON  37 

to  define  the  Canon.  The  Scriptures  of  the  New  Testament 
were  their  own  attestation.  Certain  books  which  claimed 
apostolic  authority,  and  were,  in  some  quarters,  accepted  for 
a  time,  gradually  disappeared  from  the  list,  and  survive  only 
as  '  apocryphal ' ;  in  contrast,  which  every  reader  can  now 
discern,  with  those  that  are  Divine. 

For,  in  addition  to  the  external  evidence,  the  intrinsic 
grounds  on  which  the  recognition  of  the  Church  was  either 
granted  or  refused  are  open  to  ourselves.  Between  the 
canonical  books  and  even  the  best  of  the  uncanonical,  there 
is  a  distinction  which  impressively  reveals  the  limits  of  the 
unaided  Christian  intellect  and  imagination  ^.  The  differ- 
ence has  been  aptly  illustrated  by  the  contrast  of  modern 
and  ancient  cities.  The  New  Testament  is  not  like  the 
modern  towns,  with  wide  suburbs  reaching  out  into  the 
open  country,  so  that  the  exact  boundaries  are  indiscernible; 
but  rather  resembles  some  city  of  ancient  times,  surrounded 
by  walls  and  bulwarks,  well  defined  and  separate  from  the 
waste  beyond. 

35.  Gradual  formation  of  the  Canon. — How  long  a 
time  elapsed  before  the  formation  of  a  Canon  is  quite  un- 
known. The  books  at  first  appeared  separately,  in  different 
localities,  and  at  intervals  of  time ;  were  treasured  by 
individual  churches  as  apostolic  ;  and  read,  probably  with 
other  writings,  in  the  Christian  assemblies.  The  next  step 
was  to  classify  them  in  groups — the  Gospels  forming  one 
division,  the  Pauline  Epistles  another ;  while  the  Acts  and 
General  Epistles  were  a  section  by  themselves.  To  these 
the  Apocalypse  was  added  ;  and  by  the  end  of  the  second 
century  the  collection  was  practically  complete  ;  the  genuine- 

•  See  the  New  Testament  Apocrypha^  edited  by  B.  H.  Cowper.  The 
once  well-known  William  Hone,  in  his  sceptical  days,  produced 
a  selection  from  these  works  to  exhibit  their  parallel  with  the  New 
Testament  writings.  He  succeeded  only  in  proving  the  wonderful 
contrast  between  the  two. 


38  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 


of  some  books,  however,  remaining  an  open  question 
until  a  later  period. 

We  begin  with  the  Gospels. 

In  the  early  Church  many  writings  were  extant  professing 
to  give  an  account  of  the  life  and  character  of  our  Lord. 
From  Lu  i^-^  we  learn  that  the  task  had  been  taken  in  hand 
by  writers  who  set  themselves  to  transcribe  the  primitive 
oral  gospel.  But  at  an  early  period  the  Four  Gospels 
absorbed  and  superseded  these  several  accounts,  being  uni- 
versally recognized  by  the  Church  as  authoritative  on  the 
ground  of  their  apostolicity  ;  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke 
being  respectively  penned  under  the  influence  of  Peter  and 
Paul.  The  consideration  of  their  origin  belongs  to  another 
part  of  this  work.  Suffice  it  here  to  say  that  the  chain  of 
testimony  is  complete.  The  Apostolic  Fathers  quote  them, 
although  without  mentioning  their  authorship,  in  such 
a  way  as  to  show  that  their  authority  in  the  Church  was 
fully  recognized  ^  Tatian  the  Assyrian,  pupil  of  Justin 
Martyr,  combined  the  Four  Gospels  into  one  'Harmony.' 
Irenaeus,  who  in  his  early  days  had  known  Polycarp,  disciple 
of  the  Apostle  John,  distinctly  recognizes  the  '  holy  qua- 
ternion '  of  writers,  giving  mystic  explanations  of  the  number 
Four,  which  in  their  very  absurdity  testify  to  the  reception 
of  these  books  as  Divine.  Subsequent  attestations  come 
from  every  part  of  the  Church :  Tertullian  in  Africa, 
Athanasius  in  Alexandria,  Cyril  in  Jerusalem,  and  many 
others,  with  one  voice  witnessing  to  these  Four  and  to  no 
others,  as  the  accepted  evangelic  narratives.  And  to  these 
the  Book  of  Acts  was  added,  by  general  consent,  as  the 
second  part  of  Luke.  These  books  then,  we  conclude,  were 
written  by  Apostles,  to  whom  our  Saviour  specially  promised 

*  The  Apostolic  Fathers  :  Clement  of  Kome,  *  Barnabas,'  Polycarp, 
Ignatius,  Hermas  {The  Shepherd),  the  Didache.  '  Barnabas '  was  the  first 
to  use  the  formula  *  it  is  written '  {yeypavrai)  in  citing  the  words  of  our 
Lord  (Mt  afli*). 


THE   CANON  39 

His  Spirit  that  He  might  guide  them  into  all  truth,  bring  to 
their  remembrance  whatever  He  Himself  had  told  them,  and 
qualify  them  to  give  His  gospel  to  the  world  *. 

36.  So  of  the  Epistles  of  Panl.  There  are  thirteen  of 
them  which  bear  his  name.  Generally  he  wrote  by  an  amanu- 
ensis, who  would  become  a  witness  of  the  genuineness  of 
his  writings  ^ :  in  these  instances  he  added  his  subscription 
and  salutation  c.  His  Epistles  were  sent  by  private  mes- 
sengers d.  Nine  were  addressed  to  public  bodies.  The 
earliest  of  them  he  commanded  to  be  read  in  the  public 
assembly ;  the  second,  and  indeed  all  the  rest,  were  read  in 
public  too  6;  and  we  know  from  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  and 
Clement,  that  his  Epistles  were  regarded  as  inspired  Scrip- 
ture, and  read  with  the  Law  and  Prophets  of  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  Gospels  of  the  New  i\  A  yet  earlier 
testimony  is  given  in  2  Pet  3^^-^^,  where  a  name  is  applied 
to  them  ('  Scriptures ')  which,  though  occurring  fifty  times  in 
the  New  Testament,  is  in  no  other  instance  applied  to  any 
other  than  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

37.  The  remaining  Books. — All  the  parts  of  the  New 
Testament  mentioned  thus  far  were  recognized  as  apostolic 
at  latest  by  the  close  of  the  second  century  ;  as  were  also 
I  Peter  and  i  John.  The  remaining  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  called  Antihgomena,  or,  from  their  forming 
a  part  of  the  Canon  only  after  a  second  revision,  the 
Deutero-Canonical.  That  position  in  the  Canon  they  gained 
gradually ;  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  they 
were  received  by  most  of  the  churches,  and  at  the  end  of 
that  century  they  were  received  by  all. 

*  See  further  The  Early  Witness  to  the  Four  Gospels  ('  Present  Day  Tracts,* 
R.T.S.,  No.  78),  by  S.Walter  Green,  M.A. 

*»  Ro  i622.  c  I  Cor  i62i  Col  ^^^ 

•^    Ro   16^  Eph  621  Phil  226  QqI  ^7.8^ 

•  2  Cor  lis  J  Tj^  ^27  a  xh  2^^  3«-i^  Col  4^6. 

'  Ign.  To  Eph  ch.  la  ;  Polyc.  To  Phil  311-12  Clem.  To  Cor  ch.  47. 


40  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

The  special  evidence  of  each  book  will  be  given  later, 
The  point  to  be  noticed  is  that  the  doubts  which  existed 
had  reference  not  to  the  canonicity  of  the  writings  of  James, 
Cephas,  John,  and  Jude,  but  to  the  question  whether  the 
writings  bearing  their  names  were  really  written  by  them. 
Nor  can  these  doubts  excite  surprise.  The  subject  was  one 
of  deep  interest.  Many  spurious  compositions  were  abroad 
under  the  names  of  these  very  Apostles  \  Apostolic  teach- 
ing might  be  quoted  in  defence  of  caution  ^.  The  internal 
evidence  of  the  authorship  of  these  Epistles  is  peculiar  ;  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  for  example,  is  without  the  author's 
name,  and  differs  in  style  from  the  Epistles  of  Paul :  the 
style  of  2  Peter  differs  in  the  same  way  from  the  style  of 
the  first  Epistle.  In  James  and  Jude  the  authors  are  de- 
scribed not  as  Apostles  but  as  *  servants  '  of  Christ,  while  in 
2  and  3  John  the  writer  describes  himself  as  a  presbyter  or 
elder,  not  as  an  Apostle.  Jude  also  refers  to  stories  which 
are  contained  in  apocryphal  writings.  All  these  Epistles 
moreover  were  addressed  either  to  Christians  generally  or 
to  private  persons,  not  to  specified  churches.  No  body  of 
men,  therefore,  was  interested  in  preserving  them,  and 
external  evidence  in  their  favour  was  necessarily  scanty. 
All  these  causes  of  doubt  did  operate,  as  we  know.  In  the 
end  there  was  universal  conviction ;  and  the  very  doubts 
which  deferred  the  reception  of  a  small  portion  of  Scripture 
in  certain  parts  of  the  early  Church  now  serve  to  confirm 
our  faith  in  the  rest. 

38.  Early  Catalogues. — Between  the  years  a.  d.  200  and 
A.  D.  400  fifteen  or  sixteen  catalogues  of  the  New  Testament 
books  were  published.  Their  importance,  as  well  as  their 
variety  and  independence,  is  shown  in  the  following  brief 
enumeration  « : — 

•  Westcott  On  the  Canon  512-520.  •*  2  Th  2^--  i  Jn  4*. 

*  For  further  details,  see  Charteris.  Canonicity  (Kirchhofer's  Quellen- 
9ammlung),  Westcott  On  the  Canon  q/  the  New  Testament,  and  the  olde/ 


THE   CANON  41 

1.  The  Mnratorlan  Fragfinent,  the  earliest:  Latin  MS.,  discovered  by 
Muratori  in  the  Ambrosian  Library,  Milan,  1740.  Date,  near  the  close 
of  the  second  century  (speaks  of  Pope  Pius  I  [d.  157]  as  very  recent). 
Formerly  attributed  to  Caius  the  Presbyter,  brother  to  Pius  ('  likely,' 
Salmon  ;  'fictitiously,'  Earnack)  ;  Bishop  Lightfoot  conjectures  Hippo- 
lytus.  The  fragment,  evidently  translated  from  the  Greek,  begins 
with  Luke,  as  the  '  third  Gospel,'  implying  the  other  two,  and  includes 
all  the  New  Testament  books  excepting  Hebrews,  James,  i  and  2  Peter,  and 
2  and  3  John. 

2.  Clement  of  Alexandria  (in  Eusebius),  beginning  of  the  third 
century:  first  uses  the  distinction  'the  Gospel'  and  'the  Apostle,' 
recognizes  fourteen  Epistles  of  Paul  (including  Hebrews),  omits  James, 
2  Peter,  3  John  :  includes  some  extra-canonical  books. 

3.  Orig'en  (in  Eusebius),  d.  353,  all,  excepting  James  and  Jude,  to 
which,  however,  he  refers  elsewhere. 

4.  Eusebius  Pamphilus,  315,  all  ;  only  that  he  specifies  James,  Jude, 
2  Peter,  a  and  3  John,  with  the  Apocalypse,  as  '  disputed  '  by  some. 

5.  Athanasius,  315,  all.  He  speaks  of  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  as 
useful,  but  not  canonical ;  of  others  as  spurious. 

6.  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  340,  all  but  the  Apocalypse.  The  'disputed' 
books  mentioned  by  Eusebius  are  now  generally  received. 

7.  Iiaodicene  Council,  364,  all,  excepting  Apocalypse. 

8.  Epiphanius  of  Salamis,  370,  aU. 

9.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  375,  all  but  the  Apocalypse.  His  list  is  in 
metrical  form,  as  an  aid  to  memory. 

10.  Amphilochius  of  Iconium,  c.  380,  includes  all,  but  says  that 
the  majority  exclude  the  Apocalypse.     Also  in  metrical  form. 

11.  Fhilastrius  of  Brescia,  c.  380,  all.  He  mentions  thirteen  Epistles 
of  Paul,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  of  which  some,  he  says,  doubt 
if  it  is  his,  while  others  deny  the  Johannine  authorship  of  the  Gospel 
and  Apocalypse. 

12.  The  Synod  of  Carthagfe,  397,  at  which  Augustine  was  present, 
includes  all,  mentioning  the  books  specifically.  The  Acts  of  this  Synod 
are  of  great  value  by  way  of  testimony. 

13.  Jerome,  c.  382,  includes  all :  only  says  that  Hebrews  is  placed  by 
many  outside  the  Pauline  circle. 

14.  Rufinus  of  Aquileia,  c.  390,  includes  all. 

15.  Augustine,  d.  430,  includes  and  mentions  aU,  referring  to 
Hebrews  as  Pauline. 

16.  Chrysostom,  d.  407,  in  a  'Synopsis'  attributed  to  him,  but  on 

work  by  Jeremiah  Jones,   1726,  A  New  and  Full  Method  0/  Settling  thf 
Ccknonical  Authority  0/  th»  Ntfv  Testament. 


42  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

doubtful  authority,  enumerates  fourteen  Epistles  of  Paul,  four  Oospeh, 
the  Acts,  and  three  Catholic  Epistles,  omitting  the  remainder. 

The  wide  diffusion  of  the  above  testimony  is  worthy  of  note  : — 
Palestine,  Syria,  and  Cyprus,  Nos.  4,  7,  8,  16  \ 
Asia  Minor,  6,  9,  10  >  Greek. 

Alexandria,  2,  3,  5  ) 

N.  Africa,  12,  15  )  t   i- 

Italy,  r,  11,  13,  14  S 

After  A.D.  400  there  is  no  longer  any  room  for  doubt  respecting  the 
New  Testament  Canon. 


The  Language  of  the  New  Testament 

39.  Hellenistic  Greek. — The  sixteenth  century  witnessed 
a  singular  discussion.  Erasmus,  after  Laurentius  Valla, 
having  affirmed  that  the  Greek  of  the  New  Testament  was 
corrupted  with  Hebraisms,  both  of  words  and  idioms,  was 
opposed  with  great  vehemence  by  H.  Stephens,  who,  in  his 
Preface  to  the  New  Testament  (a.  d.  1546),  undertook  to 
prove  that  the  Greek  of  the  inspired  writers  was  pure  and 
idiomatic.  A  long  controversy  springing  out  of  these 
assertions,  the  respective  parties  were  called  Purists  and 
Hellenists,  or  Hebraists.  The  topic  was  deemed  important 
on  several  grounds.  Inspired  writers,  it  was  argued,  must 
employ  pure  and  *  perfect '  diction.  It  was  replied  that  a 
Hebraistic  tincture  in  the  language  was  an  evidence  of 
genuineness.  Facts  also  were  conclusive  on  that  side,  and 
the  controversy  is  now  practically  forgotten. 

The  '  perfection  '  of  inspired  composition  is  clearly  not  so 
much  classic  purity  as  intelligibleness  and  adaptation  to 
its  proper  end.  The  Greek  of  Scripture  was  written  by 
Hellenists,  i.e.  by  Jews  who  spoke  Greek,  whose  modes 
of  thought  were  formed  on  Hebrew  originals,  and  whose 
minds  were  steeped  in  the  language  of  the  Septuagint 
Version  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  Hence  an  instructive 
rule  of  interpretation.  A  prime  source  of  New  Testament 
interpretation  is  the  Greek  Old  Testament ;  and  we  must 


THE   LANGUAGE  43 

gather  thence,  as  far  as  possible,  the  meaning  and  illustra- 
tions of  its  terms. 


40.  The  Greek  tongue  is  it?elf  a  mixture  of  dialects. 

The  Hellenes,  or  Greeks,  consisted  originally  of  several  tribes, 
of  whom  two,  the  Dorians  and  Ionian s,  became  chief. 

The  Doric  dialect  w^as  first  in  time  and  in  influence:  it 
is  rough  and  broad -sounding.  Among  its  chief  writers 
are  Pindar,  Sappho,  Theocritus,  and  Bion.  The 'Ionic  was 
second  in  time.  It  is  soft  and  smooth,  was  spoken  at  first 
in  Attica,  and  then,  as  the  lonians  migrated  to  Asia  Minor, 
in  that  district.  Among  its  authors  are  Herodotus  and 
Anacreon. 

The  Attic  dialect  was  formed  after  the  lonians  left  Attica, 
and  occupies  in  quality  a  middle  place  between  the  Ionic 
and  Doric.  The  chief  Greek  authors  wrote  in  this  dialect : 
Thucydides,  Plato,  Xenophon,  Demosthenes,  iEschylus, 
Sophocles,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 

After  the  freedom  of  Greece  was  destroyed  by  Philip  of 
Macedon,  these  dialects  became  gradually  blended,  and  the 
Hellenic  or  '  common  dialect '  was  formed,  of  which  the  base 
was  Attic.  The  conquests  of  Alexander,  and  the  resulting 
fusion  of  different  peoples,  led  to  further  modifications  in 
dialect.  Macedonian  and  Alexandrian  idioms  became  common 
in  Greece,  and  especially  in  Egypt  and  the  East. 

At  Alexandria  many  Jews  resided.  There  the  Septuagint 
was  written,  and  as  the  writers  were  Jews,  the  Alexandrian 
Greek  which  they  spoke  was  modified  so  as  to  embody  the 
thoughts  and  idioms  of  the  Hebrew.  And  this  is  the 
language  of  the  New  Testament.  It  is  Hellenistic,  or  more 
properly,  Hebrew-Greek :  the  common  dialect  (77  Koivrj), 
with  a  mixture  of  others,  and  the  whole  modified  by  Jews 
of  Alexandria  and  Palestme.  Hence  words  and  phrases 
from  foreign  sources,  Aramaic,  Latin,  Persian,  Egyptian: 
hence  words  peculiar  in  their  orthography  or  form,  in  their 


44  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

inflexion  or  gender :  hence  words  common  to  the  ancient 
dialects,  but  not  usual  in  the  Hellenic,  and  hence  also  words 
and  phrases  in  senses  peculiarly  Jewish  or  Christian. 

Aramaic  expressions  may  be  seen,  Mk  14"  (abba),  Ac  i^'  (field  of 
blood),  Mk  3^''  (sons  of  thunder),  Mt  ^^'^  (vain,  foolish).  Latin  words, 
Mt  526  io29  1726  i828  26^3  27'^^65  ^^  j^ss  ^^  jg2o  j^  2^5  Ac  19I2  ;  and 
phrases,  Mt  12^*  Mk  is^-*^  Lu  12'^  Ac  17^  ;  Persian  expressions,  Mt  a' 
^41  2732  ]yik  1521  Lu  23*3  Ac  8"  (paradise,  a  garden  of  beautiful  trees)  ; 
Egyptian  expressions,  Mt  27'' '  Lu  16^^. 

The  lesson  taught  by  these  facts  is  that  while  we  need  a  knowledge 
of  Greek  generally  in  order  to  read  the  New  Testament,  we  need,  in 
order  to  understand  it,  a  knowledg-e  of  New  Testament  Greek,  and  of 
the  Septuagint  Version.  So  essential  is  this  knowledge,  that  a  merely 
English  reader,  with  only  his  English  Bible,  especially  in  the  Revised 
Version,  may  perhaps  understand  the  New  Testament  better  than  the 
scholar  who  brings  to  the  investigation  of  a  particular  passage  only 
classical  acquisitions. 

Among  aids  to  the  study  of  New  Testament  Q-reek  special  mention 
may  be  made  of  tho  Grammars  by  Winer  (ed.  Moulton)  and  Blass  ; 
the  Lexicons  of  Grimm  (ed.  Thayer)  and  of  Cremer;  and  of  the  Con- 
cordances, to  the  Septuagint  by  Hatch  and  Redpath,  to  the  New 
Testament  by  Moulton  and  Geden.  To  these  may  be  added  Hatch's 
Essays  in  Biblical  Greek ;  while  the  less  advanced  student  may  use 
the  Handbook  to  the  Grammar  of  the  Greek  Testament  by  S.  G.  Green, 
the  Language  0/  the  New  Testament  and  the  Writers  0/  the  New  Testament 
by  W.  H.  Simcox. 

Manuscripts 

41.  The  earliest  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  books  were 
no  doubt  written  on  papyrus,  a  fragile  material,  soon 
ruined  by  handling,  and  preserved  only  under  exceptional 
conditions  in  a  dry  climate,  like  that  of  Egypt. 

Recent  excavations  in  Egypt  have  been  extraordinarily  fruitful  in  the 
discovery  of  papyrus  fragments.  Professor  Weissmann,  of  Heidelberg, 
writes  :  'The  contents  of  these  non-literary  writings  (i.e.  leases,  con- 
tracts, letters,  school-exercises,  &c.)  are  as  manifold  in  their  variety 
ns  life  itself.  Those  in  Greek,  numbering  many  thousands,  cover 
a  period  of  about  a  thousand  years.  The  oldest  go  back  to  the  early 
Ptolemies,  and  thus  to  the  third  century  B.C.  ;  there  are  others  that 
bring  ub  far  down  into  Byzantiixe  times.     The  whole  shitting  scene  of 


MANUSCKIPTS  45 

Greek  and  Roman  history  in  Egypt  during  this  long  interval  passes 
in  these  leaves  before  our  eyes*.' 

Other  MSS.  on  papyrus,  belonging  to  the  first  century  a.d.,  have 
been  discovered  in  the  com*se  of  Egyptian  exploration.  Among  these 
Dr.  Kenyon  mentions  a  beautiful  copy  of  the  third  book  of  the  Odyssey, 
three  orations  of  Hyperides,  an  oration  of  Isocrates,  and  the  famous 
copy  of  Aristotle's  Polity  of  tlit  Athenians.  These  are  all  in  the  British 
Museum,  and  in  their  different  styles  of  penmanship,  varying  from 
that  of  a  professional  scribe  to  that  of  common  everyday  writing,  well 
illustrate  what  the  lost  autographs  of  the  Evangelists  and  Apostles 
must  have  been. 

A  few  scraps  from  papj'^rus  copies  of  the  Gospels  and 
Epistles  have  been  found  in  the  vast  store  of  MSS.  brought 
from  Egypt.  None  of  these  fragments  are  earlier  than  the 
third  century.  A  leaf  from  Matthew,  ii-9.i2.i4--2o^  and 
a  somewhat  larger  transcript  from  John,  123-31.33-41  2o^^~^'^- 
19-25^  were  found  by  Messrs.  Grenfell  and  Hunt  at  Oxyrhyn- 
chus,  120  miles  south  of  Cairo.  The  former  is  now  in  the 
Library  of  the  Pennsylvania  University,  the  latter  in 
the  British  Museum.  To  the  same  explorers  we  owe  also  the 
discoveries  in  1897  and  1903  of  the  Logia,  or  Sayings  of  our 
Lord,  written  probably  about  a.  d.  200  ^.  Dr.  Kenyon  gives 
a  list  of  five  further  extracts  from  the  Gospels  and  four 
from  the  Epistles,  among  the  papyri  from  Egypt,  belonging 
to  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  It  is  very  probable  that 
other  fragments  may  yet  be  brought  to  light.  Those  already 
discovered  confirm  the  New  Testament  text,  especially  that 
of  the  earliest  MSS. 

In  the  fourth  century  the  use  of  vellum  instead  of 
papyrus  for  important  MSS.  gave  to  them  for  the  first  time 
a  permanent  form  ;  while  the  conversion  of  Constantine 
led  to  the  careful  and  even  sumptuous  production  of  the 
Christian  writings.     The  codex  ^  instead  of  the   roll  form 

*  Encyclopcedia  Biblica,  vol.  iii,  art.  Papyri. 

•'  See  transcript,  facsimile  and  rendering  of  both,  published  for  the 
Egypt  Exploration  Fund  (Oxford  University  Press,  1897  and  1904). 

*  Codex,  originally  caudex,  a  tablet  of  wood,  generally  covered  with 


46  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

was  also  now  adopted,  so  that  the  Now  Testament  Scriptures 
could  for  the  first  time  be  conveniently  united  in  a  single 
volume.  Eusebius  states  in  his  L\Je  of  Constantine  that  the 
Emperor  ordered  fifty  copies  of  the  Scriptures  on  vellum 
for  the  churches  in  his  new  capital.  Two  of  these  have 
perhaps  survived  in  Codices  B  and  N. 

When  new  vellum  was  too  costly  for  the  transcriber,  the 
writing  was  often  washed  or  scraped  away  so  as  to  admit 
the  substitution  of  another  work,  hence  called  a  'codex 
rescriptus '  or  '  palimpsest '  (from  the  Greek  7ra\tfjn(/r)a-Tos, 
'  scraped  again  ').  It  sometimes  happened  that  the  erasure 
was  incomplete,  or  the  ink  of  the  original  proved  un- 
expectedly durable,  so  that  the  old  writing  reappeared.  See 
Codex  C,  below. 

The  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  uncial,  or  written  in  capital  {majuscule)  letters, 
and  cursive,  or  written  in  small  running-hand  [minuscule) 
letters.  Generally  speaking,  the  former  are  the  earlier, 
although,  as  some  uncials  are  as  late  as  the  tenth  century, 
while  some  cursives  are  as  early  as  the  ninth,  the  two  to 
some  extent  overlap  in  date. 

A  question  of  much  interest  is  how  to  ascertain  the  age 
of  a  MS.  In  reply,  the  following  points  may  be  especially 
noted. 

42.  In  the  earliest  times  the  New  Testament  was  divided 
into  three  parts :  the  Gospels  (to  evayyeXiov),  the  Epistles 
and  Acts  (to  dTroo-ToAtKoV),  and  the  Revelation  (17  d7roKaA.vi/^ts). 
In  the   third   century  the  Gospels  were  divided   into  two 

wax  and  written  on  with  an  iron  needle  called  a  stylus  (hence  the  word 
style  applied  to  literary  composition).  See  Is  8^  30'  Hab  2'^  Lu  i^'. 
The  codices,  strung  together  by  a  cord  passed  through  holes  in  the 
upper  left-hand  corner,  were  in  the  form  of  a  modern  book,  in  contrast 
with  the  volumina  or  rolls.  Hence  the  name  was  given  to  MSS.  of 
any  material  in  book  form.  As  the  tablets  were  much  used  for  legal 
purposes,  a  system  of  laws  was  called  a  code. 


MANUSCRIPTS  47 

kinds  of  chapters,  the  longer  called  titA.oi,  or  breves  ;  the 
shorter  Kc^aAata,  or  capitula.  The  latter  were  originally 
introduced  by  Ammonius,  and  were  thence  called  Ammonian 
sections.  In  the  fourth  century  they  were  in  common  use 
in  the  Gospels,  and  to  these  sections  Eusebius  adapted  his 
tables  of  references,  called  from  him  the  Eusebian  Canons 
(a.  d.  315-340). 

Further  notes  of  date. — In  the  year  459  Euthalius,  a  deacon  of 
Alexandria,  published  an  edition  of  tlie  Epistles  of  Paul,  divided  into 
KecpdKata,  with  summaries  of  their  contents.  In  490  he  similarly 
divided  the  Acts  and  the  Catholic  Epistles.  He  himself  states  also 
that  he  introduced  accents  into  MSS.  copied  under  his  supervision 
— a  custom,  however,  which  did  not  become  common  till  the  eighth 
century.  He  also  added  to  the  Pauline  Epistles  the  subscriptions 
(several  of  them  erroneous)  which  are  still  found  in  the  English  version. 
To  make  MSS.  more  legible,  Euthalius  further  divided  them  into  lines, 
called  arixoi,  consisting  in  some  instances  of  as  many  letters  as  could 
be  placed  in  the  width  of  a  page,  and  in  others  of  as  many  words  as 
could  be  read  uninteri-uptedly.  This  style  of  writing  soon  became 
common.  In  the  eighth  century,  however,  the  lines  ceased  to  be 
written  separately,  and  were  indicated  only  by  dots.  In  the  same 
century  other  marks  of  punctuation  were  introduced,  and  later  still 
the  stichometrical  dots  were  omitted. 

About  the  same  time  the  letters  began  to  be  compressed  and  slightly 
inclined.  In  the  eighth  century  these  changes  were  still  more 
marked  ;  in  the  ninth  the  note  of  interrogation  and  the  comma  were 
introduced  ;  and  in  the  tenth  the  uncial  style  of  writing  had  been 
neai-ly  superseded  by  the  cursive.  It  may  be  added  that  our  modern 
division  into  chapters  is  attributed  to  Stephen  Langton  (d.  1228),  and 
that  the  verses  are  due  to  Robert  Stephens,  1551. 

From  these  facts  various  rules  are  deduced  : — 

A  MS.  in  cursive  character  is  not  older  than  the  tenth  century,  or 
in  some  rare  instances,  the  ninth. 

A  MS.  with  compressed  or  inclined  uncials,  or  with  notes  of  interro- 
gation or  commas,  is  not  older  than  the  ninth  century. 

A  MS.  systematically  punctuated,  or  marking  the  arixoi,  is  not  older 
than  the  eighth  century. 

A  MS.  in  uncial  letters,  divided  into  lines  or  accented,  or  with  the 
Euthalian  divisions  or  titles  or  subscriptions,  is  not  older  than  the 
fifth  century. 

A  MS.  with  Eusebian  canons  is  not  older  than  the  fourth  century. 

These  rules  lead  (it  will  be  observed)  to  negative  conclusiona  only. 


48  THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 

When  th«  facts  are  applied  to  ascertain  positive  results,  much  minute 
inquiry  and  criticism  is  necessary,  demanding  the  trained  skill  of  the 
palaeographist.  Only  results  can  now  be  given,  but  the  dates  assigned 
are  accepted  by  the  great  body  of  scholars. 

43.  The  more  important  MSS.  of  each  class  are  the 
following,  enumerated  here  because  all  readers  of  the  New 
Testament  ought  to  be  familiar  with  at  least  the  names, 
dates,  and  comparative  value  of  the  chief  examples  of  the 
sacred  text.  Detailed  lists  will  be  found  in  Prebendary- 
Scrivener's  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament ; 
and,  in  a  more  succinct  form,  in  the  English  translation 
of  Dr.  Eberhard  Nestle's  Introduction  to  the  Textual  Criticism 
of  the  Greek  New  Testament.  Dr.  Nestle  writes :  '  For  no 
literary  production  of  antiquity  is  there  such  a  wealth  of 
manuscripts  as  for  the  New  Testament.  Our  classical 
scholars  would  rejoice  were  they  as  fortunate  with  Homer 
or  Sophocles,  Plato  or  Aristotle,  Cicero  or  Tacitus,  as  Bible 
students  are  with  their  New  Testament.  The  oldest  com- 
plete manuscripts  of  Homer  that  we  have  date  from  the 
thirteenth  century  a.  d.,  and  only  separate  papyrus  frag- 
ments go  back  to  the  Alexandrian  age.  All  that  is  extant 
of  Sophocles  we  owe  to  a  single  MS.,  dating  from  the  eighth 
or  ninth  century,  in  the  Laurentian  Library  at  Florence. 
But  of  the  New  Testament  3,829  MSS.  have  been  catalogued 
to  the  present  time.' 

It  will  be  noted,  however,  that  only  a  very  few  of  the 
MSS.  as  here  enumerated  contain  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament.     Every  fragment  is  counted  as  a  MS. 

The  Chief  Uncial  Manuscripts. 
Fourth  to  the  Tenth  Century. 

w  Akph,  SinaiticuB. — Discovered  by  Tischendorf  in  the  Convent  of 
St.  Catherine  on  Mount  Sinai,  1859.  Fourth  century.  Contains  Old 
Testament  (Greek)  and  th«  whole  New  Testament ;  also  the  JEpistle  of 
Barnabas  and  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  (part).     Now  at  St.  Petersburg. 


MANUSCRIPTS  49 

Published  in  i86a  in  four  vols.,  fol.,  in  facsimile  type  ;  also  at  Leipsic, 
1863,  4to,  1864,  Bvo,  in  ordinary  type. 

A,  Alexandrinus. — Presented  to  King  Charles  I  of  England  by  Cyril- 
Lucar,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  1627.  Middle  or  end  of  the 
fifth  century.  Contains  the  New  and  Old  Testament  (Greek)  from 
Mt  25'  with  omissions  (Jn  6^0— 8^2  ^  q^^^  ^15 — jgS)^  ^Iso  the  First 
Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome  and  a  small  portion  of  the  Second 
(a  homily).  In  the  British  Museum.  Published  by  Woide,  1786  ;  by 
the  Trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  photographic  facsimile,  1879  ; 
and  in  ordinary  type,  i860  (Cowper),  1864  (Hansell). 

B,  Vaticanus. — Placed  in  the  Vatican  Library,  Rome,  by  Pope 
Nicolas  V  (1447-55).  Fourth  century.  Contains  the  Old  Testament 
in  Greek  (with  omissions),  and  the  New  complete  down  to  Heb  9^* : 
includes  the  General  Epistles,  but  wants  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  Phile- 
mon, and  the  Apocalypse.  Published  by  Cardinal  Mai,  in  five  folio 
vols.,  1857  ;  in  facsimile  type  by  order  of  Pius  IX,  187a  ;  and  photo- 
graphed in  1889.  An  edition  was  published  in  ordinary  type  by 
Tischendorf  (1867)  which  follows  the  MS.  line  by  line. 

C,  Ephraemi. — A  palimpsest,  several  works  of  Ephraem  the  Syrian 
having  been  copied  in  the  twelfth  century  over  the  original  text. 
Happily,  the  ink  of  the  later  scribe  proved  less  durable  than  that  of 
the  earlier.  Written  in  the  fifth  century,  probably  in  Egypt.  Con- 
tains fragments  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  all  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  (with  large  omissions),  excepting  a  Thessalonians  and 
a  John.  In  the  National  Library  at  Paris.  Published,  so  far  as 
decipherable,  by  Tischendorf,  1843. 

D,  Bezce. — Greek  and  Latin,  in  parallel  columns.  Discovered  in 
the  Monastery  of  Irenseus  at  Lyons,  and  presented  to  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  1581,  by  Theodore  Beza.  Written,  probably,  near  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  Contains  (with  omissions)  the  Gospels 
and  Acts.  Remarkable  for  its  deviations  from  the  ordinary  text,  and 
for  additions.  In  the  Cambridge  University  Library.  Published  in 
facsimile  type  by  Kipling,  1793,  and  in  photographic  facsimile  in  1899  ; 
also  by  Dr.  Scrivener,  in  ordinary  type,  1864. 

Dj,  Claromontanus. — Discovered  at  Clermont,  near  Beauvais, 
whence  its  name.  Written  in  the  sixth  century.  Like  the  Codex 
Bezae,  it  is  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  supplements  that  MS.  also  by  con- 
taining the  Pauline  Epistles  (with  omissions)  and  Epistle  to  Hebrews. 
It  has  no  other  New  Testament  books.  The  work  of  several  later 
scribes  is  discernible  in  the  MS.  In  the  National  Library  at  Paris. 
Published  by  Tischendorf,  1852. 

These  six  MSS.  exhaust  the  list  of  first-class  uncials.  Some  others, 
however,  though  partial  and  incomplete,  are  of  great  value,  and  afford 


60  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

suggestive  readings.  To  give  a  complete  list  would  be  beyond  the 
scope  of  the  present  work.  Mention  should,  however,  be  made  of  the 
Codex  Basiliensis  (E),  seventh  or  eighth  century,  brought  to  Basel  in 
1431  by  Cardinal  J.  B.  Ragusio,  probably  from  Constantinople.  It 
contains  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Gospels.  The  Codex  Regius  (L), 
eighth  century  ;  in  the  National  Library  at  Paris.  It  also  contains 
the  Gospels,  with  omissions,  and  is  valuable  as  containing  the  double 
conclusion  of  Mark's  Gospel.  Another  MS.  of  the  eighth  century, 
Codex  Zacynthius  (B),  is  a  palimpsest  from  Zante,  presented  by 
General  Macaulay  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  1821 
and  now  in  the  Society's  Library  in  London.  It  contains  the  greater 
part  of  Luke's  Gospel,  and  is  remarkable  as  the  earliest  MS.  with 
a  Commentary.  A  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford  (r),  of  the 
year  844,  containing  the  greater  part  of  the  Gospels,  and  one  in  the 
Vatican  Library,  Rome  (S),  of  949,  are  noteworthy  as  the  earliest 
dated  MSS.  in  existence.  Finally,  the  Codex  Augtensis  in  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  (F),  of  the  ninth  century,  from  the  Monastery  of 
Augia  Dives  (now  Reichenau)  on  Lake  Constance,  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  accompanied  by  a  Latin  Version.  It  was 
published  under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Scrivener  at  Cambridge,  1859. 

In  all,  the  number  of  Uncial  Manuscripts,  of  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  Greek  Testament  now  known,  is  given*  as 
follows : — 

Gospels loi 

Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles      .       22 

Pauline  Epistles 27 

Apocalypse 6 

44.  The  Chief  Cursive  Manuscripts. — A  later  style  of 
writing,  'smaller  and  more  manageable,'  was  required  as 
the  demand  for  New  Testament  MSS.  became  more  exacting. 
The  need  was  met  by  the  introduction  into  the  scriptorium 
of  the  running  or  '  cursive '  handwriting  already  prevalent 
in  commercial  and  other  correspondence.  In  this,  '  minuscule' 
forms  of  the  letters  were  employed   in  contrast  with  the 

*  Kenyon's  Handbook  to  the  Textual  Criticism  of  the  New  Testament. 
Dr.  Scrivener  and  Dr.  Nestle  give  127  as  the  total.  'The  difference,' 
says  Dr.  Kenyon,  *  is  due  mainly  to  an  increase  in  the  smaller 
fragments. 


MANUSCRIPTS  51 

'majuscule '  or  capitals  of  the  older  manuscripts.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  word  '  minuscule '  applies  to  the  smaller  form 
of  the  letters,  'cursive'  to  their  being  joined  together  ;  but,  as 
the  two  generally  concurred,  the  terms  are  often  employed 
interchangeably.  For  about  two  centuries  the  uncial  and 
the  cursive  styles  were  both  used,  but  by  degrees  the  latter 
prevailed  ;  and  it  is  in  this  form  that  the  great  majority  of 
New  Testament  MSS.  have  come  down  to  modern  times^ 
beginning  with  the  ninth  century  and  ending  about  the 
time  of  the  invention  of  printing.  Paper  was  employed 
as  well  as  vellum,  and  these  greatly  vary  in  style  and 
durability.  The  cursives  are  noted  by  Arabic  numerals,  in 
separate  lists  for  the  Gospels  (Evv.),  the  Acts  and  General 
Epistles  (Acts),  the  Pauline  Epistles  (Paul.),  and  the  Reve- 
lation (Apoc).  Manuscripts  containing  more  than  one 
division,  after  a  certain  point,  have  a  separate  number  for 
each  section  (e.  g.  a  MS.  of  the  entire  New  Testament  in  the 
British  Museum  is  '  Evan.  584,  Acts  228,  Paul.  269,  Apoc.  97  '^'j, 
an  inconvenient  method  of  enumeration,  which  modern 
editors  are  striving  as  far  as  possible  to  simplify.  In  all, 
the  latest  list  of  known  cursives  gives  : — 

Gospels 1420 

Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles  450 

Pauline  Epistles     .     .     .  520 

Apocalypse 194 

2584 
But,  since  many  MSS.  contain  more  than  one  section,  the 
list  of  separate  copies  is  reduced  to  1,825.    The  first  accurate 
list,  that  of  Griesbach,  gives  236.     Scholtz  enumerates  469 
of  the  Gospels,  192  of  the  Acts  and  Catholic  Epistles,  246 
of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  and  88  of  the  Apocalypse,  a  grand 
total  of  995.     The  difference  between  this  and  the  foregoing 
number  shows    the   progress  in  research  which   has   been 
made  during  the  past  three-quarters  of  a  century. 
*  Kenyon,  after  Dr.  Gregory. 
£  2 


52  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

For  a  detailed  list  of  the  cursives  the  student  is  referred  to 
Dr.  Scrivener's  Introduction,  Their  testimony  to  the  text  is  naturally- 
less  valuable  than  that  of  the  uncials  ;  and  as  in  many  cases  they  are 
but  copies  of  the  same  examples,  or  of  one  another,  they  cannot  always 
be  regarded  as  independent  authorities.  But  on  the  other  hand  it  must 
be  remembered  that,  in  the  words  of  Dr.  Nestle,  Hhe  text  of  a  late 
manuscript  may  be  derived  from  a  very  early  and  good  source  through 
comparatively  few  intermediaries,'  and  that  '  it  is  possible  to  recon- 
struct a  lost  original  by  means  of  a  comparison  of  several  witnesses.* 
This  principle  renders  the  collation  of  the  minuscules  an  important 
part  of  the  textual  critic's  labours,  while  adding  not  a  little  to  the 
difficulty  of  the  task. 

45.  Lectionaries. — Another  source  of  evidence  is  in  the 
Lectionaries,  or  collections  of  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  for 
reading  in  the  Greek  Church.  These  are  naturally  executed 
with  special  care,  and  in  large  clear  characters.  For  the 
passages  contained  in  them  no  more  valuable  testimony 
of  a  similar  date  exists.  Of  the  Evangdistaria,  or  Lessons 
from  the  Gospels,  more  than  a  thousand  copies  are  known 
to  exist,  and  of  the  Fraxapostoli,  or  Lessons  from  the 
Acts  and  Epistles,  about  three  hundred.  Until  after  a 
further  examination  of  these  authorities,  as  well  as  of  the 
hitherto  uncollated  minuscules,  it  can  hardly  be  said  that 
finality  in  determining  the  original  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment has  been  reached  \ 

Ancient  Versions 

46.  The  Peshitta  Syriac  version  has  already  been  de- 
scribed in  connexion  with  the  Old  Testament^'.  Of  the 
New,  it  contains  the  whole,  excepting  2  Peter,  2  and  3 
John,  Jude,  and  Apocalypse.  Considerable  addition  has  been 
made  in  recent  years  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Syriac  New 
Testament.     In  the  year  1842,  among  the  MSS.  brought  to 

*  There  is    an    interesting   Table   of  these  Lessons   in    Scrivener 
pp.  78-86. 
^  Sew  §  31. 


ANCIENT   VERSIONS  53 

the  British  Museum  from  the  Syrian  monastery  in  the 
Nitrian  Desert,  was  an  incomplete  version  of  the  Gospels 
in  a  MS.  of  the  fifth  century,  subsequently  edited  and 
published  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  W.  Cureton,  then  Assistant 
Keeper  of  MSS.  in  the  Museum.  The  '  Curetonian  Syriac,' 
as  it  is  called,  differs  in  many  respects  from  the  Peshitta, 
and  is  believed  by  the  most  competent  scholars  to  contain 
a  yet  earlier  form  of  the  text.  Another  Syriac  MS.  of  the 
Gospels,  also  incomplete,  a  palimpsest,  was  discovered  in 
1892,  at  the  Monastery  of  St.  Catherine  on  Mount  Sinai, 
by  the  sisters  Mrs.  Lewis  and  Mrs.  Gibson,  of  Cambridge. 
In  1894  it  was  edited  by  the  discoverers  and  Professor 
Rendel  Harris.  This  'Sinaitic'  text  closely  resembles  the 
Curetonian,  and  is  believed  to  be  prior  in  date.  Both  are 
of  much  interest  and  critical  value.  Together  they  form 
the  '  Old  Syriac  '  text. 

Among  Syriac  versions  may  also  be  placed  the  Diates- 
saron**  of  Tatian,  a  pupil  of  Justin  Martyr — a  Harmony 
of  the  Gospels,  with  the  texts  interwoven  into  one  narrative, 
dating  from  about  a.  d.  170,  and  '  the  earliest  Life  of  Christ 
ever  compiled  from  the  original  narratives.'  Tatian's  own 
work  is  lost,  but  an  Arabic  translation  has  been  preserved, 
two  copies  of  which  are  in  the  Vatican  Library.  There  is 
also  a  Commentary  upon  the  Diatessaron  by  Ephraem  the  re- 
nowned Syrian  Father,  which  has  sui-vived  in  an  Armenian 
translation,  rendered  into  Latin  and  published  by  Moesinger 
at  Venice,  1876.  This  Commentary  contains  large  extracts 
from  Tatian's  compilation,  quoted  verhafmi,  and,  together  with 
the  Arabic,  has  rendered  the  work  accessible  to  scholars. 
It  is  of  unique  value,  not  only  in  attesting  the  early  origin 
and  reception  of  the  Four  Gospels,  but  in  throwing  light 
upon  the  original  text. 

Another  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Syriac 
was  made  by  Philoxenus  of  Hierapolis  (Mabug)  in  Eastern 

•  5ia  TcaadpojVf  *  by  (means  of)  four,'  i.  e.  tki«  Four  Evangelists. 


54  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

Syria,  508  a.  d,,  a  century  after  which  date  it  was  edited 
by  Thomas  of  Harkel,  a  successor  of  Philoxenus  in  the  see. 
This  Philoxenian-Harclean  version,  as  it  is  called,  contains 
the  whole  of  the  New  Testament  excepting  the  Apocalypse. 
A  MS.  of  this  version,  preserved  in  New  College,  Oxford, 
belonged  to  the  martyr  Ridley.  The  extreme  literalness  of 
the  translation,  often  following  the  Greek  to  the  violation 
of  the  Syriac  idiom,  renders  it  especially  useful  to  textual 
critics. 

Yet  another  version,  which  has  come  down  to  us  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  Lectionaries,  or  selected  passages  for  public 
reading,  is  called  the  Palestinian  or  the  '  Jerusalem '  copy. 
Fragments  have  been  discovered  in  various  places,  one  of 
the  most  important  by  Mrs.  Lewis  and  Mrs.  Gibson  in  the 
Sinaitic  monastery.     Its  date  is  still  under  discussion. 

An  Armenian  version,  closely  connected  with  the  older 
Syriac,  and  belonging  probably  to  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  contains  some  interesting  features,  but  as  yet  has 
been  imperfectly  examined.  A  copy  of  the  tenth  century 
contains  the  last  twelve  verses  of  Mark's  Gospel,  with 
a  heading  to  the  eff"ect  that  they  are  by  'Ariston  the 
elder.' 

In  the  Egyptian  or  Coptic  family  of  dialects  the  versions 
in  Mcmphitic,  sometimes  called  Bohairic  (Lower  Egypt),  and 
the  Thebaic  or  Sahidic  (Upper  Egypt)  are  the  principal.  In 
Abyssinia,  the  Ethiopic  translation  was  made  when  Chris- 
tianity became  the  national  religion,  about  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century,  and  is  still  current.  This  version  is  included 
in  Walton's  Polyglot,  but  is  too  little  known  to  have  become 
as  yet  of  critical  service. 

47.  For  the  Old  Latin  and  the  Vnlgate  versions,  see  §  30. 
The  Passion  of  the  ScilUtan  Martyrs^,  known  (by  the  mention 

*  Scilla,  a  place  in  that  part  of  Numidia  which  belonged  to  Procon- 
sular Africa.  The  translation  is  by  Dean  Ai-mitage  Robinson.  See 
Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (Clark)  :  additional  volume,  1897. 


EARLY   QUOTATIONS  55 

of  Roman  Consuls)  to  belong  to  the  year  a.  d.  i8o,  is  an 
evidence  of  the  value  already  attached  to  the  old  Latin 
Scriptures.  *  What,'  said  the  proconsul,  '  are  the  things  in 
your  chest  ?  '  Speratus  replied,  *  Books  and  Epistles  of 
Paul,  a  just  man.'  Existing  MSS.  of  this  version  go  back 
to  the  fourth  century  a.  d.  Among  these,  the  C.  Bohiensis 
at  Turin,  formerly  at  the  Irish  monastery  at  Bobbio,  founded 
by  Columban,  is  especially  interesting,  as  having,  according 
to  probable  tradition,  belonged  to  the  founder  himself.  It 
contains  about  half  of  Mark's  Gospel  and  fifteen  chapters 
of  Matthew's.  Of  the  Vulgate  New  Testament,  the  whole 
or  part,  manuscripts  are  exceedingly  numerous,  dating 
from  the  sixth  century  to  the  invention  of  printing.  One 
of  the  earliest  and  most  important  copies  (0.  Fuldensis, 
541-6  A.  D.)  contains  the  Four  Gospels  in  a  continuous 
narrative,  on  Tatian's  plan.  It  is  noteworthy  that  the  first 
printed  book  (by  Gutenberg  and  Schoeffer,  about  1452)  was 
the  superb  folio  edition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
in  the  Vulgate  version,  the  first  example  of  a  complete  book 
printed  with  movable  types. 

Of  the  Gothic  version  by  Ulphilas,  noted  §  32,  the  most 
celebrated  MS.  is  the  C.  Argenteus  of  the  Four  Gospels, 
written  in  silver  letters,  but  unfortunately  imperfect.  It 
is  the  choicest  treasure  in  the  library  of  Upsal,  Sweden. 

The  above  list  comprises  all  the  important  versions  quoted 
in  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  and  will  enable 
the  English  reader  to  follow  the  references  in  such  a  work, 
e.  g.,  as  the  Variorum  Bible. 


Early  Quotations 

48.  A  third  help  to  the  student  of  the  New  Testament 
text  is  afforded  by  the  quotations  in  early  Christian 
writers,    including    also    the    'heretical.'      Reference    has 


56  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

already  been  made  (§§  34-36)  to  such  citations  as  tes- 
timony to  the  Canon.  They  are  of  further  signal  im- 
portance in  rectifying  the  text.  From  this  importance, 
however,  two  circumstances  somewhat  detract.  One  is, 
that  in  quoting  Scripture,  then  as  now,  the  text  is  often 
given  without  verbal  accuracy.  Preachers,  and  even  writers, 
in  citing  texts  from  memory,  often  fall  into  extraordinary 
mistakes.  'Dr.  Salmon  produces  a  remarkable  instance 
of  this  in  Jeremy  Taylor,  who  quotes  the  text  "Except 
a  man  be  born  again,  he  cannot  see  the  Kingdom  of 
God  "  nine  times,  yet  only  twice  in  the  same  form,  and 
never  once  correctly  •\'  How  much  likelier  such  mistakes 
when  the  copies  of  Holy  Scripture  were  far  less  accessible 
than  at  present !  Very  strikingly  do  the  quotations  from 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  New  show  that  verbal  precision 
was  not  regarded  as  essential.  The  other  consideration  is 
that  copyists  of  patristic  writings  were  prone  to  mistake,  or 
to  intentional  alteration — substituting,  for  instance,  a  familiar 
for  an  unfamiliar  reading.  Hence  this  particular  kind  of 
testimony  must  be  taken  with  certain  limitations :  it  is 
nevertheless  valuable,  as  often  showing  the  state  of  the  text 
at  the  time  of  the  writer. 

Such  quotations  occur  especially  in  Clement  of  Rome, 
Tatian  (the  Diatessaron),  Justin  Martyr,  Irenseus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  and  Origen  ;  and  as  witnesses  to  the  Latin  text, 
in  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  of  Carthage,  Ambrose  and 
Augustine.  In  another  part  of  the  present  work,  under  the 
head  of  Evidence,  a  summary  of  this  early  witness  to  the  New 
Testament  is  given b.  The  late  Dean  Burgon,  with  prodigious 
industry,  collected  and  indexed  the  patristic  quotations, 
Greek  and  Latin,  his  MS.  being  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
To  take  four  names  alone,  the  Dean  discovered  quotations 
as  follows,  besides  many  less  certain  references  : — 

*  F.  G.  Kenyon,  Handbook,  p.  207.  *>  Se«  §  67. 


EARLY   QUOTATIONS 


67 


Gospels 

Acts 

Cath.  Epp. 

Paul's  Epp.     Apoc. 

Total. 

Justin  Martyr          268 

10 

63 

43                  3 

387 

Irenaeus                   1038 

194 

23 

499                65 

1819 

Clement  of  Alex.   1017 

44 

207 

1127                 II 

3406 

Origen                     9231 

349 

399 

7778              165 

17922 

49.    Ecclesiastical 

Witnesses. - 

-The    following 

Table 

presents  at  one  view  the  principal  ecclesiastical  and  other 
writers  of  the  first  four  centuries  who  show,  directly  or 
indirectly,  that  they  themselves,  and  the  churches  which 
they  represent,  accept  the  existing  New  Testament  Canon  as 
a  whole,  or  in  its  several  parts. 

The  date  given  is  in  most  cases  that  of  the  writer's  death  (t) ; 
but  sometimes  it  is  impossible  to  do  more  than  indicate  the 
time  about  which  he  flourished  (fl.).  Sects  are  dated  at  the 
time  of  their  greatest  activity.  A  star  (*)  denotes  the  author 
of  a  Catalogue.     (See  list,  §  38.) 

First  Century. 


New  Testament  quoted  as 
genuine  and  authentic^ 
and  as  a  distinct  collec- 
tion. 

Quoted    as     of    peculiar 
authority,  or  as  Divine ; 
expounded    and    com- 
mented upon. 

Appealed   to   by    various 
sects,    and    by    adver- 
saries. 

'  Barnabas,'  Epistle, 
or  second  century  (?) 

Hermas,  Shepherd, 
or  second  century  (?) 

Clement  of  Rome  fioo 

'  Barnabas.' 

Hermas. 

Clement. 

Ignatius  .     .     .     1 115 
Polycarp.     .     .     ti67 

Ignatius. 
Polycarp. 

Second  Century. 


Quadratus     .     .  Jl.iso 

Basilides,  Alex. . 

122 

Papias      .     .     .   t  163 

Valentinus,  Rome 

140 

Dionysius     of 

Dionysius. 

Sethites,  Egypt  . 

140 

Corinth     .     .    f  163 

Carpocratians, 

Justin  Martyr  .    f  167 

Justin  Martyr. 

Alex.       .     .     . 

145 

Melito  *    .     .     .    c.  180 

Marcion     .     .     . 

150 

Hegesippus  .     .   +  175 

Montanists     .     . 

157 

Athenagoras      .  fl.  176 

Tatian  .     .     .     . 

176 

Eucratites .     .     . 

165 

Theophilus(Ant.)t  180 

Theophilus. 

Celsus  .... 

178 

*Muratorian  .     .  c.  196 

Theodotus  ) 

Irenaeus  .     .     .    t302 

Irenseus. 

Artemon    ( 

'93 

*  Fragment. 
New. 


Books  of  <  Old  Testament '  enumerated ;  implying  a 


58 


THE   NEW  TESTAMENT 


Third  Century. 


Ammonius, 

Hermogenes, 

Alex.     .     .fl.  aoo-35 

Carthage  .    . 

tao3 

Cyprian   .     .     . 

t258 

Cyprian. 

♦Origen    .     .     . 

t253 

Origen. 

*Clement,  Alex. 

t2I7 

Clement. 

Tertullian     .     . 

t  220 

Tertullian. 

Minucius  Felix 

fl.  220 

Dionysius,  Alex 

.  t265 

Dionysius. 
Hippolytus  .     .  +  250 

Novatian,  Rome 
Sabellians,Egypt 
PaulofSamosata, 
Antioch    .     . 

t  251 
258 

265 

Commodian .     . 

fl.  270 

Manichaeans, 
Persia  .     .     . 

274 

Victorinus    Pe- 

Victorinus. 

tavensis    .     . 

A  290 

Porphyry,  Rome 
Lucian     .     .     f 

305 
c.  312 

Lactantius    .     . 

t325 

*Eu8ebius     .     . 

t340 

Fourth  Century. 


Eusebius,  Nico.  fl.  335 
Apollinaris, 

Laodicea  .  .  fl.  362 
Laodicean  Council  363 
Damasus,  Rome  t366 
Hilary,Poictiers  f  3^7 


Athanasius  .  .  +  373 
*Amphilochius, 

Iconium  .  .  c.  380 
*  Cyril,  Jerus.  .  +  386 
*Philastrius  .fc  387 
♦Gregory    Nazi- 

anzen  .  .  .  +  391 
Didymus,  Alex,  f  39^ 
Ambrose  of  Milan  1 397 
*Synod  of  Carthage  397 
♦Epiphanius, 

Cyprus.  .  tc.403 
♦Chrysostom  .  1 407 
♦Jerome  .  .  .  t42o 
♦Augustine  .  .  f  43° 
♦Rufinus  .     .     .  c.  410 


Arians 
Donatists 


318 
328 


Julian,  Emp.     .   f  365 


Athanasius  .  .  +373 
Ephraem  Syrus  1 378 
Basil,  Caesarea  .    f  379 

Cyril,  Jerus. 
Gregory  Nazianzen. 

Ambrose. 

Epiphanius. 

Palladius  .  ,  fl.  407 
Jerome. 


Priscillianists 
ApoUinarians 


378 
378 


Pelagians 


41C 


PRINTED   EDITIONS    OF   THE   TEXT  59 

This  evidence  is  sometimes  called  the  historical.  If  its 
truth  be  acknowledged,  it  places  an  inquirer  in  the  position 
of  a  contemporary  of  our  Lord,  leaving  the  claims  of  His 
religion  to  be  established  by  other  evidence. 

Printed  Editions  of  the  Text 

50.  These  editions,  for  all  practical  j^urposes,  date  from 
the  invention  of  printing.  In  preparing  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment for  the  press  it  was  necessary  to  consult  all  accessible 
MSS.,  as  well  as  the  other  sources  mentioned  above.  Hence 
a  succession  of  editions  down  to  the  present  time.  The 
value  of  each  obviously  depends,  first  on  the  extent  and 
accuracy  of  the  editor's  knowledge,  and  secondly  on  his 
ability  and  sagacity  in  deciding  between  various  readings, 
as  well  as  on  other  doubtful  points.  Great  learning,  in- 
dustiy,  and  critical  acumen  have  been  brought  to  the  task 
by  scholars  who  have  undertaken  it,  and  whose  names  and 
work  are  noted  below.  The  result  of  their  labours  alone 
is  given  ;  but  in  a  succeeding  chapter  will  be  noted,  as 
a  sequel  to  the  enumeration,  the  lines  on  which  they 
proceed,  with  a  selection  of  illustrative  examples. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Greek  Testament  did  not  appear  in  print 
until  nearly  seventy  years  after  the  invention  of  the  art  about  1450. 
The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  printed  by  the  Jews  in  1488  (the  Psalter 
in  1477),  the  Latin  Vulgate  by  Gutenberg  and  Schoeffer  about  1452, 
but  the  Greek  Testament  was  first  printed  by  Cardinal  Ximenes  in 
the  Complutensian  Polyglot  in  1514  and  published  in  1521,  and  by 
Erasmus  in  15 16. 

51.  The  '  Received  Text '  of  the  Greek  Testament  is 
founded  on  the  texts  of  Erasmus  and  of  the  Complutensian 
editors,  as  re-edited  by  R.  Stephens  (1550)  and  printed  by 
the  Elzevirs  at  Leyden  ^,  1624,  1633  These  texts  were 
printed  from  a  very  imperfect  collation  of  MSS.,  most  of 

*  The  phrase  '  Received  Text '  is  probably  due  to  the  Elzevirs  : 
Textum  ergo  habes  nunc  ab  omnibus  receptum.'     Pr^ace  to  1633  ed. 


60  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

them  modern  ;    and  there  remained  for  future  editors  the 
need  of  a  much  more  extensive  examination  of  authorities. 

52.  Critical  Editions. — This  important  task  has  been 
the  work  of  nearly  two  centuries  and  a  half.  It  was 
initiated  by  Brian  Walton,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Chester, 
who  examined  for  his  great  Polyglot  (1657)  some  sixteen 
MSS.  in  addition  to  those  previously  collated,  including 
especially  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  and  the  Codex  Bezcc,  com- 
paring also  the  renderings  of  the  ancient  versions.  John 
Fell,  Dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  about  twenty  years 
afterwar(ls,  prepared  an  edition  with  various  readings  from 
about  a  hundred  MSS.  ;  but  his  labours  M^ere  valuable 
chiefly  as  assisting  Dr.  John  Mill,  also  of  Oxford,  in  pre- 
paring his  edition  of  1707,  which  had  occupied  him  for 
thirty  years,  and  was  based  not  only  upon  MSS.  and 
versions,  but  upon  quotations  from  the  early  Fathers ;  con- 
taining also  JPrcHegomena,  in  which  his  method  was  fully 
described  and  vindicated.  Mill's  edition  having  been  as- 
sailed, among  others  by  Dr.  Whitby,  on  account  of  its 
departure  from  the  traditional  text,  the  erudite  Richard 
Bentley  took  up  the  challenge  and  vindicated  the  true 
principles  of  textual  criticism  ;  at  the  same  time  employing 
competent  scholars  still  further  to  collate  the  MSS.  and 
versions  in  foreign  libraries.  Bentley  never  completed  his 
proposed  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  but  among  his  assis- 
tants was  J.  J.  Wetstein  of  Basle,  who  published  his  great 
work  in  1751,  still  valuable,  not  only  for  its  marginal  various 
readings  and  its  Prolegomena,  but  for  its  collection  of  passages 
from  classical  Greek  authors,  illustrating  the  words  and 
phrases  of  the  New  Testament.  Meanwhile  a  critical  edition 
had  been  published  (1734)  by  J.  A.  Bengel,  of  Tubingen, 
based  chiefly  upon  Mill,  and  remarkable  chiefly  for  the 
attempt  to  discriminate  between  the  'African  '  and  *  Asiatic ' 
authorities — a  suggestion  which  bore  much  fruit  in  succeed- 
ing researches. 


PRINTED  EDITIONS  OF  THE  TEXT  61 

The  way  was  now  prepared  for  an  important  advance, 
and  in  1774  and  following  years  J.  J.  Griesbach  of  Jena 
canied  on  the  work  of  his  predecessors,  achieving  new 
and  larger  results.  His  principal  edition,  with  critical 
apparatus  and  Prolegomena,  appeared  in  Halle  and  London, 
1796,  1806.  LikeBengel,  Griesbach  classified  his  authorities, 
but  introduced  a  third  division,  designating  them  respectively 
as  'Alexandrian,'  'Constantinopolitan,' and  'Western';  and 
estimating  the  value  of  any  particular  reading  not  by  the 
number  of  individual  MSS.,  but  by  the  'families'  which 
contained  it.  Griesbach  also  introduced,  much  more  largely 
than  before,  the  best  attested  variants  into  the  text  itself, 
placing  others  in  the  margin,  with  a  system  of  marks  by 
which  he  indicated  his  estimate  of  their  comparative  proba- 
bility. In  the  meantime  other  important  additions  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  subject  had  been  made.  In  1782-8 
Ch.F.MATTHJii,  of  Moscow,  published  an  edition,  remarkable 
chiefly  for  containing  the  readings  sanctioned  by  what  was 
afterwards  called  the  Constantinopolitan  recension  ;  while 
Alter  at  Vienna  (1786-7),  Birch  and  Adler  in  Italy, 
Moldenhauer  and  Tychsen  in  Spain,  and  others  elsewhere, 
were  busy  completing  inquiries  which  were  to  supply 
Griesbach  with  materials  for  his  critical  apparatus.  The 
results  were  embodied  in  the  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
published  by  Andrew  Birch,  at  Copenhagen,  1788-1801. 

The  edition  (1830-6)  of  John  M.  A.  Scholz,  Eoman 
Catholic  Dean  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Bonn,  is 
specially  remarkable  for  its  large  number  of  MSS.  col- 
lated and  catalogued.  He  thus  prepared  the  way  for  his 
successors,  while  his  own  conclusions  are  of  little  critical 
value.  He  adhered,  for  the  most  part,  to  the  '  Constantino- 
politan '  readings.  Dr.  Carl  Lachmann,  of  Berlin,  on  the 
other  hand,  mostly  prefers  the  'Constantinopolitan,'  but 
the  great  characteristic  of  his  epoch-making  New  Testament 
(1842-50)  is   the   value   which   he  attached   to  the  earliest 


62  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT 

authorities,  disregarding  in  great  measure  the  division  into 
families.  His  great  aim  was  as  far  as  possible  to  restore 
the  text  of  the  fourth  century,  wholly  ignoring  the  Textus 
Receptus  as  an  authority  ;  and  where  his  authorities  differed 
he  had  recourse,  more  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  to  the 
old  Latin  versions.  Dr.  S.  P.  Tregelles,  of  Plymouth,  to 
a  great  extent  follows  Lachmann,  his  critical  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  being  avowedly  founded  on  the  authority 
of  *  the  oldest  Greek  manuscripts,  the  ancient  versions  down 
to  the  seventh  century,  and  the  citations  of  early  ecclesi- 
astical writers,  including  Eusebius.  No  account  is  made 
of  the  Received  Text,  or  of  the  great  mass  of  cursive  MSS.' 
His  beautiful  edition  ajDpeared  in  parts  from  1857  to  1872, 
and  an  appendix,  containing  Prolegomena,  was  published  in 
1879,  four  years  after  his  death,  under  the  editorship  of 
Dr.  Hort  and  A.  W.  Streane. 

But  by  far  the  most  important  name  of  the  period  is  that 
of  CoNSTANTiNE  VON  TisciiENDORF,  wlioso  Completed  work 
(eighth  edition^)  was  published  at  Leipsic  1869-72,  followed 
after  his  death  in  1874  by  Dr.  C.  R.  Gregory's  Prolegomena. 
Dr.  Tischendorfs  great  discovery  (1859)  of  the  MS.,  denomi- 
nated from  the  monastery  where  it  was  found  the  Codex 
Sinaiticus  (n),  constituted  an  era  in  New  Testament  criticism, 
and  naturally  affected  his  latest  edition,  the  preceding  seven 
being  superseded.  His  critical  apparatus  is  wonderfully  com 
plete,  and  the  full  citation  of  authorities  enables  the  student 
to  form  his  own  judgement  as  to  the  conclusions.  The  Textus 
Receptus  is  again  ignored,  the  classification  of  authorities 
into  families  is  disregarded,  and  the  editor's  judgement 
is  held  by  many  succeeding  critics  to  be  often  at  fault. 
Tischendorf  was  greater  in  the  collection  and  arrangement 
of  materials,  where  indeed  he  is  unrivalled,  than  in  the 
forming  of  conclusions.     Not  the  least  important  part  of 

*  The  date  of  the  earlier  editions  were  1841,   1843,   1842,  1849,  ^^50, 
1854,  1859. 


FEINTED   EDITIONS  OF   THE   TEXT  63 

his  life's  work  was  in  the  editing  of  ancient  MSS.  Besides 
the  Sinaitic  MS.,  the  Vatican  (B),  and  the  Codex  Ephraemi 
(D),  many  manuscripts  containing  valuable  portions  of  the 
New  Testament  were  edited  by  him,  so  that  he  accomj^lished 
more  than  any  other  scholar  had  done  in  making  the  uncial 
evidence  for  the  text  accessible  to  all  readers. 

The  work  of  Dr.  Henry  Alford,  Dean  of  Canterbury, 
should  here  be  noticed.  His  New  Testament  (1849-61,  with 
a  revised  and  enlarged  edition  1868),  besides  an  exegetical 
commentary,  contains  a  revised  text  with  a  full  critical 
apparatus.  He  generally  follows  Tischendorf,  but  by  no 
means  slavishly,  and  his  work  may  often  be  usefully  con- 
sulted by  the  New  Testament  student. 

The  Greek  Testament  edited  by  B.  F.  Westcott,  late 
Bishop  of  Durham,  and  Dr.  F.  J.  A.  Hoet  appeared  in 
1881 — the  outcome  of  thirty  years'  friendship  and  co-opera- 
tion between  these  two  distinguished  Cambridge  scholars. 
An  elaborate  Introduction  by  Hort  sets  forth  in  detail  the 
principles  and  method  of  the  work.  The  classification  of 
authorities  into  '  families '  is  revived,  but  with  much  greater 
elaboration,  and  the  probable  history  of  growth  and  change 
in  the  text  is  traced  with  much  skill.  The  work  has  been 
prepared  in  all  respects  with  the  greatest  care  ;  and  although 
the  editors  have  not  given  a  critical  apparatus,  which  in 
fact  could  have  added  little  or  nothing  to  that  of  Tischendorf, 
there  are  special  notes  on  controverted  and  difficult  readings 
which  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  the  book. 

53.  Fleas  for  the  'Traditional  Text.' — Such  a  work 
was  not  likely,  any  more  than  the  earlier  critical  editions, 
to  pass  without  opposition,  and  the  learned  Dean  of 
Chichester,  Dr.  J.  B.  Burgon,  with  his  follower  and  sur- 
vivor. Prebendary  Miller,  very  vigorously  maintained  the 
superior  claims  of  the  '  Traditional  Text ' — in  other  words, 
of  the  Textus  Receptus  cleared  from  certain  minor  blemishes. 
Besides  evidence  adduced,  largely  from  patristic  quotations, 


64  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 

the  ground  taken  was  chiefly  the  assumption  that  the  Church 
would  not  have  been  permitted  by  its  Divine  Head  to  accept 
through  many  generations  a  corrupted  Scripture.  In  pur- 
suance of  this  theory,  the  design  was  formed  of  publishing 
this  Traditional  Text  in  its  genuine  form.  The  death, 
however,  of  the  promoters  of  the  scheme  put  a  stop  to  the 
execution  of  the  plan  ;  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  could  now 
be  carried  out,  and  in  face  of  the  accumulated  mass  of 
adverse  evidence  and  the  general  concurrence  of  critics 
of  every  school,  it  could  scarcely  hope  for  much  acceptance. 

Mention  should  be  made  of  the  latest  critical  edition  that 
has  been  published  up  to  the  date  of  the  present  worfe, 
that  by  the  venerable  Bernhard  Weiss,  of  Maulbronn  in 
Wurtemburg  (completed  1901).  Its  chief  characteristic  is 
a  careful  estimation  of  internal  evidence.  He  balances 
conclusions  as  a  practised  exegete,  and  accordingly  demurs 
to  many  readings  which  Westcott  and  Hort  have  accepted 
on  the  weight  of  external  authority,  difl'ering  also  from 
these  scholars  on  the  '  genealogical '  theory.  But  he  agrees 
with  them  in  assigning  the  supreme  place  to  the  Vatican  MS. 

54.  For  the  general  reader,  many  editions  of  the  Greek 
Testament  have  appeared,  which  summarize  the  conclusions 
of  editors,  without  detailing  the  documentary  or  other  data. 
Dr.  Scrivener's  Greek  New  Testament  has  the  Textus  Eeceptus 
(or  rather  Stephens'  1550  edition)  with  the  altered  words 
and  phrases  printed  in  special  type,  referring  to  the  readings 
of  the  Elzevirs  (where  differing  from  Stephens),  Lachmann, 
Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  Westcott  and  Hort,  and  the  Revised 
English  Version.  Dr.  Weymouth's  Resultant  Greek  Testament 
(1886)^  constructed  a  text  from  the  foregoing  authorities,  with 
Alford,  the  Basel  edition,  and,  in  certain  books,  Lightfoot, 
Ellicott,  and  Weiss.  The  verdict  of  the  majority  is  generally 
taken,   but   the    chief   variants    are    given   in   the  margin. 

*  An  English  translation  by  Dr.  Weymouth  has  been  published 
(1903J  since  hit*  death  :  The  Naw  Testament  in  Modern  Speech. 


FEINTED  EDITIONS   OF  THE   TEXT  65 

Dr.  E.  Nestle  published  through  the  Stuttgart  Bible 
Society  a  similar  work  in  convenient  pocket  form  (second 
edition  1901),  which  had  the  advantage  of  Dr.  Weiss's  read- 
ings \  And  lastly,  one  of  the  results  of  the  New  Testament 
Ke vision,  1881,  was  the  publication  of  the  text  followed 
by  the  Eevisers,  constructed  by  Archdeacon  Palmer,  not 
from  an  examination  of  original  authorities,  but  from  a  com- 
parison of  editions.  In  general,  it  followed  the  Keceived  Text 
of  Stephens,  introducing  only  those  alterations  which  affect 
the  English  version.  It  is  thus  convenient  to  the  English 
student,  but  to  others  is  of  little  value.  The  chief  variations 
from  the  Eeceived  Text  are  noted  in  the  margin.  Every 
student  of  the  Greek  Testament  is  thus  provided  with  ample 
means  for  comparing,  if  not  for  testing,  the  latest  results 
of  Textual  Criticism. 

•  A  new  edition  of  this  most  useful  work  was  issued,  in  a  slightly- 
altered  form,  as  one  of  the  Centenary  publications  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  1904. 


CHAPTER   IV 

ON  THE   TEXT   OF  THE   OLD  AND 
NEW  TESTAMENTS 

Textual  Criticism :   General  Method 

55.  Biblical  Criticism  is  twofold. — First,  the  exact 
Text  of  Scripture,  as  it  existed  in  the  original  MSS.,  has,  so 
far  as  possible,  to  be  ascertained ;  and  then  the  Contents  of 
Scripture  have  to  be  examined,  with  reference  to  their 
composition,  authorship,  date,  and  historical  value,  as 
judged  from  internal  evidence.  The  former  process  is 
generally  described  as  Textual  Criticism  ;  the  latter  is 
frequently  termed  the  Higher  Criticism,  a  phrase  first 
applied  to  Biblical  studies  by  Eichhorn  a  century  ago  *. 
This  word  'higher'  is  perhaps  open  to  objection,  as  it  may 
seem  to  suggest  some  superiorily.  Since  it  really  implies 
nothing  more  than  that  the  consideration  of  the  contents 
naturally  follows  the  determination  of  the  text,  a  better 
designation  would  be  *  the  Further  Criticism  ' ;  or,  better 
still,  '  Historical  Criticism,'  to  indicate  its  chief  aim  and 
result^'.      The    Horce    Paulines    of     Paley    illustrates    the 

*  See  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament,  Jena,  1787  ;  second 
edition,  Gottingen,  1803.  English  translation  (in  part)  by  G.  T. 
Gollop,   1888. 

*•  *  Higher  criticism  concerns  itself  with  questions  as  to  the  compo- 
sition, authorship,  date,  and  historical  value  of  an  ancient  document, 
as  these  may  be  judged  from  internal  evidence.  The  term  is  used  in 
contrast  to  lower  (more  frequently  called  textual)  criticism,  which  is 
confmed  simply  to  the  state  of  the  text,  and  seeks  to  ascertain  its 
original  form,  freed  from  the  errors  which  are  incidental  to  the  trans- 


TEXTUAL   VARIATIONS   ILLUSTRATED       67 

method.  That  many  who  have  employed  such  criticism 
have  been  led  to  conflicting  and  erroneous  conclusions,  is 
an  argument  against  the  critics,  not  against  the  process, 
which,  if  legitimately  conducted,  must  enlarge  our  know- 
ledge of  Scripture,  and  so  be  of  lasting  service  to  the  cause 
of  truth. 

56.  External  Testimony  to  the  original  text.  The  main 
sources  have  been  indicated  in  Chs.  II  and  III. 

1.  Tlie  Greek  3ISS.  themselves:  the  object  of  their  colla- 
tion is  to  discover  with  all  attainable  accuracy  the  precise 
words  of  the  originals. 

2.  In  this  endeavour  the  most  ancient  Versions  are  of 
great  service,  since  they  give  us  access,  though  at  second- 
hand, to  a  text  of  considerably  earlier  date  than  that  of  the 
oldest  extant  MSS. 

3.  Quotatio7is  of  the  New  Testament  in  early  Christian 
and  .other  writers  are  useful,  with  all  allowance  for  loose- 
ness in  citation,  in  showing  the  text  which  they  employed. 

4.  It  may  be  added  that  in  numberless  cases  Internal 
Evidence  must  be  resorted  to  for  decision  between  readings 
of  equal  or  nearly- balanced  external  authority. 

Textual  Variations  Illustrated 

67.  The  following  illustrations  will  aid  the  reader  in 
apprehending  the  principles  and  general  results  of  textual 
criticism,  and  will  confirm  belief  in  the  close  conformity  of 
the  existing  Scriptures,  in  letter  as  in  spirit,  with  the 
inspired  word. 

Mistakes  in  Copying,  unintentional.  The  written 
words,  having  descended  to  us  through  a  series  of  transcrip- 

mission  of  ancient  manuscripts.  Thus  the  adjective  higher  defines 
nothing  more  than  the  relation  of  this  class  of  criticism  to  the  other  ; 
and  the  best  descriptive  antithesis  to  iexiucU  is  historical.''  C.  F.  Curuey, 
in  Contentio  Veritatis,  p.  169. 

V  2 


68      TEXT   OF   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

tions,  have  been  inevitably  exjDosed  to  such  errors  as  are 
found  in  the  work  of  all  copyists.  Even  printed  books  often 
contain  numerous  inaccuracies,  in  spite  oi  the  most  careful 
reading  of  proof-sheets  ;  and  in  writing  the  risk  is  much 
greater  than  in  printing,  revision  and  correction  of  each 
copy  being  necessaiy  and  laborious.  The  slowness  of 
the  process  increases  the  probab-ility  that  letters,  syllables, 
and  words  will  be  added,  omitted,  changed,  or  transposed. 
Sometimes  the  writer  transcribes  from  a  MS.  before  him, 
sometimes  from  dictation.  In  the  latter  case,  his  ear  is 
liable  to  deceive  him  ;  in  the  former,  his  eye.  The  same 
word  or  final  syllable  may  recur  at  a  short  interval:  and 
when  the  pen  has  written  the  former,  the  eye  slips  on  to 
the  latter,  causing  the  intervening  words  to  be  dropped  *. 
Long  vowels  are  also  put  for  short,  and  vice  versa  ^  Mis- 
understandings of  the  MS.  from  which  the  transcriber 
writes  will  sometimes  lead  to  error.  He  may  either  mis- 
interpret its  abbreviations,  or  inaccurately  divide  the  words, 
where  written,  as  in  most  ancient  MSS.,  without  pause- 
marks  ;  or  the  MS.  may  in  places  be  wholly  or  partially 
effaced.  Independently,  therefore,  of  design,  these  causes 
of  error  would  be  always  at  work — similar  to  the  mistakes 
produced  in  any  English  book  by  such  errata  as  escape  the 
eye  of  even  a  careful  reader. 

Illustrations  may  be  given  from  both  Old  and  New 
Testaments  ;  the  latter  affording  the  wider  field  ;  thus  : — 

I.  There  are  many  cases  in  which,  from  the  similarity 
of  two  words  in  sound,  the  transcriber  has  fallen  into  error. 

1.  Interchang'e  of  letters  (Old  Testament). — In  Judg  8^^  the  Hebrew 
text  and  English  read  *he  taught  the  men  of  Succoth.'  The  change 
of  one  letter,  tt  to  y,  would  make  the  meaning  *  he  tore  the  men  '  as  in 
verse  7.      So   the   LXX,    Syriac,  Vulgate,   &c.      See  R.  V.,   margin. 

*  The  technical  name  for  this  source  of  error  is  homceotelmton  (similar 
ending). 

^  This  mistake  is  technically  termed  itacism,  from  the  discussion  as 
to  the  correct  pronunciation  of  the  Greek  vowel  ©ta,  and  others. 


TEXTUAL   VARIATIONS   ILLUSTRATED        69 

In  Num  22'^  'the  children  of  his  people'  would  become,  by  the  addition 
of  one  letter  (the  final  j),  '  the  children  of  Ammon.'     So  the  Vulgate. 

A  remarkable  series  of  passages  will  convey  opposite  meanings, 
according  as  we  read  the  same  sound  Id,  'not '  or  '  to  him'  (xb  or  SS)- 
'Not*  is  written  (kethibh),  but  to  him,  or  its  equivalents,  are  directed  by 
the  Massoretes  to  be  read  (qeri).  Thus  Ps  loo'  ^  not  we  ourselves'  is 
variously  read  '  we  (are)  to  or  for  Him  '  =  'His  we  are  '  (R.  V.).  Is  9^ 
'and  not  increased  the  joy'  reads  'Thou  hast  increased  their  joy. ^  Is  49-5 
*  though  Israel  be  not  gathered '  becomes  '  that  Israel  may  be  gathered 
to  Him.'  On  the  other  hand,  in  2  Ki  8^°  the  right  reading  seems  to  be 
'thou  shalt  not  recover*.' 

Ps  59^  '  (Because  of)  His  strength  will  I  wait  upon  Thee '  by  a  very 
slight  change  in  one  letter  (i  to  ')  becomes,  with  the  LXX  and 
Vulgate,  *  0  my  Strength,  I  will  wait  upon  Thee.'  See  Delitzsch's  note. 
As  the  Divine  Name  Jehovah  (prop.  Yahveh)  was  not  pronounced  by 
the  Jews,  copyists  were  apt  to  substitute  for  it  Adonai,  '  Lord,'  or 
Elohim,   'God.'     Hence  many  variations. 

(New  Testament.) — In  Ac  13^^  instead  of 'sufTered  He  their  manners' 

many  MSS.  and  editors  read  '  bare  them  as  a  nursing- father ' ;   the 

difference  only  of  one  letter  {ph  for  j?  {krponocpoprjafv  or  tTpofpofpoprjfTev)). 

Ro   7^  for  rec.   'that  being  dead'  we  should  read  *  we  being  dead,' 

a  difference  of  one  letter  (e  for  0  (^dnoOayouTfs  for  dnoOavovTo^)). 

In  a  few  cases,  the  insertion,  omission,  or  change  of  a  single  letter 
greatly  affects  the  meaning  of  a  passage. 

Mk  6"^'-,  Herod  '  did  many  things  '  or  '  was  much  perplexed,'  a  differ- 
ence of  two  letters  only. 

Lu  2^*  '  good  will  among  men'  or  'among  men  of  good  will.'  The 
difference  depends  on  the  omission  or  insertion  of  the  letter  s. 

Lu  21^^  '  In  your  patience  ye  shall  win  your  souls  '  or  '  possess  ye  *  ; 
again  the  difference  of  a  single  letter  (e  or  a  {KT-qaeadc  or  KT-qaaad^)). 

I  Tim  3^^  'God  was  manifested'  or  'He  Who  was  manifested,' 
dependent  on  a  single  stroke  in  the  uncial  MSS.  (0C  abbreviation  for 
God,  OC  who). 

Rev  1^  '  washed  us  from  our  sins  '  or  '  loosed  us  from  our  sins,'  the 
difference  being  in  the  insertion  or  omission  of  the  vowel  0  {Xovaavn 
or  \vaavTi). 

The  above  examples  may  suffice  to  illustrate  the  facility  with  which 
errors  in  copying  may  be  made.  The  discrimination  between  the 
original  and  the  mistaken  form  requires  the  careful  application  of 
critical  principles,  as  hereafter  stated. 

*  Other  instances  are  Ex  21^  i  Sa  2^  Ezr  4^  Job  13^5  Is  63^  (all 
doubtful ;  see  R.  V.  margin) ;  a^d  Job  41I2  (^jj^jj^  4^  j>g  j^^ic  j>j.  j^7  2^2 
(^'  ftot '  obviously  right). 


7j0      text   of   old   and   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

2.  Similarity  of  ending  {Jiomoeoteleuton)  of  words  or 
sentences  sometimes  occasioned  mistakes.  Thus,  in  i  Jn 
2-^  the  A.  V.  prints  in  italics  the  clause  *  but  he  that  ac- 
knowledgeth  the  Son,  hath  the  Father  ulso/  The  words, 
however,  are  overwhelmingly  attested  (n  A  B  C),  and  were 
doubtless  dropped  in  some  MSS.  by  confusion  of  the 
repeated  phrase  '  hath  the  Father '  (t6v  Trarepa  c^^t).  So  in 
Lu  i8^^*^^ :  both  verses  end  with  *  have  mercy  on  me ' 
[iXi-qa-ov  /xc),  with  the  result  that  some  copies  omit  the 
whole  of  verse  39. 

3.  A  large  class  of  various  readings  owe  their  origin  to 
the  use  of  synonymous  expressions  :  as  '  he  spoke  '  for  *  he 
said,'  in  2  Ki  i^^  ;  *  this  very  world '  for  '  this  present  world,' 
Mt  12^^;  Hhe  messengers  of  John'  for  'the  disciples  of 
John,'  in  Lu  f*  ;  '  to  follow  after '  for  'follow,'  Mk  S^K 

4.  Many  copyists  were  acquainted  with  other  Oriental 
languages,  and,  in  the  case  of  the  New  Testament,  with 
other  dialects  ;  and  thence  arose  great  diversity  in  ortho- 
graphy even  where  the  readings  are  substantially  the  same. 

5.  Ancient  MSS.  are  often  without  stops,  and  without 
even  the  division  of  the  words :  hence  occasional  mistakes, 
though  fewer  than  might  be  supposed. 

In  Ps  48^*,  for  'unto  death  '  some  MSS.  and  t}ie  LXX  read,  by  con- 
necting; the  two  words,  'for  ever.'  And  Ps  25^"^  may  be  read,  through 
a  similar  mistake,  '  Enlarge  the  troubles  of  my  heart,  and  bring,'  &c.  ; 
compare  also  LXX,  and  Heb.  of  Ps  4'.  In  the  New  Testament 
examples  of  a  similar  kind  occur  in  Col  2^*  2  Pet  I^ 

6.  Sometimes  abbreviations  are  wrongly  interpreted. 
Thus,  ^'''  (J)  is  the  Hebrew  abbreviation  for  'Jehovah';  and 
it  means  also  my  :  hence  an  occasional  mistake.  In  the 
LXX  of  Jer  6^\  '  the  fury  of  J '  is  translated  '  My  fury.' 

7.  In  Old  Testament  MSS.  the  copyists  never  left  any 
vacant  space  at  the  end  of  a  line,  nor  did  they  divide 
words  (by  hyphen)  ;  and  hence  they  often  filled  up  the 
line  with  some  favourite  letter,  or  with  the  initial  of  the 


TEXTUAL   VARIATIONS   ILLUSTRATED       71 

next  word,  which  of  course  was  repeated  in  the  following 
line.  '■  For  them,'  in  Is  35^,  is  an  example,  see  R. V.  And,  on 
the  other  hand,  ignorant  copyists  have  mistaken  final  letters 
for  mere  custodes  linearum,  as  they  are  called,  and  have 
omitted  them. 

8.  Sometimes  marginal  readings  have  been  inserted  in 
the  body  of  the  MSS.,  corrective  or  explanatory  of  the 
original  text. 

The  repetition  '  Surely  the  people  is  grass  *  (Is  40'')  may  be  due  to 
this  cause,  and  is  not  found  in  the  LXX.  The  number  50,000,  in 
I  Sa  6^^,  is  supposed  by  Jahn  to  be  another  instance. 

Such  additions  are  more  frequent  in  New  Testament  MSS. 

In  La  7^",  'God  has  visited  His  people  for  good'  {ds  dyaOSv),  an 
addition  in  some  MSS.  and  Versions  in  explanation  of  a  phrase  which 
seemed  scarcely  clear. 

Jn  5'-*.  The  account  of  the  angel  at  Bethesda  seems  to  have  been 
originally  a  marginal  explanation  of  the  healing  efficacy  of  the  waters. 

Ro  8\  The  words  '  who  walk  not  after  the  flesh  but  after  the  Spirit ' 
are  probably  from  th«  margin,  to  define  those  who  are  *  in  Christ  .Tesus.' 

Ro  ii«.  The  latter  half  of  the  verse  appears  to  have  been  added  by 
a  copyist  from  the  margin  to  complete  the  antithesis. 

I  Cor  6^".  The  words  '  and  in  your  spirit  which  are  God's,'  originally 
a  marginal  note,  added  to  make  the  injunction  more  comprehensive. 

Gal  4^^".     The  word  all  is  no  doubt  from  the  margin. 

Rev  si"^*.  For  the  true  reading  *  the  nations  shall  walk  in  the  light 
of  it,'  indicating  the  universal  influence  of  Christ's  kingdom,  some 
annotator  has  added  to  nations  the  explanation  *  of  them  that  are 
saved,'  so  misapprehending  and  limiting  the  passage. 

In  Lu  6^ ,  to  the  words '  And  it  came  to  pass  on  a  Sabbath '  the  Received 
Text  (A.  V. '  the  second  after  the  first')  adds  '  the  second-first '  {dtvTfpo- 
iTfKurq}).  The  word  occuis  nowhere  else,  and  has  been  a  cnix  interpretum. 
The  best  MSS.  (n  B  L)  omit  the  word,  and  their  authority  might  be 
unhesitatingly  accepted  but  for  the  suspicion  that  the  word  may  have 
been  dropped  just  because  of  its  obscurity  :  the  principle  of  Transcrip- 
tional Probahility  (§  62,  2)  makes  it  necessary  to  account  for  its  insertion 
if  not  genuine.  An  ingenious  suggestion  was  made  by  Meyer,  and 
adopted  by  WH  and  others,  that  the  word  is  simply  the  fusion  of  two 
marginal  notes.  In  distinction  from  the  '  on  another  (ertpaj)  Sabbath' 
of  verse  6,  some  scribe  has  annotated  verse  i  *  on  a  first '  {■np'SjTO)).  But 
the  recollection  of  previous  Sabbath  incidents  (4'^  ">*'•)  has  moved  yet 
another  scribe  to  insert  a  corrective  *  on  a  second '  (Scuxf/w)  above  the 


72     TEXT   OF   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

other  margin.  Hence  the  anomalous  SevrfponpuTO),  which  finds  its 
way  from  margin  into  text,  to  the  bewilderment  of  expositors.  Whether 
the  conjecture  be  received  or  not,  it  at  least  illustrates  a  not  unusual 
source  of  corruption. 

See  further,  Mt  20"^  Mk  8^®  9*^  (as  from  a  marginal  reference  to 
Lev  2^^)  Jn  8''^  Ac  15^*  i8-°  20^^  (completing  the  narrative  of  the 
voyage)  28^6.20  Rq  146  i  Cor  ii^*  ('broken')  Gal  3I  i  Pet  4I*  i  Jn  4^ 
Rev  5I*. 

All  the  above  instances  are  specimens  of  many  readings  in 
MSS.  as  well  as  in  patristic  and  other  quotations  %  but  not 
included  in  the  best  texts.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  removal 
of  the  clauses  cited  neither  adds  nor  takes  away  anything 
material,  in  either  history  or  doctrine. 

58.  Intentional  Alterations. — The  sources  of  various 
readings  noticed  thus  far  may  be  regarded  as  accidental. 
Other  readings,  however,  were  intentionally  made,  either 
from  good  motives  or  from  bad.  A  Greek  copyist,  for 
example,  would  correct  a  Hebraism  as  a  violation  of  gram- 
mar. He  would  sometimes  substitute  for  the  original 
Greek  words  which  he  deemed  more  clear  and  easy.  Some- 
times he  would  correct  one  Evangelist  by  another,  or  fill 
up  the  shorter  account  from  the  longer  one,  or  adapt  the 
quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  to  the  text  of  his  own 
copy,  whether  it  were  Hebrew,  or  Greek,  or  Latin.  Or 
again,  some  theological  or  sectarian  bias  may  have  influenced 
the  copjast. 

9.  Thus,  orthographic  anomalies  are  sometimes  per- 
petuated through  a  whole  book  or  section. 

*  The  tendency  to  amplify  Scripture  texts  in  citing  them  is  con- 
tinually exemplified.  Who  has  not  heard  from  the  pulpit,  or  read  in. 
popular  literature,  such  quotations  as  'whatsoever  thy  hand  findeth 
to  do,  do  it  with  all  thy  might '  ;  '  look  upon  vs  in  the  face  of  Thine 
anointed' ;  '  we  roll  sin  as  a  sioeet  morsel. under  our  tongue  ' ;  *  Thou  .  . 
canst  not  look  upon  iniquity  but  with  abhorrence '  ;  *  the  light  of  Thy 
reconciled  countenance';  ^diligent  in  business,  fervent  in  spirit' 
'  where  two  or  three  are  gathered  in  My  nam,©;  t^ejr.e  ^Tpa.  J.  i^  tfc.a 
^idst  ojf  them,  aj^d  tfput  to  plc^s  them/ 


TEXTUAL   VARIATIONS   ILLUSTRATED        73 

The  Hebrew  for  boy  is  put  22  times  in  the  Pentateuch  for  girl  (na'ar 
for  naarah).  The  explanation  probably  is  that  one  form  was  originally 
used  for  both  genders  ;  the  feminine  termination  -cM  being  later  intro- 
duced, but  the  word  being  unaltered  in  the  Pentateuch  owing  to  the 
peculiar  reverence  with  which  the  Law  of  Moses  was  regarded.  See 
Dr.  Ginsburg's  Massora,  vol.  iv,  §  113,  p.  294.  Once  only,  the  later 
orthography  penetrated  into  the  written  text,  Deut  22^^.  The  feminine 
form,  however,  is  given  in  the  qer'i.  Some  Hebraists,  with  less  pro- 
bability, regard  the  case  as  one  of  a  scribal  error  perpetuated.  Thus 
in  Eze  40,  the  ordinary  sign  of  the  plural  ?  {•>  before  suffix  ^)  is 
omitted  in  the  text  34  times,  but  is  restored  in  the  g?ri. 

10.  Sometimes  attempts  were  made  to  improve  MSS.,  by 
making  the  language  more  clear  and  easy. 

Many  passages  of  the  Chronicles,  when  compared  with  Samuel,  will 
be  found  to  give  more  modern  words,  in  place  of  the  obsolete  ones  ot 
the  earlier  writer.  These  passages,  when  compared  by  copyists,  gave 
rise  to  various  readings.  See  Hebrew  of  i  Sa  31^^  and  i  Ch  10": 
2  Sa  72s  and  i  Ch  1721  -.  2  Sa  6'^  and  i  Ch  1529. 

In  Mt  6^  the  word  righteousness  is  thought  to  have  been  changed  by  a 
copyist  to  '  alms ' ;  the  fact  being  overlooked  that  the  precept  includes 
prayer  and  fasting  as  well  as  alms.  In  Mt  9^  a  transcriber  appears  to 
have  altered  'were  afraid'  to  '  marvelled,' supposing  the  former  expres- 
sion unsuitable.  In  Jn  3-^  the  *  Jew  '  who  argued  with  the  disciples  of 
the  Baptist  is  multiplied  into  '  Jews.'  In  Mk  lo^^  the  vivid  '  sprang  up ' 
(describing  the  act  of  Bartimaeus)  is  altered  to  'rose ' ;  and  in  Jn  4^^ 
the  transcriber's  omission  of  'all  the  way  hither'  obscures  the  sugges- 
tion of  the  long  journey  to  the  well.  Many  graphic  touches  of  a 
similar  kind  are  restored  to  the  New  Testament  text  by  criticism. 

Difficulties,  again,  seem  to  have  been  felt  by  transcribers  in  regard  to 
the  negative.  Thus  in  Mk  5^6  the  correct  text  is  '  not  heeding '  (our  Lord 
disregards  the  objection)  ;  and  in  Col  2^^  for  '  which  he  hath  not  seen  * 
read  '  which  he  hath  seen  '  (the  standpoint  being  faith,  not  sight). 

A  singular  class  of  alterations  has  either  changed  assertions  to 
exhortations,  or  the  reverse.  The  principal  instance  is  Ro  5^  '  let  us 
have  peace  with  God.'  But  there  are  several  others  in  MSS.,  as  Ro  6' 
'  let  us  believe,'  6^^  '  let  us  obey  ' ;  i  Cor  14.^^  '  let  me  pray,'  15^^  *  let  us 
bear ' ;  a  Tim  2^^-^^  '  let  us  live,'  *  let  us  reign.'  But  the  weight  or 
authority  is  decisively  against  the  hortatory  sense  in  all  these  passages, 
excepting  Ro  5^  and  perhaps  i  Cor  15*^  on  which  (especially  on  the 
former)  critics  are  still  divided.  Several  of  these  passages  may  be 
ipstances  of  itacism.     (See  p.  68,  note  *».) 

Sli^ht^l:  am^udjpjeots  h^y.e  been  pjade  hj  copyists  i»  the  suppose4 


74      TEXT   OF   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

interest  of  accuracy.  Mk  i',  original  text,  'in  the  prophet  Isaiah'; 
Eph  5»  '  the  fruit  of  the  light ' ;  Mk  s^^  '  an  eternal  sin ' ;  Jn  14* 
'  whither  I  go,  ye  know  the  way '  :  the  disciples  did  not  know  the  end, 
but  they  did  know  the  way  to  it. 

Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  tell  which  is  the  original,  which  the 
correction.  Lu  4**  '  Galilee  '  or  '  Judaea.'  Should  the  latter  reading  be 
authenticated,  it  may  be  an  intereeting  reference  to  our  Lord's  ministry 
in  southern  Palestine. 

In  the  Pentateuch  the  word  for  God  is  plural  (Elohim),  and  is 
sometimes  joined  with  a  singular  verb  and  sometimes  with  a  plural 
verb.  In  all  the  latter  cases  there  is  a  variety  of  readings  :  most  of 
them  (as  in  the  Sam.)  in  favour  of  a  singular  noun  (as  '  the  Holy  One '), 
retaining,  however,  the  plural  verb  :  the  object  being,  probably,  to 
prevent  a  supposition  that  the  Scriptures  favoured  polytheism.  See 
Gen  20'^  35^. 

II.  Sometimes  alterations  were  made  to  suit  a  parallel 
passage,  or  to  make  the  text  agree  with  the  passage  from 
which  it  is  quoted.  This  is  frequently  the  case  in  New 
Testament  quotations  from  the  LXX. 

Lu  4''"  '  to  heal  the  broken-hearted  '  is  wanting  in  several  MSS.  It 
is  probably  taken  from  the  LXX  of  Is  6i^  Mt  12^^  'of  the  heart'  is 
omitted  in  many  MSS.,  and  in  the  VuJg.,  Syr.,  Copt.,  Pers.,  Arab.  It  is 
probably  from  Lu  6*^.  Mt  zo'^-^s  '  the  baptism  I  am  baptized  with,  can 
ye  be  baptized  with  ?  '  is  wanting  in  several  MSS.,  and  in  the  Vulg.j 
Ethiop.,  and  Copt;  probably  from  Mk  io3»-39.  Mt  27-^'  'That  it  might 
be  fulfilled,'  &c.,  is  wanting  in  very  many  MSS.,  the  Syr.,  Copt,  Ethiop., 
and  Arab.  It  is,  probably,  from  Jn  19'^*.  In  Lu  ii^~*  the  Lord's 
Prayer  has  been  assimilated  to  the  form  in  Mt  6.  In  Mt  9^'  the  words 
'to  repentance'  have  been  added  from  Lu  5^^  In  Mt  15*  '  draweth 
nigh  unto  Me  with  their  mouth,  and  '  is  an  insertion  from  Is  29"  ; 
and  in  Ro  13^  '  thou  shalt  not  bear  false  witness'  is  an  addition  to  the 
commandments  quoted. 

In  Mt  19^'^  the  remarkable  reading  (approved  by  most  critics)  *  why 
askest  thou  Me  concerning  the  good  ? '  has  been  assimilated  by  copyists 
to  Mk  io^«  Lu  i8i9. 

In  Mt  11^^  the  true  reading  seems  to  be  'by  her  works,'  altered  to 
'children*  from  Lu  7".  In  Lu  9'^  'My  Son,  My  chosen'  has  been 
changed  to  '  My  beloved  Son,'  according  to  Mt  17'  Mk  9'''. 

The  repetition  (WH  doubtfully)  of  the  'prodigal's'  words  to  his 
father,  Lu  15'^  from  verse  19,  seems  against  the  weight  of  evidence. 
The  son  was  not  permitted,  in  his  father's  eager  welcome,  to  finish  his 
appeaL 


TEXTUAL  VAKIATIONS   ILLUSTRATED        75 

For  further  instances  of  the  insertion  by  copyists  of  parallel  passages 
800  Mt  18^1  (Lu  19^^)  2o'«  (22^*)  Lu  1^8  (the  salutation  of  Elisabeth, 
verse  42,  also  attributed  to  the  angel). 

Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament,  noted  by  transcribers,  Mt  27" 
(Ps  22'")  Mk  is"^^  (Is  53^-).  Ac  9,  22,  26.  and  Ac  10,  11  have  been 
peculiarly  liable  to  various  readings,  i  Cor  15^  'the  twelve'  being 
not  strictly  accurate  (for  Thomas  was  absent),  some  MSS.  read  '  the 
eleven.'  So,  in  Mk  8^^,  some  MSS.  read  'after  three  days,'  and 
others  *  on  the  third  day.' 

12.  Sometimes  a  passage  has  been  altered  wilfully,  to 
serve  the  purposes  of  a  party,  or  to  favour  what  was 
deemed  the  cause  of  truth. 

In  Dt  27^  the  Heb.  reads  'Ebal,'  and  the  Sam.  '  Gerizim,'  which  was 
in  the  Samaritan  territory  ;  and  the  passage  was  used  as  a  reason  for 
erecting  there  a  Samaritan  temple.  In  Judg  18^°  'Manasseh'  is 
written  in  many  MSS.  for  Moses,  to  save  the  honour  of  his  family. 
Is  64*  has  been  altered,  and  is  now  unintelligible.  It  is  quoted  in 
I  Cor  2^  Is  52^*,  for  'at  thee'  some  MSS.,  the  Chald.,  Syr.,  and  Vulg. 
read  '  at  him.'  Such  intentional  alterations,  however,  are  very  rare  in 
the  Old  Testament ;  nor  are  there  many  in  the  Greek  New  Testament. 
In  Mt  i^*  'before  they  came  together,'  and  the  word  '  first-born,'  are 
omitted  in  some  MSS.  and  versions,  in  favour  of  the  perpetual  vir- 
ginity. In  Mk  13^2  i  neither  the  Son '  is  omitted  in  several  MSS.  and 
Fathers,  as  seeming  to  favour  Arianism.  Lu  2^^  the  genuine  reading 
*  their'  is  changed  in  a  few  later  MSS.  to  'her*  so  as  to  exempt  the 
Holy  Child.  Jn  7^  'yet'  is  probably  an  addition,  to  avoid  offence. 
Lu  22*'-**  are  omitted  in  A  B  and  some  other  MSS.,  but  the  evidence 
for  the  genuineness  of  the  passage  apparently  preponderates.  Still 
less  reason  is  there  for  omitting  Lu  23'*,  although  the  verse  is  absent 
from  many  MSS.  Some  passages  seem  to  have  been  tampered  with  to 
favour  ascetic  practices.  Thus  the  references  to  fasting,  Mk  9'^^  Ac  io^<^, 
have  no  place  in  the  best  critical  texts.  Ac  8^^  appears  to  have  been 
added  to  connect  baptism  with  the  profession  of  faith.     See  Ro  IO^ 

13.  There  are  also  various  readings,  which  can  be  ex- 
plained only  on  the  supposition  of  carelessness  on  the  part 
of  transcribers,  and  which  are  not  referable  to  any  of  the 
causes  just  enumerated. 

In  I  Ch  6^'  there  is  an  omission  of  the  name  Joel  (see  verse  33  : 
1  Sa  8-).  The  verse  really  roads  '  And  the  sons  of  Samuel,  the  first- 
born Joel,  and  tha  second  (Heb.  vashni)  Abiah.'      A  singular  instance 


76      TEXT   OF   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

may  be  seen  in  2  Sa  21"  ;  the  words  *  the  brother  of  being  apparently 
omitted  ;  see  i  Ch  20^.  But  the  Hebrew  of  the  verse  in  2  Samuel  is 
evidently  in  some  confusion.  The  name  Jair  i  Ch  20^  becomes  Jaare- 
oregim  2  Sa  21^',  *  oregim  '  meaning  '  weavers,'  as  if  from  the  latter  part 
of  the  verse.  The  430  years  mentioned  in  Ex  12*",  as  the  time  of  the 
sojourning  of  the  children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  is  inconsistent  with 
Gal  3^'^  Gen  12*  i7^'"i  2526.  The  Samaritan  and  LXX  insert  after 
'Egypt*  'and  in  Canaan.' 

Among  phrases  in  the  New  Testament  dropped  in  transcription,  but 
now  restored  from  the  MSS.,  are  '  in  Hebrew '  (Jn  20^^) ;  '  not  being 
myself  under  the  law '  (i  Cor  9-°)  ;  '  even  as  ye  do  walk '  (i  Th  4^)  ; 
'  according  unto  God  '  (i  Pet  5-) ;  '  and  such  we  are'  (i  Jn  3^) ;  "having 
Hie  name  and'  (Eev  14^).  Other  accidental  changes  occur  in  Mt  17* 
'  I  will  make '  (Peter  speaking)  ;  Mk  6'^'^ ;  Ac  3^^°  '  appointed  for  you' 
instead  of  'preached  unto  you';  i  Tim  i*  'a  dispensation  of  God' 
instead  of  'godly  edifying' ;  Heb  10^*  'on  them  that  were  in  bonds' 
instead  of  '  on  me  in  my  bonds.' 

59.  The  readings  which  have  originated  in  these  and 
similar  causes  amount  to  many  thousands  ;  but  in  nearly 
all  the  various  readings  may  be  adopted  without  materially 
affecting  the  sense.  Bishop  Westcott  forcibly  remarks, 
*It  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  the  text  of  the  New 
Testament  surpasses  all  other  Greek  texts  in  the  antiquity, 
variety,  and  fullness  of  the  evidence  by  which  it  is  attested. 
About  seven-eighths  of  the  words  are  raised  above  all  doubt 
by  a  unique  combination  of  authorities  ;  and  of  the  questions 
which  affect  the  remaining  one-eighth,  a  great  part  are 
simply  questions  of  order  and  form,  and  such  that  serious 
doubt  does  not  appear  to  touch  more  than  one-sixtieth  part 
of  the  whole  text^'  So,  again,  to  quote  an  authority  which 
will  not  be  suspected  of  a  conservative  bias,  the  article  on 
'  Text  and  Versions '  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Bihlica  remarks 
at  the  close  :  '  In  concluding  an  article  of  any  length  on  the 
textual  criticism  of  the  Bible  it  is  always  wholesome  to 
remind  oneself  of  the  comparative  soundness  of  the  text  \* 

*  Some  Lefsone  of  the  Revised  Version,  pp.  209,  210. 
P  Encyc.  JJib.  yol,  ^,  p.  50^1,  firU  by  F.  Q-  X>ur^it.t, 


PKINCIPLES  AND   RULES   OF  CRITICISM     77 
Principles  and  Rules  of  Criticism 

60.  It  becomes  then  a  question  of  much  interest,  how 
the  comparative  value  of  various  readings  is  to  be  decided. 
The  answers  to  this  question  constitute  the  Science  of 
Textual  Criticism.  Its  general  principles  demand  for 
their  application  the  knowledge  and  skill  of  experts ;  while 
it  is  yet  possible  so  to  state  them  that  every  student  of 
Scripture  can  apprehend  their  truth  and  value,  with  their 
bearing  upon  each  individual  case. 

From  the  preceding  illustrations,  it  will  have  appeared 
that  textual  criticism  of  the  Old  Testament  materially  differs 
in  many  particulars  from  that  of  the  New.  The  text  of  the 
former  has  been  fixed  by  long  tradition,  all  MSS.  varying 
from  the  one  standard  being  destroyed.  Hence  there  is 
practically  but  one  recension — the  Massoretic ;  variations 
being  noted  in  the  marginal  qe}%  and  the  limits  of  critical 
decision  lying — apart  from  conjectural  emendation,  with  or 
without  the  support  of  the  versions — between  this  and  the 
Mthibh  (written  text).  In  general  the  former  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, but  by  no  means  always,  as  already  illustrated 
(§  57,  i)  in  the  passages  that  vary  between  not  and  to  him. 

The  original  text  of  the  New  Testament,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  without  any  authoritative  revision.  The  collation 
of  MSS.,  with  the  examination  of  collateral  evidence  of 
ancient  versions,  of  quotations  by  early  writers,  and  of  the 
intrinsic  character  of  different  readings,  has  been  the  work 
of  critics  whose  lives  have  been  devoted  to  the  anxious  task. 
The  following  principles  are  recognized  by  all  scholars : 

I.  When  MSS.,  versions,  and  quotations  agree  in  a  reading, 
the  EXTERNAL  evidence  in  its  favour  is  complete  ;  and,  when 
the  reading  thus  fixed  agrees  with  the  nature  of  the  lan- 
guage, the  sense,  the  connexion  of  historical  facts,  and  parallel 
passages,  the  internal  evidence  is  complete.  Where  these 
concui*,  the  reading  is  undoubtedly  genuine  ;  and  this  is  the 


78      TEXT   OF   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

evidence  found  in  the  case  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  Scriptures, 
as  contained  in  the  common  editions. 

2.  When  the  documents  present  conflicting  readings,  the 
determination  of  the  text  is  a  matter  of  adjustment  of 
External  and  Internal  evidence. 

External  Evidence. 
61.  If  witnesses  could  be  simply  counted,  the  task  would 
be  simple.  They  must  be  weighed,  a  process  of  great  in- 
tricacy and  difficulty.  Some  of  the  more  obvious  conditions 
on  which  the  value  of  a  New  Testament  MS.  depends  may 
be  noted. 

1.  Its  age.  There  is  at  least  a  presumption  that  the 
older  the  document  the  older  the  text,  and  one  less  vitiated 
by  successive  copyings.  But  it  is  both  a  possibility  and 
a  fact  that  some  late  MSS.  may  preserve  transcripts  of  very 
early  ones  which  have  since  perished. 

2.  The  age  of  the  text  it  contains,  ascertained  by  com- 
parison with  early  patristic  citations  and  early  versions. 

3.  The  family  to  which  it  belongs.  In  their  support  of 
readings,  the  MSS.  and  versions  are  found  to  fall  into 
groups  ;  the  same  set  of  documents  are  continually  together 
on  the  one  side  or  the  other.  This  fact  has  been  genea- 
logically interpreted. 

By  careful  comparison  of  Greek  MSS.  with  the  texts  used  by  the 
Fathers  of  East  and  West,  and  with  those  underlying  the  Latin, 
Syriac,  and  Egyptian  versions,  three  main  types  of  text  have  been 
determined,  each  represented  by  certain  MSS.,  versions,  and 
Fathers. 

I.  Syrian,  Antiochian,  Byzantine,  or  Constantinopolitan.  This  is 
the  text  of  the  great  bulk  of  uncials  and  cursives,  and  is  virtually 
identical  with  the  'Received  Text'  underlying  the  English  A.V, 

a.  Western,  so  called  because  represented  by  the  Grse«o-Latin 
Codex  Bezae  (D)  and  the  Old  Latin  version.  It  was,  however,  more 
or  less  current  throughout  Christendom,  and  often  agrees  with  the 
Syriac  versions. 

3.  AiEXANDRiAN,   the  text  of  the  oldest  codices  and  the  ancient 


PKINCIPLES   AND   KULES   OF   CKITICISM     79 

Egyptian  version.  It  is  on  witnesses  of  this  third  type  that  modern 
critical  editors  mainly  rely.  WH  distinguished  among  them  a  yet 
more  select  group,  which  had  escaped  the  refining  process  of  the 
critical  school  of  Alexandria,  and  to  which  they  gave  the  name 
Neutbal  :  for  practical  purposes  the  group  consists  of  B  M.  More  recent 
criticism,  however,  hardly  endorses  this  distinction,  and,  especially, 
questions  the  wholesale  rejection  of  Western  authorities  to  which 
W  H  committed  themselves.  A  further  study  of  these  in  the 
Gospels  and  the  Acts  has  already  done  much  to  vindicate  their  value, 
and  to  suggest  that  the  textual  criticism  of  the  future  must  build  on 
a  broader  foundation  than  that  adopted  by  Dr.  Hort  in  his  invaluable 
Introduction. 

When  we  come  to  consider  readings  which  are  "but 
probable,  being  equally,  or  more  or  less  nearly  equally, 
supported  by  external  evidence,  the  rules  of  criticism 
become  more  difficult,  and  the  application  of  them  must  be 
made  with  less  rigidity. 

Internal  Evidence. 
62.  Internal  evidence  is  directed  to  the  answer  of  two 
questions:  (i)  What  is  the  author  likely  to  have  written? 
(Intrinsic  probability),  (2)  Which  of  the  competing  readings 
are  more  likely  to  be  due  to  error,  unconscious  or  conscious, 
of  the  copyists  ?    (Transcriptional  probability.) 

The  general  principle  is,  tliat  out  of  conflicting  readings,  the  reading 
is  to  be  preferred  which  best  explains  the  origfin  of  the  rest.  The 
principle,  however,  needs  mucli  critical  knowledge  and  sagacity  in  its 
application.  The  usual  proclivities  of  the  copyists,  carefully  observed 
and  tabulated,  form  the  basis  of  the  so-called  Canons  of  Ckiticism, 
rules  which  are  serviceable  if  used  as  rough  generalizations  only,  and 
always  liable  to  exception.  The  following,  which  sometimes  overlap, 
may  be  mentioned  : — 

I.  Of  two  readings,  equally  supported  by  external  evi- 
dence, that  is  the  most  probable  which  best  suits  the 
sense ;  or  else  w^hich  could  not,  so  easily  as  the  other,  have 
been  written  by  mistake. 

These  are  the  general  principles  of  Intrinsic  and  Tran- 
scriptional Probability.     In  application,  they  often  conflict, 


80      TEXT  OF   OLD  AND   NEW  TESTAMENTS 

because  the  reading  which  is  intrinsically  preferable  is,  on 
that  account,  likely  to  have  been  substituted  for  one  more 
difficult.     See  2. 

Ao  11'*^.  The  reading  of  many  MSS.  is  'unto  the  Grecians';  but 
probably  it  ought  to  be,  as  many  others  read,  *  unto  the  Greeks.*  The 
fact  seems  noticed  because  of  its  remarkableness,  and  justly  so,  if  it 
was  the  second  case  of  the  success  of  the  gospel  among  Gentiles  ;  see 
jq44.45  foj.  Q^Q  fix'st.  '  Grecians*  or  '  Hellenists'  were  Jeits  who  resided 
out  of  Palestine,  and  many  of  whom  had  already  received  the  gospel. 
The  R.  V.  reads  *  Greeks,'  but  WH  retain  *  Grecians.* 

Some  editors  have  adopted  the  practical  rule  that,  where  the  external 
testimony  is  equally  balanced,  readings  not  decidedly  better  than  the 
Received  Text  should  not  be  placed  in  it  :  but  if  as  good,  or  nearly  so, 
they  may  be  placed  in  the  margin.  This  rule  must  be  specially  borne 
in  mind  in  the  study  of  the  R.  V.  Only,  as  the  Revisers  required 
a  two-thirds  majority  before  altering  the  Received  Text,  many  readings 
were  consigned  to  the  margin  which  had  received  an  actual  plurality 
of  votes,  and  which  are  distinctly  prei'erable  to  those  adopted  in  their 
text.     This  remark  applies  also  to  translations. 

2.  Of  the  readings,  the  one  easy  and  the  other  dificnlt, 

the  latter  is  generally  to  be  preferred :  a  rule  thus  formulated 
by  Bengel:  'Proclivi  scriptioni  praestat  ardua.'  Evidently, 
a  copyist  was  more  likely  to  smooth  away  a  difficulty  than 
to  introduce  one. 

Thus,  '  the  first-fruits  of  Asia,*  Ro  16^,  is  preferred,  as  a  more  difficult 
reading,  to  *  the  first-fruits  of  Achaia,^  seeing  that  the  Epistle  was 
written  from  Corinth.  In  Rev  8^^  eagle  is  decidedly  more  difficult 
than  angel.  In  the  genealogy  Mt  i  Asaph  and  Atnos  are  more  difficult 
than  Asa  and  Amon.  But  in  some  places  the  reading  is  not  only 
difficult  but  impossible,  as  Mt  21^1  'the  latter^ ;  obviously  inadmissible 
(unless  the  reference  to  the  two  servants  be  reversed  in  the  parable); 
and  Ro  8^  '  set  thee  free  ' ;  contrary  to  the  whole  scope  of  the  passage. 

3.  Of  two  readings,  equally  supported,  the  shorter  is 
probably  the  genuine  one,  as  copyists  were  more  likely 
from  intention  to  add  than  to  omit,  although  more  likely 
from  accident  to  omit  than  to  add  ;  and  the  rule  therefore 
must  not  be  pressed  in  every  case. 

For  a  lint  of  transcribers'  omissions  see  §  53,  and  for  their  additions, 


PEINCIPLES  AND   RULES   OF   CRITICISM     81 

§  57,  8.      The  comparison  of  the  two  lists  well  illustrates  the  applica- 
tion of  the  rule. 

4.  Of  two  readings,  the  one  classical  and  tlie  other 
Oriental,  the  latter  is  the  more  probable. 

There  was  a  natural  tendency  to  prune  away  provincialisms  and 
solecisms  in  orthography,  grammar,  and  syntax.  See  especially 
Dr.  Hort's  Introduction,  pp.  148-80,  'Notes  on  Orthography.'  On  the 
other  hand,  allowance  has  to  be  made  for  the  provincialisms  of  the 
scribes  of  individual  documents. 

5.  Of  two  readings  equally  supported,  that  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred which  best  agrees  with  the  style  of  the  writer,  or 
with  his  design,  or  with  the  context. 

6.  Conjectural  readings,  supported  by  the  sense,  or  by 
versions,  may  be  probable  ;  but  must  not  be  received  as 
indubitable,  unless  they  are  confirmed  by  evidence. 

In  Gen  1'  'God  saw  that  it  was  good  '  is  wanting  at  the  end  of  the 
second  day's  creation,  but  is  foixnd  in  verse  10,  in  the  middle  of  the 
third  day's  work.  There  has,  therefore,  probably  been  a  transposition 
of  the  clause,  especially  as  tlie  LXX  reads  the  phrase  in  verse  8.  In 
Gen  4^  the  Hebrew  means  'said  unto  Abel,'  hardly  'talked  with'  (A.V.)  or 
'  tOid'  (R.  v.).  Probably  the  words  preserved  in  the  LXX,  'Let  us  go 
into  the  field,'  have  dropped  out  of  the  text.     (See  R.  V.  margin.) 

In  the  New  Testament  (as  MSS.  and  other  authorities  are 
numerous  and  varied)  conjectural  emendation  is  less  ad- 
missible. Some  modern  critics  have  carried  the  practice 
to  an  utterly  unjustifiable  extent.  It  is  a  sound  maxim 
that  '  the  only  test  of  a  successful  conjecture  is  that  it  shall 
approve  itself  as  inevitable.  Lacking  inevitableness,  it 
remains  doubtful*.* 

If  conjecture  were  ever  to  be  admitted,  it  might  be  in  Ac  20'*,  where 
the  readings  '  God  '  and  '  Lord '  present  almost  equal  diflficulty.  The 
sentence  would  be  in  harmony  with  New  Testament  usage  if  read,  as 

*  Professor  B,  B.  Warfield,  Introduction  to  Textual  Criticism  of  New 
Testament,  p.  209. 


82      TEXT   OF   OLD   AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

Westcott  suggests,  with  the  addition  of  one  word  :  'which  He  hath 
purchased,  by  the  blood  of  His  own  Sou.'  See  also  Lightfoot  on 
Col  2I8. 

Application  of  Critical  Canons 

63.  To  aid  the  reader  to  apply  these  rules,  we  take  as  an 
instance  i  Jn  5"^,  the  *  Three  Heavenly  Witnesses.* 

The  passage  is  printed  in  the  Clementine  editions  of  the  Vulgate,  in 
the  Complutensian  of  the  Greek,  in  the  third  edition  of  Erasmus;  and 
thence  found  its  way  into  the  common  texts  of  Stephens,  Boza,  and 
Elzevir. 

Against  its  genuineness  it  may  be  said, 

I.  That  no  Greek  MS.  of  certainly  earlier  date  than  the  fifteenth 
century  contains  it.  It  is  omitted  in  many  cursive  MSS.,  and  in 
nABGK. 

a.  It  is  wanting  in  all  the  ancient  versions,  except  the  Latin,  nor 
is  it  found  in  the  most  ancient  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate,  the  Codd. 
Amiatinus,  Fuldensis,  Harleian,  or  in  any  earlier  than  the  ninth  century. 
It  is  wanting,  for  example,  in  the  two  Syr.,  Arab.,  Copt.,  Ethiop.,  Aimen., 
Slavonic  ;  though  some  printed  editions  of  the  two  latter  and  of  the 
Peshitta  insert  it. 

3,  Ancient  Greek  Fathers  have  never  quoted  it  in  any  of  their 
arguments  for  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  Verses  6,  8,  9  are  quoted 
more  than  once,  but  verse  7  never. 

In  favour  of  its  genuineness  it  may  be  said, 
I.  That  it  is  inserted  in  some  Greek  (cursive)  MSS.,  in  the  Codex 
Ravianus  at  Berlin,  the  Codex  Otiobianus  in  the  Vatican,  the  C.  Regius 
at  Naples,  and  the  C.  Monifortianus  at  Dublin,  concerning  which, 
however,  it  is  remarked,  that  the  first  is  a  copy  from  the  Compluten- 
sian ;  that  the  second  is  simply  a  translation  from  the  Vulgate  ;  and 
that  the  third  has  the  passage  written,  not  in  the  text,  but  in  the 
margin.  The  fourth  belongs  to  the  fifteenth  century,  or  later,  and  is 
therefore  modern,  being  evidently  taken  from  the  Latin*. 

a.  It  is  found  in  a  MS.  of  extracts  from  the  Old  Latin  (*  Speculum  ') 
belonging  to  the  sixth  or  seventh  century  ;  also  in  most  MSS.  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate  after  the  ninth  century. 

*  Erasmus,  when  reproached  for  omitting  the  text  from  his  edition, 
rashly  promised  to  insert  it  if  a  single  Greek  MS.  containing  it  could 
be  produced.  In  reply  to  his  challenge  a  'codex  Britannicus'  was 
brought  to  light  :  and  accordingly  in  his  next  edition  (the  third) 
he  included  the  passage.     The  MS.  is  identified  us  the  Mont/ortianus. 


APPLICATION  OF  CRITICAL  CANONS  83 

3.  It  is  cited  by  Yigilius  of  Thapsus  towards  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century,  as  well  as  (apparently)  by  Tertullian  and  Cyprian,  whose 
citations,  however,  are  really  of  other  passages.  A  recently  discovered 
treatise  by  Priscillian  (near  the  end  of  the  fourth  century)  also  con- 
tains the  passage. 

4.  It  is  quoted  in  a  Confession  of  Faith,  given  in  the  history  of  the 
Vandalic  persecution  in  Africa,  and  said  to  have  been  presented  by 
a  body  of  Christians  in  the  year  484.  This  alleged  fact,  however,  is 
not  sufficient  to  weaken  the  positive  evidence  ;  and  is,  moreover, 
itself  doubtful. 

5.  It  is  said  to  be  required  by  the  construction  and  connexion  of  the 
passage  :  an  argument  of  which  the  English,  reader  can  himself  judge. 

The  general  judgement  of  Biblical  scholars  is  expressed 
by  Dr.  Scrivener:  *We  need  not  hesitate  to  declare  our 
conviction  that  the  disputed  words  were  not  written  by 
St.  John ;  that  they  were  originally  brought  into  Latin 
copies  in  Africa  from  the  margin,  where  they  had  been 
placed  as  a  pious  and  orthodox  gloss  on  verse  8  ;  that  from 
the  Latin  they  crept  into  two  or  three  late  Greek  codices, 
and  thence  into  the  primitive  Greek  text,  a  place  to  which 
they  had  no  rightful  claim.' 

64.  For  full  discussion  of  other  disputed  passages  it  must 
suffice  to  refer  the  student  to  such  treatises  on  Textual 
Criticism  as  those  by  Scrivener,  Hort,  Kenyon,  and  Nestle. 
A  few  of  peculiar  interest  may  be  named,  for  which  the 
conflicting  evidence  will  be  found  presented  in  a  manner 
accessible  to  the  general  reader,  in  the  smaller  manuals  by 
Warfield  and  Hammond. 

I.  Passages  bearing  on  the  Deity  of  our  Lord. 

Jn  I^^  The  Eeceived  Text  has  'the  only  begotten  Son* ;  but  the 
evidence  is  probably  decisive  for  the  striking  reading  of  E.  V.  margin, 
'  God  only-begotten  '  {fiovoyevTjs  Oeos). 

Ac  so'^^  '  to  feed  the  Church  of  God,  which  He  purchased  with  His 
own  blood  '  (R.  V.>  Here  the  many  variants  resolve  themselves  into 
a  doubt  as  between  '  the  Church  of  God  '  (tou  0iov)  and  '  the  Church  of 
the  Lord '  (jov  Kvpiov).     See  §  62,  6. 

I  Tim  s^**  '  God  (0(6s)  was  manifested  in  the  flesh '  must  probably 

Q  2 


84      TEXT   OF   OLD  AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 

give  way  to  *  who  (6s)  '  or  '  which  (o)  was  manifested  in  the  flesh.'  If 
OS  is  the  true  reading  the  difference  is  simply  between  0C  and  OC. 
Compare  §  57,  i. 

2.  Eetention  or  omission  of  continuous  passages. 

Among  the  most  important  are  the  following : — 

Mk  i6^~^°,  surrendered  by  almost  all  critics. 

Jn  7°^-8^^,  the  section  on  the  woman  taken  in  adultery. 

These  passages  rest  on  authority  of  various  weight.  Even  where 
they  must  be  pronounced  to  be  no  part  of  the  apostolic  text,  they  may 
embody  a  true  apostolic  tradition,  as  in  the  first  of  these  cases.  Per- 
haps the  most  noteworthy  example  of  a  similar  kind  is  one  which  has 
found  its  way  into  one  MS.  only  :  Codex  Bezae  (D),  after  Lu  6"*,  <  On 
the  same  day,  beholding  one  working  on  the  Sabbath,  He  said  to  him  : 
Man,  if  indeed  thou  knowest  what  thou  art  doing,  blessed  art  thou ; 
but  if  thou  knowest  not,  thou  art  accursed,  and  a  transgressor  of  the 
law  *.' 

*  Bishop  Westcott,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  Appendix  C, 
gives  an  interesting  list  of  '  traditional  accounts  of  words  or  works  of 
our  Lord  not  noticed  in  the  Gospels';  the  chief,  of  course,  being 
Ac  2o^^.  With  these  may  be  compared  the  Logia  discovered  in  the 
Oxyrhynchus  collection  of  papyri  in  1896  and  1903,  by  Messrs.  Grenfell 
and  Hunt.     See  §  41. 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    CREDENTIALS  AND   CLAIMS 
OF   THE   BIBLE 

*Thi3  reverence  have  I  learnt  to  give  to  those  books  of  Scripture 
only  wliich  are  called  canonical.  Others  I  so  read  that  I  think  not 
anything  to  be  true  because  they  so  thought  it,  but  because  they  were 
able  to  persuade  me  either  by  those  canonical  authors,  or  by  some 
probable  reason  that  it  did  not  swerve  from  truth.* — Augustine,  Ep.  19. 

'If  those  facts  (on  the  origin,  nature,  and  progress  of  the  Christian 
religion)  are  not  therefore  established,  nothing  in  the  history  of  man- 
kind can  be  believed.'  — Chief  Justice  Bushe. 

The  Claims  of  the  Scriptures  themselves 

In  proving  the  genuineness  of  the  books  of  Scripture, 
nothing  has  been  said  of  their  Divine  authority.  Their 
supreme  claims  must  now  be  gathered  from  the  books 
themselves  ;  and  the  evidences  in  support  of  these  claims 
must  be  next  considered. 

65.  The  Testimony  in  detail. —A  little  attention  will 
easily  satisfy  the  reader  of  the  truth  of  the  following  state- 
ments : — 

I.  The  books  of  Scripture  represent  the  mission  of  our 
Lord  as  Divine.  He  professes  to  be  a  Teacher  sent  from 
God,  and  from  the  first  announces  that  He  is  to  give  His 
life  for  the  salvation  of  the  world.     Jn  8*^2  ^i6  1^8  314-I8. 

In  proof  of  His  mission.  He  performed  many  miraculous  works,  and 
showed  supernatural  acquaintance  with  the  human  heart  and  with 
future  events.     Mt  ii^-e  Jn  5^6  6«4  152*  i63o  Mt  2oi"-i^  Lu  19*2-**. 

Those  who  knew  Him  best  and  were  least  favourably  disposed 
towards  Him  were  unable  to  account  from  natural  causes  for  His 
power  and  wisdom.     Mk  6^"^  Lu  4-^  Jn  7^^ 

His  public  life  was  self-denying  and  disinterested  :  His  private  life 
blameless  and  beneficent,     i  Pet  a^^^s  jyjt  ^-j^.i  ^q  ^q^^  Jn  4°*  6^^  7^*. 


86    CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

lie  was  put  to  doatli  (as  He  foretold)  for  making  Himself  'equal 
with  God' — a  charge  He  did  not  deny  ;  and  after  His  death  He  arose 
from  the  grave.     Lu  22'^*^  Jn  20^^  Ac  i^. 

On  these  grounds  we  conclude  that  His  words  are  to  be  received  as 
Divine.     Jn  12*^-^0  14I011  Mt  if. 

2.  They  represent  the  commission  of  the  Apostles  as 
Divine.  Out  of  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament,  three, 
John  and  Peter,  with  the  reputed  author  of  the  first  Gospel% 
were  Apostles  to  whom  Christ  gave  power  to  perform 
miracles  and  to  publish  His  gospel  to  the  world  ;  while 
James  and  Jude,  '  the  Lord's  brethren '  if  not  themselves 
of  the  Twelve,  were  closely  associated  with  them.  Mt 
ioi-*-'^.«  Lu  96. 

He  promised  to  tliem  in  this  character,  on  more  tlian  one  occasion, 
the  presence  of  a  Divine  Instructor,  who  should  recall  to  their 
remembrance  what  He  Himself  had  taught,  and  impart  a  more  com- 
plete and  permanent  knowledge  of  His  truth.  Mt  lo^^-^o  Lu  12^^-^'^ 
Mk  13I1  Lu  2i^*-i5  Jn  14-T6:  see  also  Mt  28^8-20  ^]vj]j.  1520^  ^^  ^i 
I  Pet  1^2. 

The  Apostles  proved  their  commission  by  miracles,  which  they  per- 
formed in  the  name  and  by  the  power  of  Christ,  and  they  imparted 
supernatural  gifts  to  others,  Ac  3^^  Heb  2*  Ac  5^^-^^  (Mk  i6i^-'*') 
Ac  8^--'. 

Their  mission  was  attested  by  holy  self-denial  and  integrity  of  pur- 
pose, and  by  the  rapid  and  (humanly  speaking)  the  unaccountable 
success  of  their  ministrations.     Ac  2*'-  4-^  5^^  12-*. 

We  therefore  conclude  that  Divine  authority  is  claimed  for  the 
teachings  of  Matthew,  John,  Peter,  James,  and  Jude.  Jn  14^^"^*  20^^ 
I  Jn  4''. 

The  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke  were  written  by  companions  of  the 
Apostles  :  Mark,  the  convert  of  Peter  (i  Pet  5^2),and  Luke,  the  intimate 
friend  of  Paul  (Ac  2o''-'',&c.).  Papias  (llourished  no),  Justin  (died  164), 
Irenaeus  (a.  d.  180),  and  Ori'gen,  all  spe:ik  of  Mark's  Gospel  as  commonly 
received,  and  as  having  been  dictated  or  sanctioned  by  Peter. 

I<uke  and  Paul  resided  in  Palestine  for  two  years,  travelled  together 
during  a  large  part  of  the  Apostle's  journeys,  and  were  together  duinng 
Paul's  imprisonment  at  Rome.     Ac  21^^  27^  28^^  Col  4^*  2  Tim  4'^. 

Irenaeus,  Tertullian,  and  Origen  speak  of  Luke's  Gospel  as  univer- 
sally received  and  as  sanctioned  by  Paul. 

*  See  Introduction  to  Matthew,  Part  II. 


CLAIMS  OF  THE  SCRIPTUEES  THEMSELVES     87 

3.  They  represent  the  commission  of  Paul  as  Divine. 

He  was  called  to  the  apostolic  ojBfice,  claimed  apostolic 
authority,  vindicated  his  claims  by  miracles,  imparted  super- 
natural gifts,  manifested  the  utmost  disinterestedness,  sub- 
mitted to  the  severest  sufferings,  was  acknowledged  by  the 
rest  of  the  Apostles,  and  was  eminently  successful.  He 
therefore  claims  to  speak  in  Christ's  name,  and  his  words 
have  Divine  authority,  i  Cor  15^  Ac  9^^"^^  26^^"^^  2  Cor 
Ii5  Gal  1I-12  I  Cor  210-12  ^4o  r^  j^^^-^^  2  Cor  12^2  Ac  19^ 
2  Tim  113.U  2  Cor  i^  Gal  2^-^    2  Cor  ii*-^  2  Cor  5I8-20 

I  Th  2^3. 

4.  They  represent  the  apostolic  writings  generally  as 
Divine.  The  apostolic  writings  were  composed  by  Divine 
command,  and  in  fulfilment  of  the  commission  their  writers 
had  received,  i  Th  4^^  i  Tim  4}  Kev  i^^  Jn  20'^^  i  Jn  5^^ 
I  Cor  142"^. 

The  ApostiGs  had  the  same  object  in  view  in  their  writings  as  in 
their  preaching.     Jude  3  Heb  13^^  i  Jn  2^2^ 

The  writings  of  the  Apostles  set  forth  their  verbal  instructions  in 
a  permanent  and  condensed  form,  and  they  claim  for  both  the  same 
authority.  Eph  3^-5  i  Jn  i^"^  2^^'^*  a  Pet  i"-i5  3^-2  2  Th  2^*  3^^ 
I  Cor  15^  (2^3), 

The  writings  of  the  Apostles  were  received  by  the  first  Christians  as 
of  equal  authority  with  their  preaching,  and  produced  similar  eflfects. 
Ac  i5"-3i  16*  2'Cor78-io  2  Th  z\  Compare  2  Pet  3^510  'the  oUw 
Scriptures.' 

66.  Testimony  of  the  New  Testament  to  the  Old. — 
5.    The  Jewish  religion  and  the  Jewish  Scripture  are 

represented  in  the  New  Testament  as  Divine.  Christ 
Himself  and  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  uniformly 
assume  that  the  religion  of  the  Jews  was  from  God.  See 
the  words  of  Christ  in  Jn  4--,  of  Peter  in  Ac  3^^,  of  Paul 
in  Eo  9*. 

They  acknowledge  the  Divine  origin  of  the  revelation  given  to 
Abraham  and  to  Moses.  To  Abraham  :  Christ,  in  Jn  8'^ ;  Peter,  in 
Ac  325  ;  Paul,  in  Gal  3^^  To  Moses  :  Christ,  in  Mk  122^ ;  John,  in 
Jn  i^'^  ;  Paul,  in  2  Cor  3'^. 


88     CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

They  acknowledge  the  Divine  authority  of  the  moral  law  and  the 
Divine  origin  of  the  Jewish  ritual  and  of  the  civil  enactments  of  the 
Mosaic  Law.  Ritual  law  :  Christ,  in  Lu  22^^-^'' ;  Peter,  in  i  Pet  i^^-is 
(from  Lev  11**);  Paul,  in  Ro  72-  (see  verses  7,  12).  Civil  law.  Christ, 
in  Mt  15*  ;  John,  in  Jn  19^^ ;  Paul,  in  i  Cor  9^-'. 

They  represent  Christianity  as  the  completion  of  Judaism,  and  as 
for  .oold  by  the  prophets.  The  Old  Testament  writers  at  the  same 
t" me  acknowledge  that  what  they  spoke  or  wrote  was  given  to  them 
from  God,  and  published  by  His  command.  Christ,  in  Mt  5^^  26**"^^ ; 
Peter,  in  Ac  10"  ;  Paul,  in  Ko  321  a  Cor  aS-i*.  See  Ex  4I2.15.16  d^  igis 
Jer  i'^  Am  3^,  &c. 

They  maintain  the  Divine  authority  of  the  ancient  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures under  the  threefold  division  of  the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the 
Psalms,  and  under  other  equally  familiar  titles,  ascribing  all  to  the 
Holy  Ghost.  Mt  22'o  Heb  13*^  Ac  2825  Jn  10°^  Gal  3^  Heb  3^  (comp.  4^) 
I  Pet  ii\ 

'  The  Bible  of  the  Jews  in  our  Lord's  time  was  practically  our  Old 
Testament.  For  us  its  supreme  sanction  is  that  which  it  received 
from  Christ  Himself.  It  was  the  Bible  of  His  education  and  the 
Bible  of  His  ministry.  He  took  for  granted  its  fundamental  doctrines 
about  creation,  about  man,  and  about  righteousness ;  about  God's 
Providence  of  the  world,  and  His  purposes  of  grace  through  Israel. 
He  accepted  its  history  as  the  preparation  for  Himself,  and  taught  His 
disciples  to  find  Him  in  it.  He  used  it  to  justify  His  misfsion  and  to 
illuminate  the  mystery  of  His  Cross.  He  drew  from  it  many  of  the 
examples  and  most  of  the  categories  of  His  gospel.  He  re-enforced  the 
essence  of  its  law  and  restored  many  of  its  ideals.  But,  above  all,  He 
fed  His  own  soul  with  its  contents,  and  in  the  great  crises  of  His  life 
sustained  Himself  upon  it  as  upon  the  living  and  sovereign  Word  of 
God.  These  are  the  highest  external  proofs — if,  indeed,  we  can  call 
them  external— for  the  abiding  validity  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
life  and  doctrine  of  Christ's  Church.  What  was  indispensable  to  the 
Redeemer  must  always  be  indispensable  to  the  redeemed  ".' 

67.  Genuineness  involves  Authenticity.  All  that  has 
been  advanced  thus  far  on  the  authority  of  Scripture  is 
taken  from  Scripture  itself.  We  have  already  seen  that 
if  Scripture  is  genuine,  it  is  likewise  authentic. 

The  truth  of  the  general  narrative  is  involved  in  the  very 
proofs  of  the  genuineness  of  the  record.     For  the  books  are 

*  Prof.  G.  Adam  Smith,  Modern  Criticism  and  the  Preaching  qf  the  Olci 
Testament,  p.  11. 


CLAIMS  OF  THE  SCKIPTUKES  THEMSELVES    80 

quoted  and  copied  as  history,  and  were  received  as  such, 
while  witnesses  of  most  of  the  transactions  they  describe 
were  living.  That  Palestine  was  under  the  Eoman  yoke, 
that  during  the  reign  of  Herod  Christ  was  born,  that  He 
professed  to  be  a  teacher  sent  from  God,  that  He  claimed  the 
power  of  working  miracles,  that  these  miracles  were  always 
beneficent,  that  they  sustained  a  morality  altogether  un- 
known to  the  Gentiles,  and  novel  even  to  the  Jews,  that  He 
had  several  followers,  that  He  was  put  to  death  under 
Pontius  Pilate,  that  many  hundreds,  believing  Him  to  have 
risen  from  the  dead,  became  His  disciples,  that  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years  His  disciples  were  scattered  over  the  whole 
Roman  world,  that,  in  short,  all  the  main  statements  of  the 
Gospel  history  are  facts,  is  involved  in  the  truth  of  the 
narrative  independently  of  that  spiritual  significance  which 
is  a  matter  of  interpretation. 

Testimonies. — The  attestation  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
Testament  history,  already  briefly  noted  in  §§  35-38,  may  be  thus  sum- 
marized. In  the  first  four  centuries  we  have  upwards  of  fifty  authors 
who  testify  to  facts  told  or  implied  in  the  gospel  narrative.  The 
whole  or  fragments  of  the  writings  of  these  authors  remain.  The 
writings  of  about  fifty  others  referred  to  by  Jerome  (a.  d.  392)  have 
perished.  These  authors  belong  to  all  parts  of  the  world,  from  the 
Euphrates  to  the  Pyrenees,  from  Northern  Germany  to  the  African 
Sahara.  They  speak  the  Syrian,  the  Greek,  and  the  Latin  tongues. 
They  represent  the  belief  of  large  bodies  of  professed  Christians,  and 
no  less  the  admissions  of  multitudes  who  were  not  Christians.  They 
agree  in  quoting  Scripture  as  genuine  and  true.  They  refer  to  it  as 
a  distinct  volume,  universally  received.  They  comment  upon  it  and 
expound  it.  They  refer  to  it  as  Divine.  Versions  from  very  early 
times  attest  the  reception  of  the  books  in  the  various  churches. 
Heretics  who  separated  from  the  great  body  of  the  faithful  received 
the  narrative  of  the  facts,  and  differed  only  on  the  doctrines  which 
they  supposed  those  facts  to  embody;  and  even  infidels  who  denied 
the  faith  founded  their  denial  upon  the  very  facts  which  our  present 
record  contains.  '  At  a  time  when  some  have  doubted  whether  our 
Gospels  were  born  their  children  were  already  full  grown.'  So  general 
had  a  belief  of  the  facts  of  the  gospel  become,  that  we  find  Justin 
Martyr  (c.  Tryph.  cxvii.)  observing  that  in  every  nation  prayers  and 


90     CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

thanksgivings  were  offered  to  tlie  Father  by  the  name  of  Jesus  ;  while 
only  fifty  years  later  Tertullian  states  that  in  almost  every  city 
Christians  formed  the  majority. 

Heathen  and  Jewish  wi-iters,  "svithout  speaking  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  without  giving  direct  evidence  therefore  of  its  genuineness, 
confirm  in  a  general  way  the  narratives  of  the  life  of  our  Lord  and  of 
His  disciples,  or  incidentally  illustrate  them.  Josephus  in  his 
Antiquities  (c.  A.  D.  93),  Tacitus  in  his  History  (a.  d.  100),  Suetonius  in 
his  Biographies  (a.  d.  117),  Juvenal  in  his  Satires  (c.  a.  d.  96),  and  Pliny 
in  his  Letters  (a.  d.  103),  severally  confirm  historical  statements  of 
the  sacred  story.  Indeed  there  is  no  transaction  of  ancient  history 
that  can  exhibit  more  than  a  fraction  of  the  evidence  by  which  the 
narrative  of  the  Gospels  is  sustained. 

See  the  passages  quoted  in  Lardner's  Credibility. 

Evidence:   General  View 

C8.  The  Evidence  Classified. — i.  Presumptive.  Ad- 
mitting the  existence  of  a  Being  of  infinite  power  and 
goodness,  there  are  strong  probabilities  that  He  would  not 
leave  His  creatures  in  ignorance  and  misery  ;  and  proba- 
bilities no  less  strong  that  any  communication  from  Him 
would  contain  a  distinct  reference  to  their  condition,  and 
would  present  analogies  to  other  works  of  the  Creator. 
These  probabilities  form  the  presumptive  evidence  of  reve- 
lation. 

2.  Positive.  Evidence  founded  on  revelation  itself  is 
called  positive. 

(i)  External.  A  message  from  another  is  evidently 
susceptible  of  a  twofold  evidence  of  truth  ;  viz.  credentials 
supplied  by  the  messenger,  and  peculiarities  or  marks  in  the 
message  itself.  The  credentials  are  external,  and  the  marks 
are  internal.  In  the  case  of  Scripture  the  miraculous  and  the 
prophetic  evidences  are  external,  the  moral  and  spiritual 
are  internal.  Each  kind  of  evidence  abounds  in  directly 
spiritual  instruction.  Miracles  prove  at  least  that  physical 
nature  is  not  fate,  nor  a  merely  material  constitution  of 
things.     Prophecy  proves   that   the    world    of    nature  and 


EVIDENCE  :    GENERAL  VIEW  91 

man  is  governed  by  a  free  and  Almighty  hand.  Grave 
questions  of  natural  religion  are  thus  settled  in  the  evi- 
dences of  the  revealed.  The  spiritual  truth  wrapped  up 
both  in  prophecy  and  miracles,  and  the  obviously  holy 
tendency  of  the  moral  evidence  of  the  Bible,  will  be  apparent 
in  the  whole  course  of  the  argument.  Contrary  to  what  is 
sometimes  affirmed,  the  devout  study  of  the  Christian 
evidences  may  become  the  means  of  spiritual  improvement. 

Sylla"bxis  of  evidences.     The  different  evidences,  then,  of 
the  truth  of  Scripture  may  be  arranged  as  follows  : — 

i.  EXTERNAL  Evidence  :  appealing  to  our  senses. 

1.  Direct  :  as  in  the  miracles  of  our  Lord,  Jn  3-  5^® 

2.  Retrospective  :  as  in  the  connexion  of  Christ  with 

the  miracles  and  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament, 
Lu  2426.27  Jn  54-^. 

3.  Prospective  :  as  in  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy  since 

the  days  of  our  Lord,  Jn  14^^. 

■     ii.  INTERNAL  :  which  is  either 

a.  Moral  :  appealing  to  our  conscience  ;  consisting 
of  the 

1.  Moral  precepts  of  the  Bible. 

2.  Character  of  our  Lord  and  of  the  inspired 

writers. 

3.  Character  and  lives  of  the  early  Christians, 

and  the  general  influence  of  truth. 
or  J).   Spiritual  :    appealing  to  our  intellectual  per 
ceptions  and  to  our  new  nature  generally.     Is 
includes 
I.  The  Scriptural  or  Literary,  or  the  wisdom, 
and  harmony  of  revealed  truth, 
(i)  In  its  different  dispensations. 


92     CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

(2)  In  the  various  parts  of  the  record. 

(3)  With  nature. 

2.  The   Experimental.     The    Gospel    felt    to    be 

adapted  to  our  wants. 
3    The  Spiritual  properly  so  called.     The  Bible 

consistent  with  the  character  and  purpose  of 

God. 

External  Evidence*     L  Miracle 

69.  Miracles.  The  success  of  the  gospel  is  connected  in 
Scripture,  and  by  all  ancient  Christian  writers,  with  the 
possession,  on  the  part  of  our  Lord,  of  miraculous  power. 

Two  Questions.  The  evidence  based  upon  our  Lord's 
miracles  naturally  divides  itself  into  two  parts  :  the  evidence 
for  Miracles  ;  did  they  really  happen  ?  and  the  evidence  of 
Miracles  ;  what  do  they  prove  ?  The  stress  of  the  argument 
has  at  different  times  been  laid  upon  each  question  in  turn. 
Perhaps  the  modern  tendency  has  been  rather  to  consider  the 
former.     But  both  are  important. 

Exploded  Objections,  i.  The  Miracles  of  Christ  were 
well-attested  facts.  The  proof  of  their.occurrence  has  passed 
through  many  phases,  to  meet  the  ever-changing  forms  of 
scepticism.  Many  once  familiar  adverse  arguments  are  now 
exploded.  It  is  no  longer  possible  to  maintain  that  miracles 
are  impossible  in  the  nature  of  things  %  or  that  the  record 
of  miracles  is  due  to  conscious  deception  or  imposture,  or 
that  miracle  could  not  be  proved  by  testimony. 

The    *  rationalistic  ^ '   and    the    '  mythical  '    theories    of 

*  *  No  one  is  entitled  to  say  a  priori  that  any  given  so-called  miracu- 
lous event  is  impossible.'  Prof.  Huxley,  Essays  upon  some  Controverted 
To2>ics. 

^  The  rationalist  school,  of  whom  Paulus  was  the  type,  endeavoured 
to  explain  the  miracles  as  ordinary  facts  exaggerated  or  misconceived. 
Thus,  the  turning  of  the  water  into  wine  meant  but  a  genial  way  of 
making  a  present  to  the  newly-married  couple  ;  the  walking  on  the 


EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE:   MIRACLE  93 

miracle  have  alike  disappeared ;  and  so  far  at  least  the 
ground  is  clear  ^  The  question  that  remains  is  whether  for 
these  wonderful  facts  there  is  adequate  testimony  ;  and  this 
witness,  it  may  be  added,  is  to  be  considered  in  the  light  of 
an  antecedent  probability,  of  which  the  Christian  thinker 
must  not  lose  sight — that  the  greatness  of  the  purpose  to  be 
accomplished  in  the  redemption  of  man  was  such  as  to 
warrant  the  expectation  of  a  special  Divine  interposition. 
For  miracle,  rightly  considered,  is  not  a  violation  of  the 
laws  of  Nature,  as  sometimes  thoughtlessly  stated,  but 
a  Divine  act,  by  which  He  Who  governs  Nature  puts  forth 
His  power  in  an  extraordinary  way,  for  a  worthy  purpose. 

70.  The  Evangelic  Testimony.  The  ev-angelic  history 
declares  that  such  acts  were  wrought  by  Jesus  Christ. 
Every  argument  therefore  by  which  on  general  grounds  the 
history  is  proved  to  be  true,  so  far  attests  the  miracles.  In 
fact,  the  veracity  of  the  record  stands  or  falls  with  miracle. 
To  His  works  our  Lord  repeatedly  appealed,  as  works  which 
none  other  man  did,  and  as  an  evidence  of  His  mission. 

sea  was  really  walking  on  the  shore,  as  seen  by  the  spectators  from  the 
lake ;  the  coin  in  the  fish's  mouth  was  tlie  price  of  fish  caught  by  the 
disciples  and  sold  in  the  market ! — and  so  on.  Dean  Mansel  justly 
says  of  this  theory  that  it  '  breaks  down  under  the  sheer  weight  of  its 
cumbrous  and  awkward  explanations.' 

*  The  mythical  theory  of  Strauss  and  his  followers  was  that  meta- 
phor and  allegory  were  prosaically  turned  into  fact.  Thus  the  descrip- 
tion of  Christ's  disciples  as  fishers  of  men  took  shape  in  the  stories  of 
the  miraculous  draught  of  fishes  ;  the  illumination  by  Christ  of  the 
darkened  understanding  gave  rise  to  the  narratives  of  the  opening  of 
blind  men's  eyes ;  as  though  it  were  possible  that  a  mythical  system 
should  grow  up  unchallenged  and  uncontradicted  in  that  era  of  the 
world's  history !  There  seem  some  indications  of  the  revival  of 
the  long-abandoned  hypothesis.  Thus,  the  healing  of  the  man  by  the 
Pool  of  Bethesda  is  made  out  to  be  a  transformed  parable  of  the  state 
of  the  Jewish  people,  crippled  and  restored — for  had  not  the  man  been 
suffering  for  thirty-eight  years,  and  were  not  the  Israelites  thirty- 
eight  years  in  the  wilderness  before  entering  the  Land  of  Promise? 
A  wonderful  coincidence  ! 


94     CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

He  raised  the  dead,  He  healed  the  sick,  not  once  only,  but 
in  many  cases  not  individually  recorded  ;  for  it  is  said 
frequently  that  they  brought  sick  people  unto  Him,  and  that 
He  healed  them  all.  Mt  4^^  12^5  14I4  j^so  1^2  ^g.,  Mk  i^^  3I0 
Lu  6^7  9I1. 

He  is  declared  to  have  given  similar  power  to  His  disciples, 
first  to  the  Twelve,  and  then  to  the  seventy.  After  His 
departure  His  Apostles  received  the  power  of  bestowing  this 
miraculous  gift  on  those  upon  whom  they  laid  their  hands  ; 
so  that  many  others  were  thus  endowed.  It  is  certain  that 
the  Apostles  speak  of  it  as  a  fact  familiarly  known,  and 
reckon  it  among  the  signs  of  a  Divinely  appointed  teacher. 

The  Testimony  sustained. — In  truth  this  evidence  can 
be  set  aside  only  by  supposing  a  miracle  greater  than  all. 
If  Christ  were  not  from  God,  we  have  a  Jewish  peasant 
changing  the  religion  of  the  world,  weaving  into  the  story  of 
his  life  the  fulfilment  of  ancient  predictions,  and  a  morality 
of  the  purest  order,  as  unlike  the  traditional  teaching  of  his 
countrymen  as  it  was  superior  to  the  precepts  of  Gentile  philo- 
sophy ;  enduring  with  composure  the  most  intense  sufi"ering, 
and  inducing  his  followers  to  submit  to  similar  privations, 
and  many  of  them  to  a  cruel  death,  in  support  not  of  opinions 
but  of  the  alleged  fact  of  his  miraculous  resurrection. 

We  have  then  these  followers,  '  unlearned  men,'  going 
forth  and  discoursing  on  the  sublimest  themes,  persuading 
the  occupiers  of  Koman  and  Grecian  cities  to  cast  away 
their  idols,  to  renounce  the  religion  of  their  fathers,  to 
reject  the  instructions  of  their  philosophy,  and  to  receive 
instead,  as  a  teacher  sent  from  heaven,  a  Jew  of  humble 
station  who  had  been  put  to  a  shameful  death.  And  all 
this  mighty  transforming  influence  based  upon  a  series  of 
delusions  !  To  receive  this  explanation  of  the  acknowledged 
facts  is  to  admit  a  greater  miracle  than  any  which  the  Bible 
contains. 


EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE:    MIRACLE  95 

71.  Meaning  of  Miracles. —What,  then,  do  miracles 
prove?  In  a  word,  the  presence  and  power  of  a  Divine 
Agent.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  Church  it  was  common  for 
adversaries  to  attribute  the  miraculous  acts,  the  reality  of 
which  they  could  not  question,  to  the  power  of  evil  spirits. 
The  critics  of  our  Lord  set  them  the  example,  '  He  casteth 
out  demons  by  Beelzebub.'  But  such  an  allegation  is  no 
longer  possible.  The  conclusion  of  the  Jewish  ruler  is  yet 
more  cogent  in  the  light  of  modern  philosophy  than  when 
he  gave  it  utterance,  '  No  man  can  do  these  signs  that 
Thou  doest,  except  God  be  with  him.' 

A  revelation  of  the  Divine. — And  this  argument  is 
fortified  by  the  consistency  of  these  wondrous  works  with 
the  character  of  God,  and  the  great  design  of  the  Gospel. 
They  were  not  only  '  marvels '  (xepaTa)  and  '  deeds  of  power  * 
(8wayu,ets),  but  '  signs '  (a-q^ua)  of  deep  moral  and  spiritual 
meaning.  It  has  been  well  said  that  'eveiy  miraculous 
act  of  Christ  must  be  conceived  of  as  congruous  to  His 
Messianic  vocation  and  serviceable  to  the  interests  of  the 
Divine  kingdom.  None  of  the  miracles,  of  whatever  class, 
can  be  regarded  as  mere  displays  of  power  ;  they  must  all 
be  viewed  as  arising  naturally  out  of  their  occasions,  and 
serving  a  useful  purpose  in  connexion  with  Christ's  work 
as  the  Herald  and  Founder  of  the  kingdom  of  Heaven".' 
They  begin  with  a  stupendous  moral  miracle,  greater  than 
any  physical  wonder,  the  existence  on  earth  of  a  perfectly 
sinless,  holy  being,  and  they  harmonize  with  the  character 
and  purposes  of  such  a  life. 

A  symbol  of  spiritual  power. — Miracles  also  symbolize, 
while  they  attest,  the  '  greater  works,'  the  opening  of  the 
eyes  of  the  spiritually  blind,  the  unsealing  of  the  ears  which 
sin  had  deafened  to  the  truth,  the  liberation  of  the  paralyzed 
spirit  to  run  in  the  way  of  God's  commandments,  and  the 

•  Dr.  A.  B.  Bruce,  TJie  Miraculous  Element  in  ^w  Gospels,  p.  207. 


96     CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

quickening  of  those  who  were  dead  in  trespasses  and  sins. 
The  physical  becomes  spiritual  in  view  of  the  preceding 
argument :  *  That  ye  may  know  that  the  Son  of  Man  hath 
power  on  earth  to  forgive  sins  ...  I  say  unto  thee,  Arise 
and  walk/ 

External  Evidence.     IL  Prophecy 

72.  Prophecy  as  Evidence. — The  nature  and  purport 
of  Scripture  prophecy  in  general  will  be  shown  in  the 
sections  on  Interpretation ;  and  the  Introductions  to  the 
several  prophetic  books  in  the  Second  Part  of  this  volume 
will  indicate  their  respective  character  and  scope.  Prophecy 
is  in  this  place  regarded  simply  as  evidence  ;  and  the  follow- 
ing important  facts  must  be  borne  in  mind. 

1.  Prophecy  more  than  prediction. — Prophecy  is  much 
more  than  the  prediction  of  future  events.  The  prophet 
was  gifted  with  inspired  insight  as  well  as  with  inspired 
foresight ;  or  in  a  yet  deeper  view  we  may  say  the  latter 
was  a  consequence  of  the  former.  He  was  commissioned 
both  (in  Old  English  phrase)  to  '  forth-tell '  and  to  foretell. 
To  him  it  was  granted  to  discern  the  truth  and  tendency 
of  events  around  him,  to  look  through  the  appearances 
and  passions  of  the  hour  to  the  purposes  of  the  Eternal 
Mind. 

2.  Relation  to  the  present. — Hence,  the  standpoint  of 
the  prophet  was  in  the  present.  So  only  could  he  be  under- 
stood by  those  to  whom  his  message  came.  He  had  to  set 
forth  the  eternal  law  of  righteousness,  to  denounce  the  sins 
of  the  age,  declaring  the  just  judgements  of  God,  and  calling 
the  people  to  repentance.  But  the  present  was  only  a 
moment  in  the  progrftss  of  the  Divine  plan.  There  was 
a  purpose  working  steadily,  though  often  silently  and 
mysteriously,  towards  a  destined  end.  That  destination 
was  the  establishment  of  God's  kingdom  upon  earth — the 
reign  of  righteousness — the  achievement  of  redemption. 


EXTERNAL  EVIDENCE:    PKOPHECY  97 

3.  The  prophetic  fanction.— Hence  the  prophet  was 
the  teacher  of  Israel,  the  social  reformer,  the  statesman, 
the  herald  of  the  coming  time.  His  revelations  of  the 
future,  as  they  came  to  pass  from  age  to  age,  prove  the 
Divine  intent  and  authenticate  his  own  mission.  And 
at  the  same  time,  prophecy  carried  with  it  a  self-attestation 
no  less  striking  than  that  witness  to  its  truth  which  the 
future  alone,  could  disclose. 

4.  The  Prophets'  claim. — With  one  consent  they  regard 
themselves  as  spokesmen  of  God.  Their  formula  is,  '  Thus 
saith  Jehovah,*  'The  word  of  Jehovah  came,'  '  Hear  ye  the 
word  of  Jehovah.'  They  are  constrained  into  their  ministry, 
often  against  their  will.  Moses  protests  that  he  is  '  slow 
of  speech  and  of  a  slow  tongue.'  Isaiah  trembles  before  the 
vision  in  which  he  heard  his  call,  because  he  is  a  man  of 
unclean  lips,  and  dwells  in  the  midst  of  a  people  of  unclean 
lips.  Jeremiah  shrinks  from  the  task  entrusted  to  him  : 
'  Ah,  Lord  Jehovah  !  behold,  I  cannot  speak  ;  for  I  am  a 
child ' :  Ezekiel  is  warned  that  his  mission  will  be  as 
though  briers  and  thorns  were  with  him  and  he  dwelt 
among  scorpions.  *  Yet  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
the  propirets,  first  of  their  speech  and  actions  and  after- 
wards of  their  writings,  was  the  firm  and  unwavering  belief 
that  they  were  instruments  or  organs  of  the  Most  High, 
and  that  the  thoughts  which  arose  in  their  minds  about 
Him  and  His  Will,  and  the  commands  and  exhortations 
which  they  issued  in  His  Name,  really  came  at  His  prompt- 
ing, and  were  really  invested  with  His  authority.  There 
is  no  alternative  between  accepting  this  belief  as  true  and 
regarding  it  as  a  product  of  mental  disease  or  delusion  ^* 

5.  Intrinsic  character. — Beyond  the  prophets'  claim  to 
inspiration  and  its  acceptance  by  their  hearers,  there  is  the 
appeal  their  writings  make  to  mind  and  heart  and  conscience. 

*  Sanday,  Inspiration,  p.  394. 
U 


98     CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Each  of  them  may  fearlessly  say  to  us,  as  Paul  said  to  the 
Corinthians,  '  Judge  ye  what  I  say/  Their  word  is  its  own 
sufficient  witness  to  its  Divine  origin.  Its  conception  of 
God,  its  interpretation  of  life,  its  promise  of  the  Christ,  all 
bear  the  stamp  of  revelation.  It  gives  a  view  of  redemption 
as  the  final  goal  of  the  world's  history,  which  is  no  human 
invention,  but  attests  itself  as  the  word  of  the  world's 
Redeemer.  On  the  Hebrew  prophets  alone,  of  all  religious 
teachers,  we  are  compelled  to  pass  the  verdict,  'Holy  men 
of  old  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

73.  Fulfilment. — So  far,  prophecy  has  been  spoken  of 
as  its  own  witness.  But  there  was  a  further  testimony  to 
its  truth  in  its  announcement  of  things  to  come— a  testimony 
for  the  most  part  reserved  for  the  interpretation  of  Time. 
Yet  there  was  sufficient  of  speedy — even  immediate — ful- 
filment to  authenticate  their  Divine  calling  and  to  justify 
their  challenge  to  false  prophets  to  declare  things  to  comv. 
The  prophet,  as  preacher  of  righteousness,  declared  inevitable 
judgement  upon  the  nation's  sin  ;  a  prediction  fulfilled  in 
the  near  future  in  one  disaster  after  another,  and  in  the 
crowning  calamity  of  the  Exile.  See  Is  42^  43^  44^*^  4^^ 
Eze  12^^  Am  3"^  Hab  2^  This  was  no  mere  soothsaying, 
but  the  unveiling  of  a  Divine  '  increasing  purpose.'  And 
to  understand  aright  the  *  evidence  from  prophecy '  we 
must  survey  the  whole  scheme  ;  while  at  the  same  time  our 
sense  of  the  presence  and  action  of  the  Divine  Mind  is 
deepened  by  individual,  isolated  foreshadowings  of  things 
to  come,  in  minute  detail,  and  sometimes  startling  ac- 
cordance with  the  far-off  event.  The  popular  view  fixes 
especially  upon  these  last  as  evidence,  but  the  main  stress 
of  the  argument  still  rests  upon  the  whole  course  of  the 
prophetic  revelation. 

The  Messianic  hope. — There  was  one  element  in  the 
prophet's  message  in  which  prediction  does  look  out  far  into 


EXTERNAL   EVIDENCE:    PROPHECY         99 

the  future,  an  element  not  of  warning,  but  of  promise.  No 
apostasy  could  quench  his  belief  in  the  ultimate  redemption 
of  Israel.  To  him  the  gifts  and  calling  of  God  were  without 
repentance,  and  with  magnificent  optimism  he  declares 
a  future  for  the  nation  more  glorious  than  was  dreamt  of  in 
the  very  height  of  its  prosperity  and  greatness.  For  God 
was  not  only  the  *  Holy  One  of  Israel ' :  He  was  a  God  of 
grace,  pardoning  iniquity,  delighting  in  mercy.  To  minds 
thus  prepared  was  imparted  the  Messianic  hope,  that  most 
characteristic  and  vital  feature  of  prophecy,  slowly  develop- 
ing, taking  on  new  aspects  as  it  grew,  becoming  ever  fuller 
and  clearer.  The  time  was  not  revealed,  the  details  are  not 
precisely  given.  As  Peter  put  it,  '  Concerning  which  salva- 
tion the  prophets  sought  and  searched  diligently,  who 
prophesied  of  the  grace  that  should  come  unto  you :  searching 
what  time  or  what  manner  of  time  the  Spirit  of  Christ 
which  was  in  them  did  point  unto,  when  it  testified  before- 
hand the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  the  glories  that  should 
follow  them^.' 

This  Messianic  prediction  was  the  expression  of  an  inspired, 
invincible  faith  in  the  faithfulness  of  God,  and  was  slowly 
brought  into  shape  under  successive  phases  of  the  nation's 
life  and  the  nation's  need.  Its  fulfilment  lies,  not  only  in  the 
accord  we  may  trace  between  this  or  that  isolated  utterance 
and  certain  details  of  the  history  of  the  birth  and  life  and 
death  of  our  Lord,  but  in  Jesus  Christ  Himself  as  the  one 
Saviour  of  men  and  the  Founder  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

'How  are  we  to  bring  together  those  two  parallel  lines  of  prophecy 
which  exist  side  by  side  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  nowhere  meet,  the 
ideal  King,  the  descendant  of  David,  and  the  ideal  Prophet,  the 
suffering  Servant  of  Jehovali  ?  What  have  two  such  different  con- 
ceptions in  common  with  each  other  ?  They  seem  to  move  in  different 
planes,  with  nothing  even  to  suggest  their  coalescence.  We  turn  the 
page  which  separates  the  New  Testament  from  the  Old.  We  look  at 
the  Figure  which  is  delineated  there,  and  we  find  in  it  a  marvellous 

•  I  Pet  iio-"-K.V. 
H  2 


100  CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

meeting  of  traits  derived  from  the  most  different  and  distant  sources, 
from  Nathan,  from  Amos,  from  First  Isaiah,  from  Second  Isaiah,  from 
Zechariah,  from  Daniel,  from  the  second  Psalm,  from  the  twenty- 
second,  from  the  sixty-ninth,  from  the  hundred  and  tenth.  And 
these  traits  do  not  meet,  as  we  might  expect  them  to  do,  in  some 
laboured  and  artificial  compound,  but  in  the  sweet  and  gracious  figure 
of  Jesus  of  Nazareth — King,  but  not  as  men  count  kingship  ;  crowned, 
but  with  the  crown  of  thorns  ;  suffering  for  our  redemption,  but 
suffering  only  that  He  may  reign  *.' 

Thus  may  we  find  what  gives  unity  amid  diversity,  and 
stamps  all  prophecy  as  inspired  of  God,  as  we  read  with 
understanding  Christ's  own  words,  'These  are  they  that 
bear  witness  of  Me.' 

Internal   Evidence 

A  larger  branch  of  evidence  remains — the  moral,  the  lite- 
rary, and  the  spiritual,  or  (to  apply  one  title  to  all)  the  internal. 

74.  Morality  of  the  Bible.— The  first  peculiarity  of 
Scripture  morality  is  the  importance  which  is  everywhere 
attached  to  holiness.  Judging  from  what  we  know  of 
systems  of  human  origin,  a  religion  from  man  would  either 
have  spent  its  force  on  ritual  observance,  or  have  allowed 
active  service  on  its  behalf  to  make  amends  for  the  neglect 
of  other  duties.  Mohammedanism  gives  the  highest  place 
to  those  who  fight  and  fall  in  conflict.  Hinduism  rewards 
most  the  observance  of  ritual  worship.  Jewish  tradition 
taught  that  all  Jews  were  certainly  saved.  The  Scriptures,  on 
the  contrary,  bring  all  men  into  the  presence  of  a  Being  of 
infinite  holiness,  before  whom  the  most  exalted  human 
characters  fall  condemned  ^ ;  and  they  declare  plainly,  that 
nothing  we  can  say  or  do  in  the  cause  of  Christ  can  make 
up  for  the  want  of  practical  virtue.  Those  who  have 
preached  in  the  name  of  Christ  are  to  be  disowned  if  they 
be  workers  of  iniquity  ^,  and  the  reception  of  the  true  faith 

•  Sanday,  Inspiration,  p.  404.  ^  Job  40*  Is  6^  Dn  9-^  i  Tim  i'. 

c  j^t  72223  Lu  6". 


INTERNAL  EVIDENCE:    BIBLE   ETHICS     101 

makes  Christian  holiness  only  the  more  incumbent  because 
it  is  only  thus  possible  ^ 

The  kind  of  moral  duty  which  the  Scriptures  teach  is  not  such  as 
man  was  likely  to  discover  or  to  approve.  When  our  Lord  appeared, 
the  Romans  were  proud  of  their  military  glory,  and  the  Gi'eeks  of 
their  superior  wisdom.  Among  the  Jews  a  pharisaic  spirit  prevailed, 
and  the  whole  nation  was  divided  between  opposing  sects,  all  hating 
their  conquerors,  however,  and  the  Gentile  world  at  large.  An 
enthusiast  would  certainly  have  become  a  partisan,  and  an  impostor 
would  have  flattered  each  sect  by  exposing  the  faults  of  the  rest,  or 
the  nation  by  condemning  their  conquerors.  Our  Lord  came,  on  the 
contrary,  as  an  independent  teacher,  rebuked  all  error,  condemned 
all  the  sects,  and  yet  did  nothing  to  court  the  favour  of  the  people. 
His  precepts,  bidding  men  to  return  good  for  evil,  to  love  their  enemies, 
to  be  humble  and  forgiving,  to  consider  every  race  and  every  station 
as  on  a  level  before  God,  were  acceptable  to  none,  and  were  yet 
repeated  and  enforced  with  the  utmost  earnestness  and  consistency. 

It  may  indeed  be  replied  that  men  are  always  ready  to  commend 
a  greater  degree  of  purity  than  they  are  prepared  to  practise,  and  that 
ancient  philosophers  wrote  treatises  describing  a  much  nobler  virtue 
than  was  found  among  their  countrymen.  This  is  true,  and  if  the 
Jewish  fishermen  had  studied  philosophy,  it  would  not  have  been 
wonderful  if  they  had  taught  a  higher  morality  than  men  generally 
practised.  But  they  were  '  ignorant  men,'  and  their  precepts  go  not 
only  beyond  what  men  practised,  but  beyond  what  men  approved. 
The  gospel  is  not  only  better  than  human  conduct,  it  is  often  contrary 
to  it.  The  endurance  of  suffering,  the  forgiveness  of  injury,  and  the 
exercise  of  a  submissive  spirit  were  not  only  not  practised,  they  were 
not  admired  ;  and  while  the  gospel  teaches  these  duties,  it  exhibits 
them  in  combination  with  a  spiritual  heroism  of  which  the  world 
knows  nothing,  and  which  has  ever  been  supposed  inconsistent  with 
the  patient  virtues  which  the  Scriptures  enjoin. 

The  regulation  of  motive. — Add  to  these  facts  another, 
namely,  that  Scripture  seeks  to  regulate  the  thoughts 
and  motives  of  men,  and  is  content  with  nothing  less  than 
a  state  of  heart  which  refers  all  our  actions  to  God's  will ; 
and  it  must  be  felt  that  the  morality  of  the  gospel  is  not  of 
man.  Bad  men  could  not  have  taught  such  truths,  and 
good  men  would  not  have  deceived  the  people^. 

*  I  Cor  5^112.  ^  See  Paley,  Evidences. 


102  CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

Sin  in  its  relation  to  God. — But  there  is  yet  another 
peculiarity  in  the  morality  of  Scripture,  equally  true  in 
itself  and  striking.  Sin  is  everywhere  spoken  of  as  an  evil 
agaiyist  God,  and  everywhere  it  is  not  the  instrument  or 
human  agent  who  is  exalted,  but  God  alone.  The  first 
notion  is  inconsistent  with  all  heathen  philosophy,  and  the 
second  with  the  natural  tendency  of  the  human  heart. 
'This,'  says  Cicero,  'is  the  common  principle  of  all  philo- 
sophers, that  the  Deity  is  never  displeased,  nor  does  He  inflict 
injury  on  man'  {Dc  Officiis,  iii.  28). 

In  Scripture,  on  the  contrary,  sin  is  represented  as  an 
evil  and  bitter  thing,  because  it  is  dishonouring  io  God.  This 
distinctly  appears  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  indeed  forms 
one  of  its  most  marked  peculiarities.  Hence  the  destruction 
of  the  Amalekites  "■,  of  Sennacherib  ^,  and  Belshazzar  c. 
Hence  the  abandonment  of  the  Gentile  world  to  a  reprobate 
mind  ^.  Hence  God's  controversy  with  the  Jews  ®  and  with 
Moses f.  Hence  Eli's e  punishment  and  David's^.  Hence 
also  the  calamities  of  Solomon,  the  division  of  his  kingdom 
into  Israel  and  Judah,  and  the  captivity  and  destruction 
of  both  \ 

God  alone  is  honoured.  The  great  object  of  all  the  writers 
seems  to  be  to  lead  men's  thoughts  to  Him.  The  false 
teacher  gives  out  that  he  himself  is  some  great  one  (Ac  8'^), 
but  in  the  Bible  it  is  God  only  Who  is  exalted.  This  rule 
is  illustrated  in 

Moses,  Dt  I'l  a""  3"  4''2-s»  Ex  i8«;  Joslma,  Jos  23'';  David,  i  Ch 
29^'-^*  ;  Daniel,  Dn  a-o-^'-so  ;  Ezra,  Ezr  72" ;  Nehemiah,  Ne  2^2  .  Peter 
and  John,  Ac  3'2-i«  ;  Paul,  Ac  21"  i  Cor  3*  2  Cor  4^. 

Creation   is  represented,   in   the   same  way,   as    God   in 

»  Ex  i7^«,  marg.  A.V.  and  R.V.  ^  2  Ki  19"-'^  •=  Dn  5^'. 

^  Ro  i2i-28.  •  Ilebs'".  '  Numao^^ 

K  I  Sa  229-30.  h  2  ga  i2»  (Ps  51*). 

»  I  Ki  1 1*-"  2  Ki  1714-90  a  Ch  36^«i7  Lu  19*2-"  Ro  ii'^". 


INTERNAL   EVIDENCE:    CANDOUR  103 

nature  ^ :  the  revolutions  and  progress  of  kingdoms,  as  God 
in  history  ^. 

Faith  the  principle  of  spiritual  life. — It  is  in  part  with 
the  view  of  strengthening  the  feelings  which  these  peculi- 
arities produce,  that  faith  is  made  the  principle  of  obedience 
and  success.  In  relation  to  God,  faith  is  the  confession  of 
our  weakness,  and  excludes  all  boasting;  and  yet  in  relation 
to  success  it  is  omnipotent ;  a  truth  as  profoundly  philo- 
sophical as  it  is  spiritually  important.  And  yet  it  is  a  truth 
revealed  only  in  the  Bible. 

Ro  32-  Eph  a'-^  I  Cor  i^^-si  Jn  ii<o  Is  7'. 

Candour  of  Scripture. — The  candour  and  sincerity  of 
the  inspired  writers  are  not  less  remarkable  than  their 
moral  precepts,  and  are  quite  incompatible  with  either 
fanaticism  or  imposture. 

They  denounce  the  sins  of  the  people.  *  Ye  have  been  rebellious 
against  the  Lord  from  the  day  that  I  knew  you,'  says  Moses  (Dt  9^*), 
and  all  later  writers  giv«  the  same  view.     Judg  2^^  i  Sa  12^^^  Ne  9. 

The  inspired  historian  records  with  all  fullness  the  sina  of  the 
Patriarchs,  Gen  12^'"^'  20,  &c.  ;  of  his  grandfather  Levi,  Gen  49'"'^ ;  of 
his  brother  Aaron  and  of  his  elder  sons.  Ex  32  Lev  10  ;  nor  less  plainly 
his  own  sins,  Kum  20^^  27^2-14  j)^  32^^ 

In  the  same  spirit  the  Evangelists  notice  their  own  faults  and  the 
faults  of  the  Apostles.  Mt  26^'-5«  Jn  10"  16^2  j^j.  810.28  j-ie  ^(p-w  jgs 
2o2o.  Mark  and  Luke  speak  no  less  plainly.  Mk  6^"^  8^"  9^2.34  jqU 
,^r,7.47.66-72  j^H  ^^  Q'^A.it,  ^iOA5  jQM  ^^i'.  3^11,  ^yith  cqual  truthfulncss 
the  Scriptures  record  the  humiliation  of  our  Lord,  His  sufferings  and 
dejection.     Mt  27^*  Heb  5'^. 

The  Apostle  Paul  records  without  reserve  the  disorders  of  the 
churches  which  he  himself  had  planted,  and  even  adds  that  his  own 
apostolic  authority  had  been  questioned  among  them.  1  Cor  i^^  5I 
2  Cor  2*  ii'^-^s  122". 

It  is  thus  that  simplicity  distinguishes  the  Bible,  and 
forces  on  the  mind  the  conviction  that  its  authors  had  no 
other  object  in  view  than  '  by  manifestation  of  the  truth  to 

»  Ps  104^0  Jer  5-*  Joel  223-24  Mt  io2». 
»»  Jer  17 '-10  Dn  4S5  Jer  25^  Is  442*. 


104  CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

commend  themselves  to  every  man's  conscience  as  in  the 
sight  of  God.' 

75.  Comparison  with  human    ethical  systems.— But 

no  analysis  can  give  a  just  idea  of  the  morality  of  the 
Bible.  It  must  be  compared  in  the  bulk  with  other  teach- 
ing. Men  have  praised  maxims  of  virtue,  or  appealed  to  the 
moral  sentiments  of  our  nature,  or  sought  to  promote  holi- 
ness by  5?/s^em5  0/ morals.  But  all  these  are  defective.  The 
common  maxims  of  virtue  are  mere  dictates  of  prudence, 
without  authority  or  influence.  Our  moral  sentiments  are 
retiring  and  evanescent,  easily  corrupted  by  the  strong 
passions  in  whose  neighbourhood  they  dwell,  and  are  feeblest 
when  most  wanted  ;  and  systems  of  morals,  like  all  pro- 
cesses of  reasoning,  depend  on  the  perfection  of  our  faculties, 
and  are  too  much  the  subject  of  disputation  to  become 
powerful  motives  of  holy  action.  All  these  plans,  moreover, 
are  defective  in  not  taking  into  account  our  fall,  and  the 
necessity  of  providing  for  our  recovery.  Scripture,  on  the 
other  hand,  teaches  the  Christian  to  use  these  helps,  only 
subordinating  all  to  its  own  lessons.  It  begins  its  work 
with  a  recognition  of  our  ruin,  and  an  intelligent  foresight 
of  its  own  end ;  brings  the  soul  into  harmony  with  God 
and  with  itself,  enlightens  and  educates  the  conscience, 
quickens  and  purifies  the  feelings,  subjects  instincts  to 
reason,  reason  to  love,  and  all  to  God ;  and  provides  an 
instrumentality  as  effective  and  practical  as  the  truths  it 
reveals  and  on  which  it  rests  are  unearthly  and  sublime. 

76.  The  Character  of  our  Lord. — Among  the  most 
decisive  moral  proofs  of  the  Divine  origin  of  Scripture 
is  the  character  of  Christ.  It  is  a  proof,  however,  rather 
to  be  felt  than  to  be  described,  and  its  force  will  be  in 
proportion  to  the  tone  of  moral  sentiment  in  the  reader. 
Holy  and  pure  minds  will  feel  it  more  than  others ;  and 
such  as  are  like  Nathanael,  the  '  Israelite  indeed,  in  whom 


CHARACTER   OF   JESUS   CHRIST  105 

IS  no  guile,'  will  exclaim  with  him,  'Rabbi,  Thou  art  the 
Son  of  God  ;  Thou  art  the  King  of  Israel.' 

Three  things  are  obvious  in  the  history  of  our  Lord, 
(i)  The  whole  narrative  is  free  from  panegyric.  (2)  The 
character  is  wholly  unstudied :  the  story  being  written  by 
unpractised  authors,  without  learning  or  eloquence  ;  and 
moreover  (3)  the  moral  character  of  Christ  is  unimpeached 
even  by  the  opponents  of  the  Gospel.  His  Apostles  appeal 
to  all  men's  testimony  to  His  purity  of  life,  as  a  fact  admitted 
and  notorious.  His  own  moral  teaching  was  an  appeal  of 
the  same  kind,  for  had  He  been  guilty  of  the  practices  He 
condemns,  His  hearers  would  have  been  sure  to  detect  and 
reproach  His  inconsistency. 

That  His  holiness  was  admitted  generally  will  appear  from  the 
following  passages  :  Jn  8*«  10'-  Mt  aa^^-so  272324  Lu  23"-i5  Ac  3"-" 
I  Pet  221-23^  jjjg  benevolence  and  compassion  are  shown  in  Jn  4 
Lu  95'  io3»-37  Mk  726  &c  10^3-^1  ^-"  Lu  1316  1412  22'0-5i  Mt  936  ^<^- 
jgiKS^c  His  kindness  and  affection,  in  Mt  1427-31  ^^  19^"  22"  Jn  11 
1925-27^  His  meekness  and  humility,  in  Mt  5^~i2  g-is  1322  a^c  ^^  332* 
Jn  13*.  His  moral  courage,  firmness,  and  resignation,  in  Mt  263-^-*6 
Mk  io32  Lu  42s  *••  13S1  &c  i829  &c.  Jn  ii"^  i8*  ^<=-  His  sincerity  and 
abhorrence  of  hypocrisy  and  courting  popularity,  in  Mt  6^~'^  lo^^"^-' 
22I8  &.C.  jyijj.  i238-*o  Lu  11"  *«=•  Jn  i6^-«.  His  moderation  and 
the  absence  of  enthusiastic  austerity  in  Mt  8'^  2323  Mk  12}'^  Lu  52^-3' 
Jn  2I  *'«=• 

*The  character  of  Christ,'  it  has  been  well  said,  *is  a  wonderful 
proof  of  the  Divinity  of  the  Bible.  The  Hindu  cannot  think  of  his 
Brahmin  saint,  other  than  as  possessing  the  abstemiousness  and 
austerity  which  he  admires  in  his  living  models.  The  Socrates  of 
Plato  is  composed  of  elements  practically  Greek,  being  a  compound 
of  the  virtues  deemed  necessary  to  adorn  the  sage.  A  model  of  the 
Jewish  teacher  might  easily  be  drawn  from  the  writings  of  the 
Rabbis,  and  he  would  prove  to  be  the  very  reflection  of  those  Scribes 
and  Pharisees  who  are  reproved  in  the  Gospel.  But  in  the  life  of  our 
Redeemer  a  character  is  represented  which  departs  in  every  way 
from  the  national  type  of  the  writers,  and  from  the  character  of  all 
ancient  nations,  and  is  at  variance  with  all  the  features  which  custom, 
education,  religion,  and  patriotism  seem  to  have  consecrated  as  most 
beautiful.  Four  different  authors  have  recorded  different  facts,  but 
they  exhibit  the  saroye  conception,  a  conception  differing  from  all  they 


106   CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

had  ever  witnessed  or  heard,  and  necessarily  copied  from  the  same 
original.  And  more,  this  glorious  character,  while  borrowing  nothing 
from  the  Greek,  or  Indian,  or  Jew,  having  nothing  in  common  with 
established  laws  of  perfection,  is  yet  to  every  believer  a  type  of 
excellence.  He  is  followed  by  the  Greek,  though  a  founder  of  none 
of  his  sects,  revered  by  the  Brahmin,  though  preached  by  one  of  the 
fishermen  caste,  and  worshipped  by  the  red  man  of  Canada,  though 
belonging  to  the  hated  pale  race.' 

77.  The  Character  of  Christians. — One  point  more 
remains  on  the  morality  of  Scripture:  the  effect  of  its 
religion  on  the  character  of  men. 

Apart  from  particular  facts  in  support  of  this  truth,  it 
is  generally  admitted  that  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible  agree 
with  its  precepts,  and  that  they  contain,  in  their  very 
substance,  urgent  motives  to  holiness. 

We  confine  ourselves  to  a  few  facts  in  illustration  of  this 
general  truth.  The  effects  of  the  gospel  in  the  first  age  are 
well  known,  and  are  incidentally  told  us  in  the  Epistles. 
Paul  has  pointed  out  what  occurred  at  Corinth  and  Ephesus", 
and  Peter  the  effects  which  were  produced  in  Pontus  and 
Galatia^  In  a  dissolute  age,  and  under  the  worst  govern- 
ments. Christians  (who  had  been  no  better  than  their 
neighbours)  reached  an  eminence  in  virtue  which  has  never 
perhaps  been  surpassed. 

Similar  appeals  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  the  early  apologists. 
Clement  of  Rome  (a.  d.  ioo),  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  commends 
their  virtues.  'Who,'  says  he,  'did  ever  live  among  you,  that  did 
not  admire  your  sober  and  moderate  piety,  and  declare  the  greatness 
of  your  hospitality  ?  You  are  humble  and  not  proud,  content  with  the 
daily  bread  which  God  supplies,  hearing  diligently  His  word,  and  en- 
larged in  charity.'  Justin  Martyr  (a.  d.  146),  who  had  been  a  Platonic 
philosopher,  says  in  his  Apology,  xvi,  'We  who  formerly  delighted  in 
licentiousness,  now  observe  the  strictest  chastity:  we  who  used  the 
charms  of  magic,  have  devoted  ourselves  to  the  true  God,  and  we  who 
valued  money  and  gain  above  all  things,  now  cast  what  we  have  in 
common,  and  distribute  to  every  man  according  to  his  necessities.' 
*  You  (says  Minucius  Felix  to  a  heathen  opponent)  punish  wickedness 

•  I  Cor  611  Eph  4''  a\  »>  i  Pet  4'. 


EVIDENCE   FROM   CHRISTIAN   CHARACTER   107 

■when  it  is  committed,  we  think  it  sinful  to  indulge  a  sinful  thought. 
It  is  with  your  party  that  the  prisons  are  crowded,  but  not  a  single 
Christian  is  there,  except  it  be  as  a  confessor  or  apostate.'  TertuUian, 
the  first  Latin  ecclesiastical  writer  whose  works  have  come  down  to  us 
(a.d.  200),  makes  a  similar  appeal,  and  speaks  of  great  multitudes  of 
the  Roman  empire  as  the  subjects  of  this  change.  Origen,  in  his 
Reply  to  Celsus  (a.  d.  246),  Lactantius,  the  preceptor  of  Constantine  (a.  d. 
325),  repeat  these  appeals  :  and  even  the  Emperor  Julian  holds  up  Chris- 
tians to  the  imitation  of  Pagans,  on  account  of  their  love  to  strangers 
and  to  enemies,  and  on  account  of  the  sanctity  of  their  lives. 

The  unknown  author  of  the  Letter  to  Diognetus  (about  a.  d.  150)  writes 
to  th«  same  effect.  'Christians,'  he  says,  'find  themselves  in  the 
flesh,  yet  they  live  not  after  the  flesh.  Their  existence  is  on  earth, 
but  their  citizenship  is  in  heaven.  Tliey  obey  the  established  laws, 
and  they  surpass  the  laws  in  their  own  lives.  They  love  all  men, 
and  they  are  persecuted  by  all.  They  are  evil  spoken  of,  and  j^et 
they  are  vindicated.  They  are  reviled,  and  they  Ijless  ;  they  are 
insulted,  and  they  respect.  Doing  good,  they  are  punished  as  evil- 
doers ;  ^eing  punished,  they  rejoice,  as  if  they  were  thereby  quickened 
by  life*  (Bishop  Lightfoot's  translation). 

The  influence  of  the  gospel  was  early  seen  among  ancient  nations. 
In  Greece,  the  grossest  impurities  had  been  encouraged  by  Lycurgus 
and  Solon,  At  Rome  they  were  openly  practised  and  approved. 
Among  nearly  all  ancient  nations  self-murder  was  commended. 
Seneca  and  Plutarch,  the  elder  Pliny  and  Quintilian,  applaud  it,  and 
Gibbon  admits  that  heathenism  presented  no  reason  against  it. 
Human  sacrifice  and  the  exposure  of  children  were  allowed  and  even 
enforced.  But  wherever  the  gospel  came,  it  condemned  these  prac- 
tices, discouraged,  and  finally  destroyed  them.  That  it  was  not 
civilization  that  suppressed  them  is  certain,  for  they  were  kept  up  by 
nations  far  superior  to  the  Christians  in  refinement,  and  the  suppres- 
sion of  them  was  always  found  to  keep  pace  with  the  progress,  not  of 
human  enlightenment,  but  of  Divine  truth. 

The  relief  of  distress  and  the  care  of  the  poor  are  almost  peculiar  to 
Christian  nations.  In  Constantinople  there  was  not,  before  Chris- 
tianity was  introduced,  a  single  charitable  building  :  nor  was  there 
ever  such  a  building  in  ancient  Rome.  After  the  introduction  of 
Christianity,  however,  the  former  city  had  more  than  thirty  buildings 
for  the  reception  of  orphans,  of  the  sick,  of  strangers,  of  the  aged,  and 
of  the  poor.  In  Rome,  there  were  twenty-five  large  houses  set  apart 
for  the  same  purpose.  With  equal  certainty,  it  can  be  established 
that  the  gospel  has  abolished  polygamy,  mitigated  the  horrors  of  war, 
redeemed  captives,  freed  slaves,  checked  the  spirit  of  feudal  oppres- 
sion,  and   improved  the   laws    of  barbarous  nations.     '  Truth   and 


108  CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

candour,'  says  Gibbon,  '  must  acknowledge  that  the  conversion  of 
these  nations  imparted  many  temporal  benefits  both  to  the  Old  and 
New  World,  prevented  the  total  extinction  of  letters,  mitigated  the 
fierceness  of  the  times,  sheltered  the  poor  and  defenceless,  and  pre- 
served or  reviA'ed  the  peace  and  order  of  civil  society*.* 

As  therefore  the  providence  of  God  is  seen  in  the  preservation  of 
the  Bible,  so  also  is  His  grace  in  its  effects  :  and  those  effects  bear 
strong  testimony  to  its  Divine  origin,   i  Th  i*~^°  Gal  5*^^ 

78.  The  Harmonies  of  Revelation. — On  that  part  of 
the  Scriptural  evidence  which  is  called  the  harmony  of 
revealed  truth,  it  is  not  possible  to  enlarge :  and  the  subject 
has  been  fully  discussed  by  various  writers. 

On  the  agreement  between  the  doctrines  and  peculiarities 
of  Scripture  and  the  facts  of  Nature,  the  Analogy  of  Bishop 
Butler  is  unrivalled.  And  since  his  time,  *  apologetic ' 
literature  has  abounded  in  the  discussion  of  the  coincidences 
between  sacred  and  general  history,  with  coincidences  of  a 
minute  and  statistical  character,  with  the  geography  and 
natural  history  of  Palestine,  and  on  coincidences  between 
various  parts  of  the  I'ecord  itself  ^.  See  also  Ch.  IX  of  the 
present  work. 

These  coincidences  are  literally  innumerable,  and  are  interwoven 
with  the  whole  texture  of  Scripture.  Some  are  apparently  trifling,  as 
when  it  is  said  that  our  Lord  went  down  from  Nazareth  to  Capernaum, 
and  Dr.  Clarke  points  out  the  graphic  consistency  of  the  phrase  with 
the  geography  of  that  region.  Others  are  deeply  affecting,  as  when  it 
is  said  that  blood  and  water  issued  from  the  side  of  Jesus,  and  medical 
authorities  affirm  that  if  the  heart  is  pierced  or  broken,  blood  and 
water  flow  from  the  wound.  Some  are  critical,  as  when  it  is  remarked 
that  at  no  time  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  could  any  known 
writers  have  written  in  the  style  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  :  and  that  at 
no  one  time  could  these  various  books  have  been  written.     They  are 

*  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  55.  For  a  large  collection  of 
similar  facts  see  Tholuck's  Essay,  Nature  and  Influence  of  Heathenism, 
with  the  Apologies  of  early  Christian  writers,  Dollinger's  Jew  and  Gentile 
at  the  Gates  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  Brace's  Gesta  Christi. 

**  See,  especially,  the  edition  of  Paley's  Evidences,  with  Notes  by  Birks, 
also  Paley's  Horc8  Paulince,  with  HorcB  Apostolicce  by  Birks,  published  by 
the  Religious  Tract  Society. 


INTERNAL   EVIDENCE  109 

demonstrably  the  work  of  different  authors  and  of  different  ages. 
Some  are  historical,  as  when  it  is  noticed  that,  after  the  time  of  the 
Apostles,  all  writers  applied  the  name  Christian  to  designate  the 
foUowei's  of  Christ,  a  name  never  applied  in  the  New  Testament  by 
Christians  to  designate  one  another  :  the  very  terms  which  the  Apostles 
employ  indicating  that  the  new  religion  was  the  completion  of  the 
old — *  chosen  '  and  '  faithful.'  Some  are  religious,  founded,  that  is,  on 
the  peculiarities  of  the  religious  system  revealed,  as  when  it  is  stated 
that  the  religion  of  the  New  Testament  is  the  only  one  in  which  is 
omitted  the  one  ordinance  which  would  have  been  natural  and  accept- 
able to  both  Jews  and  Pagans,  namely,  the  offering  of  animals  in 
sacrifice  ;  an  instructive  omission. 

The  effect  of  the  whole  is  highly  impressive,  and  is  of  itself  a  sufficient 
proof  of  the  substantial  credibility  of  the  narrative  and  of  the  honesty 
of  the  authors. 

Some  idea  of  Paley's  Horce  Paulince  may  be  gathered  from  an 
examination  of  the  following  passages,  it  being  premised  that  the 
books  quoted  were  written  either  by  different  authors,  or  at  different 
times,  and  with  altogether  different  purposes. 

Ro  15-5-26        compared  with     Ac  20^-^  21^'  24^^""  i   Cor  i6i~* 

2  Cor  8'-^  92. 

Ro  1621-2*  „  Ac  20*. 

Ro  lis  1523-24  „  Ac  19-1. 

I  Cor  4I7-"  „  Ac  1921-22. 

I  Cor  161011  „  Ac  1921  I  Tim  4". 

I   Cor  1^2  36  ^^  Ac  1822-28  ^gl 

I  Cor  920  „  Ac  16^  2123-26. 

I  Cor  ii*-i7  ,,  Aci88  Ro  i623  I  Cor  16^'. 

A  single  instance  may  be  added  in  detail.  Barnabas  (we  are  told) 
was  a  native  of  Cyprus,  who  sold  his  property  and  laid  the  money 
at  the  Apostles'  feet  (Ac  ^^^■^'^).  We  are  told  also,  quite  incidentally, 
that  Mark  was  his  nephew  (Col  4^°).  Compare  these  facts  with  the 
following  passages,  where  it  is  stated  that  John  Mark  went  as  far  as 
Cyprus,  his  native  country,  and  soon  rejoined  his  mother  at  Jerusalem, 
greatly  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  Paul ;  and  how  remarkable  the  con- 
sistency of  tl-ie  whole  :  i  Cor  9«'^  Ac  ii20-22  132-4  1^37.39  and  13^3.  t  xhe 
harmony  pervading  everything  connected  with  Barnabas,'  says  Mr. 
Blunt,  '  is  enough  in  itself  to  stamp  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  history 
of  perfect  fidelity  *.' 

See  Birks'  Horce  Apostolicce.  Compare,  in  the  same  way,  the  abrupt 
termination  of  the  history  in  Ac  8*°,  with  Ac  21^-^. 

*  Undesigned  CoincidenceSj  Part  IV,  §  35. 


no  CREDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 


Spiritual  Evidence 

79.  Experimental  Evidence. — In  addition  to  the  moral 
evidence  of  Scripture,  evidence  suggested  by  the  morality 
of  the  New  Testament,  the  character  of  our  Lord,  the  candour 
and  sincerity  and  self-denial  of  the  first  Christians,  and  the 
moral  beauty  of  Christian  principles,  as  illustrated  in  the 
lives  of  consistent  believers,  there  is  evidence  directly 
spiritual.  This  evidence  is  partly  appreciated  by  the  in^ 
tellect,  but  still  more  by  the  heart  and  conscience.  So  far 
as  it  treats  of  man  as  the  gospel  finds  him,  it  appeals  equally 
to  all ;  so  far  as  it  treats  of  man  as  the  gospel  forms  him, 
it  appeals  only  to  the  believer.  To  the  first  part  of  this 
evidence  the  Apostle  refers  in  i  Cor  1423-25 .  ^nd  to  the 
second,  in  Eo  S^^  i  Jn  520. 

Scripture  and  Conscience. — This  evidence  consists,  in 
part,  in  the  agreement  between  what  the  awakened  sinner 
feels  himself,  and  what  the  Bible  declares  him  to  be.  The 
gospel  proclaims  the  universal  corruption  of  human  nature. 
It  speaks  not  only  of  acts  of  transgression,  but  of  a  deep  and 
inveterate  habit  of  ungodliness  in  the  soul,  and  of  the 
necessity  of  a  complete  renewal.  If  this  description  were 
felt  to  be  untrue,  if  man  were  conscious  of  delight  in 
submitting  his  will  to  God's  will,  and  in  obeying  commands 
which  rebuke  his  selfishness  and  pride,  he  might  at  once 
discredit  the  truth  of  the  gospel.  But  when  he  finds  that 
the  description  answers  to  his  own  state,  and  that  every 
attempt  at  closer  examination  only  discovers  to  him  the 
completeness  of  this  agreement,  he  has  in  himself  an  evidence 
that  this  message  is  true. 

Scripture  and  Human  need. — The  second  stage  of  the 
evidence  is  reached  when  a  man  finds  that  the  provisions 
of  the  gospel  are  adapted  to  his  state.  He  is  guilty,  and 
needs  pardon.     He  is  corrupt,  and  needs  holiness.     He  is 


SPIRITUAL   EVIDENCE  111 

surrounded  by  temptation,  and  needs  strength.  He  is  living 
in  a  world  of  vexation  and  change,  and  he  needs  some  more 
satisfying  portion  than  it  can  supply.  He  is  dyings  and  he 
shrinks  from  death,  and  longs  for  a  clear  revelation  of 
another  life.  And  the  gospel  meets  all  these  wants.  It  is 
a  message  of  pardon  to  the  guilty,  of  holiness  to  the  aspiring, 
of  peace  to  the  tried,  and  of  life  to  them  that  sit  in  the 
shadow  of  death. 

Scripture  and  Christian  experience. — And  whilst  there 
is  perfect  adaptation  to  human  want,  no  less  striking  is  the 
agreement  between  the  description  given  in  the  gospel  of  its 
results  and  the  Christian's  experience.  The  effects  of  the 
belief  of  the  truth  are  repeatedly  portrayed  in  Scripture. 
Each  promise  is  a  prediction,  receiving  daily  fulfilment. 
Penitence  and  its  fruits,  the  obedience  of  faith  and  the 
increasing  light  and  peace  which  it  supplies,  the  power  of 
prayer,  the  influence  of  Christian  truth  on  the  intellect,  on 
the  heart  and  the  character,  the  struggles,  and  victories, 
and  defeats  even  of  the  new  life,  all  are  described  and  con- 
stitute an  evidence  in  the  highest  degree  experimental ;  an 
evidence  which  grows  with  our  growth,  and  multiplies  with 
eveiy  step  of  our  progress  in  the  knowledge  and  love  of  the 
truth.  Such  insight  into  our  moral  being,  and  such  know- 
ledge of  the  changes  which  religious  truth  is  adapted  to 
produce,  could  never  emanate  from  human  wisdom,  and  they 
prove  that  God  Himself  is  the  Author  of  the  book  in  which 
such  qualities  are  disclosed. 

Value  of  this  Evidence. — We  repeat  the  caution,  how- 
ever, that  this  evidence  is  chiefly  of  value  for  the  confirmation 
of  the  faith  of  a  Christian,  because  none  else  will  appreciate 
or  understand  it.  To  such,  however,  this  evidence  is  so 
strong  as  often  to  supersede  every  other.  To  the  Christian, 
the  old  controversy  between  Christianity  and  infidelity  has 
but  little  interest ;  he  already  feels  the  truth  which  evidences 


112  CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

seek  only  to  prove ;  it  seems  needless  to  discuss  the  reality 
of  what  he  already  enjoj^s  ;  he  has  the  'witness  in  himself:' 
'  whether  He  be  a  sinner  or  no,  I  know  not :  one  thing 
I  know,  that,  whereas  I  was  blind,  now  I  see.* 

The  true  method  of  Healing. — To  the  physician  who  is 

entrusted  with  the  cure  of  some  mortal  disease,  two  courses 
are  open.  He  may  treat  the  symptoms,  or  he  may  treat  the 
disease  itself.  If  in  fever  he  is  anxious  only  to  quench 
the  thirst  of  his  patient,  or  in  apoplexy  to  excite  the  system, 
his  treatment  may  be  said  to  be  adapted  to  the  wants  of  the 
sufferer ;  but  it  is  not  likely  to  restore  him.  A  sounder 
system  treats  the  disease,  and  that  medicine  is  the  true 
specific  which  is  adapted  ultimately  to  remove  it.  The 
evidence  of  the  virtue  of  such  a  specific  is,  not  its  palatable- 
ness  nor  its  power  of  exhilaration,  but  the  steady  continued 
improvement  of  the  health  of  the  patient ;  an  evidence 
founded  on  experience,  and  strongly  confirming  the  proofs 
which  had  originally  induced  him  to  make  the  trial. 

And  so  of  the  gospel.  It  may  exhilarate,  and  it  may 
please  the  taste ;  but  the  evidence  of  its  truth  and  of  its 
being  truly  received  is  its  tendency  to  promote  our  holiness. 


Summary 

80.  The  Evidence  universally  accessible. — 'What  then 
is  the  reason  of  our  hope?'  is  a  question  which  every  inquirer 
may  ask  and  answer.  All  the  answers  of  which  the  question 
admits  no  one  can  be  expected  to  give,  for  a  full  investiga- 
tion of  Christian  evidences  would  occupy  a  lifetime ;  but  it 
is  easy  to  give  such  an  answer  as  s^iall  justify  our  faith. 
Christianity  and  the  Christian  books  exist,  and  have  existed 
for  the  last  eighteen  hundred  years.  Christian  and  secular 
writers  agree  in  this  admission.  The  great  Founder  of  our 
faith  professedly  wrought  miracles  in  confirmation  of  His 


SUMMARY  113 

message,  and  gave  the  same  power  to  His  Apostles.  They 
all  underwent  severe  suffering,  and  some  of  them  died  in 
testimony  of  their  belief  of  the  truths  and  facts  th-ey  de- 
livered. These  facts,  and  the  truths  founded  on  them,  the 
Apostles  and  first  Christians  embraced  in  spite  of  the  oppos- 
ing influences  of  the  religious  systems  in  which  they  had 
been  trained.  The  character  and  histoiy  of  the  Founder  of 
the  faith  were  foretold  many  hundreds  of  years  before  in 
the  Jewish  Scriptures.  He  taught  the  purest  morality.  He 
Himself  gave  many  predictions,  and  these  predictions  were 
fulfilled.  His  doctrines  changed  the  character  of  those  who 
received  them,  softened  and  civilized  ancient  nations,  and 
have  been  everywhere  among  the  mightiest  influences  in 
the  history  of  the  human  race.  They  claim  to  be  from  God, 
they  support  their  claim  by  innumerable  evidences,  and  we 
must  either  admit  them  to  be  from  God,  or  ascribe  them  to 
a  spirit  of  most  marvellous  imposition.  Add  to  all  this,  that 
he  who  receives  them  has  in  himself  additional  evidence  of 
their  origin  and  holiness,  and  can  say  from  experience, 
'  We  know  that  the  Son  of  God  is  come,  and  hath  given  us 
an  understanding,  that  we  may  know  Him  that  is  true,  and 
we  are  in  Him  that  is  true,  even  in  His  Son  Jesus  Christ. 
This  is  the  true  God,  and  eternal  life  '  (i  Jn  5-°). 

These  facts  are  not  abstruse,  but  accessible  to  all,  and 
intelligible  to  the  feeblest.  For  the  candid  inquirer,  any  one 
department  of  this  evidence  will  often  prove  sufficient :  no 
other  religious  system  being  founded  on  miracles  and  pro- 
phecy, or  exhibiting  such  holiness  and  love.  The  whole 
evidence  combined  is  overwhelmingly  conclusive. 

81.  Hindrances  to  the  reception  of  Evidence. — And 
yet  there  is,  in  relation  to  theee  evidences,  much  unbelief 
both  among  inquirers  and  professed  Christians.  Among 
inquirers  unbelief  may  be  due  to  want  of  candour  and  teach- 
ableness :  a  fact  which  is  itself  an  evidence  of  the  truth  of 
Scripture,  and  in  harmony  with  the  general  dealings  of  God. 

I 


114  CKEDENTIALS  AND  CLAIMS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

In  common  life,  levity,  or  prejudice,  or  carelessness  will 
often  lead  men  astray,  and  even  make  them  incapable  of 
ascertaining  what  is  really  wise  and  true.  And  Scripture 
has  expressly  declared  that  those  who  will  not  love  truth, 
shall  not  understand  it.  So  deeply  did  Grotius  feel  this 
consideration,  that  he  regarded  the  power  of  Christianity  to 
test  men's  character  and  hearts  as  itself  an  evidence  of  the 
Divine  origin  of  the  Gospel,  being  divinely  adapted  to  test 
men's  character  and  hearts  \ 

Among  professed  Christians,  too,  there  is  want  of  confi- 
dence in  the  fullness  of  the  Christian  evidence,  and  conse- 
quent want  of  inquiry.  Baxter  acknowledged  that  while  in 
his  younger  days  he  was  exercised  chiefly  about  his  own 
sincerity,  in  later  life  he  was  tried  with  doubts  about  the 
truth  of  Scripture.  Further  inquiry,  however,  removed 
them.  The  evidence  which  he  found  most  conclusive  was 
the  internal :  such  as  sprang  from  the  witness  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  with  his  own.  'The  spirit  of  prophecy,'  says  he, 
'was  the  first  witness  :  the  spirit  of  miraculous  power,  the 
second  ;  and  now,'  he  adds,  '  we  have  the  spirit  of  renova- 
tion and  holiness.'  '  Let  Christians  therefore,'  he  concludes, 
'  tell  their  doubts,  and  investigate  the  evidence  of  Divine 
truth,  for  there  is  ample  provision  for  the  removal  of 
them  all.' 

Most  of  the  doubts  which  good  men  feel  may  be  thus 
dispelled.  Others,  chiefly  speculative,  may  in  some  cases 
remain,  and  are  not  to  be  dispelled  by  the  best  proofs.  Even 
for  these,  however,  there  is  a  cure.  Philosophy  cannot  solve 
them  ;  but  prayer  and  healthy  exercise  in  departments  of 
Christian  life  to  which  doubting  does  not  extend  can ;  or, 
failing  to  solve  them,  these  remedies  will  teach  us  to  think 
less  of  their  importance,  and  to  wait  patiently  for  stronger 
light.   Ours  is  a  complex  nature,  and  the  morbid  excitability 

*  De  Veritate  Religionis  Christiance,  ii.  §  19.  See  also  Is  29"-^*  Dn  la'* 
Mt  6"  ii26  1311.12  jn  3VJ  I  Cor  a»*  a  Cor  4*  a  Tim  3^^ 


SUMMAKY  115 

of  one  part  of  our  frame  may  often  be  cured  by  the  increased 
activity  of  another.  An  irritable  faith  is  a  symptom  of 
deficient  action  elsewhere,  and  is  best  cured  by  a  more 
constant  attention  to  practical  duty.  Difficulties  which  no 
inquiry  can  remove  will  often  melt  away  amidst  the  warmth 
and  vigour  produced  by  active  love- 


la 


CHAPTER  VI 
INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

*  Holy  Scripture  containeth-  all  things  necessary  to  salvation  :  so 
that  -whatsoever  is  not  read  therein,  nor  may  be  proved  thereby, 
is  not  to  be  required  of  any  man,  that  it  should  be  believed  as  an 
article  of  the  Faith,  or  be  thought  requisite  or  necessary  to  salvation. 
In  the  name  of  the  holy  Scripture  -vve  do  understand  those  canonical 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  of  whose  authority  was  never 
any  doubt  in  the  Church.' — Article  VI  of  the  Ciiukch  of  Engi^nd. 

*  Are  you  persuaded  that  the  Holy  Scriptures  contain  sufficiently  all 
doctrine  required  of  necessity  for  eternal  salvation  through  faith  in 
Jesus  Christ  ?  and  are  you  determined,  out  of  the  said  Scriptures  to 
instruct  the  people  committed  to  your  charge,  and  to  teach  nothing,  as 
required  of  necessity  to  eternal  salvation,  but  that  which  you  shall 
be  persuaded  may  be  concluded  and  proved  by  the  Scripture?' — Form 
FOR  THE  Ordering  of  Priests  in  the  Church  of  England. 

'We  may  be  moved  and  induced  by  the  testimony  of  the  Church  to 
a  high  and  reverent  esteem  of  the  Holy  Scripture  :  and  the  heaven- 
liness  of  the  matter,  the  efficacy  of  the  doctrines,  the  majesty  of  the 
style,  the  consent  of  all  the  parts,  the  aspect  of  the  Avhole  (which  is 
to  give  all  glory  to  God),  the  full  discovery  it  makes  of  the  only  way 
of  man's  salvation,  the  many  other  incomparable  excellencies,  and  the 
entire  perfection  thereof,  are  arguments  whereby  it  doth  abundantly 
evidence  itself  to  be  the  word  of  God  ;  yet,  notwithstanding,  our  full 
preservation  and  allowance  of  the  infallible  truth  and  Divine  authority 
thereof,  is  from  the  inward  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  bearing  witness 
bv  and  with  the  word  in  our  hearts.' — Westminstkr  Assembly  :  Con- 
fession OF  Faith. 

The  Bible  as  Inspired 

82.  The  consideration  of  the  particular  evidences  of  the 
authenticity  and  claims  of  Scripture  naturally  leads  to 
further  and  more  general  questions  respecting  the  method 


THE  BIBLE  AS  INSPIRED  117 

of  its  communication,  and  its  special  characteristics  as  the 
word  of  God.  To  the  former  part  of  this  inquiry  belongs 
the  subject  of  Inspiration,  to  the  latter  that  of  Revelation. 
The  two  terms  indeed  are  often  interchangeably  employed. 
They  express  but  different  aspects  of  the  same  great  truth. 
The  Scriptures  may  be  compendiously  described  as  the 
record  by  inspired  writers  of  a  revelation,  or  rather  of 
a  series  of  revelations,   from  God  to  man. 

New  Testament  Statements. — The  declaration  that 
Scripture  is  inspired  by  God  is  made  in  various  forms, 
all  leading  to  the  same  result.  In  reference  to  the  Prophets 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  particular,  the  statements  of  the 
New  Testament  are  explicit :  '  Men  spake  from  God,  being 
moved  (borne  onwards)  by  the  Holy  Spirit;'  'The  Spirit  of 
Christ  which  was  in  them  did  testify ; '  '  God  of  old  time 
spake  unto  the  fathers  in  the  prophets  by  divers  portions, 
and  in  divers  manners.'  In  referring  to  the  *  holy  writings ' 
in  which  Timothy  had  been  instructed,  the  Apostle  adds, 
'Every  scripture  inspired  of  God  is  also  profitable  for 
teaching,  for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruction  which  is 
in  righteousness '  (2  Tim  3^^^^  R.  V.)* 

Old  Testament  Statements. — Declarations  to  the  same 
effect  had  been  made,  times  without  number,  by  the  Old 
Testament  writers.      Thus  the  Psalmist  (2  Sam  23^) — 
'  The  Spirit  of  Jehovah  spake  by  me, 
And  His  word  was  upon  my  tongue.' 

And  throughout  the  Prophets  :  '  The  word  of  Jehovah  came 
to  me,'  'Thus  saith  Jehovah,'  are  their  constant  affirmations. 

•  The  rendering  of  Jerome  :  '  Omnis  Scriptura  divinitus  inspirata, 
utilis  est,'  &c.,  is  naturally  followed  by  Wyolif,  as  well  as  in  versions 
influenced  by  the  Vulgate.  It  is,  however,  also  given  by  Tindale, 
Coverdale,  and  in  the  Great  Bible.  The  first  English  version  that 
contains  the  A.  V.  reading,  'All  Scripture  is  given  by  inspiration  of 
God  and  is  profitable,'  &c.,  is  the  Geneva  translation,  which  also  is 
that  of  Beza  in  his  Latin  version.  Valid  reasons  may  be  assigned  for 
returning,  with  the  Revisers,  to  the  older  rendering. 


118  INSPIKATION  AND  REVELATION 

In  recognition  of  the  same  truth,  the  unknown  author  of 
the  apocryphal  Books  of  Esdras  represents  Ezra  as  offering 
the  prayer,  '  If  I  have  found  favour  before  Thee,  send  Thy 
Holy  Spirit  unto  me,  and  I  shall  write  all  that  hath  been 
done  in  the  world  since  the  beginning'^/ 

83.  Method  of  Inspiration. — Prophetic  inspiration  has 
been  variously  conceived.  In  the  Scriptures  it  is  declared 
simply  as  a  fact,  without  analysis  or  explanation.  The 
heathen  in  general  held  that  while  inspired  men  were 
under  the  Divine  impulse,  all  voluntary  action  was  sus- 
pended. To  be  inspired  was  to  be  'possessed.'  A  state  of 
ecstasy  was  regarded  as  a  condition  of  exercising  the  prophetic 
gift.  But  such  is  never  the  view  given  in  Scripture.  *  In  true 
prophecy  self-consciousness  and  self-command  are  never  lost 
— "the  spirits  of  the  prophets  are  subject  to  the  prophets'** 
(I  Cor  1432)1). 

Views  of  the  Early  Fathers. — Early  Christian  writers 
give  various  accounts  of  inspiration,  but  for  the  most  part 
they  treat  the  subject  practically  rather  than  speculatively, 
though  generally  maintaining  that  inspired  persons  still 
exercised  their  ordinary  powers. 

Bishop  Westcott  has  a  detailed  summary",  with  full  quotations,  on 
the  subject — leading  to  the  conclusion  that :  '  the  unanimity  of  the 
early  Fathers  in  their  views  on  Holy  Scripture  is  the  more  remarkable 
when  it  is  taken  in  connexion  with  the  great  differences  of  character 
and  training  and  circumstances  by  which  they  were  distinguished. 
In  the  midst  of  errors  of  judgement  and  errors  of  detail,  they  main- 
tain firmly  with  one  consent  the  great  principles  which  invest  the 
Bible  with  an  interest  most  special  and  most  universal,  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  most  vivid  individuality  and  of  the  most  varied 
application.  They  teach  us  that  Inspiration  is  an  operation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  acting  through  men,  according  to  the  laws  of  their  con- 
Ktitution,  which  is  not  neutralized  by  His  influence,  but  adopted  as 
a  vehicle  for  the  full  expression  of  the  Divine  message.     They  teach 

^  2  Esd  14^^ 

*  \V.  Robertson  Smith,  The  Prophets  of  Israel,  Lect.  5. 
«  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  Appendix  B,  '  On  the  Primitive 
Doctrine  of  Inspiration,'  pp.  417-455. 


THEORIES  OF  INSPIRATION  119 

us  that  it  is  generally  combined  with  the  moral  progress  and  purifica- 
tion of  the  Teacher,  so  that  there  is  on  the  whole  a  moral  fitness  in 
the  relation  of  the  Prophet  to  the  doctrine.  They  teach  us  that 
Christ — the  Word  of  God — speaks  from  first  to  last;  tliat  all  Scripture 
is  permanently  fitted  for  our  instruction ;  that  a  true  spiritual  meaning, 
eternal  and  absolute,  lies  beneath  historical  and  ceremonial  and  moral 
details.' 

84,  Theory  of  the  Reformers. — In  such  views,  essen- 
tially practical,  without  metaphysical  refinement  or  attempt 
at  closer  definition,  the  Church  for  many  ages  was  content 
to  rest,  until  at  the  Reformation  the  presumed  necessity 
arose  for  a  more  precise  theoiy.  In  the  desire  to  honour 
Scripture  above  Church  authority,  the  Swiss  Reformers  and 
their  successors  adopted  the  view  that  the  sacred  writings 
were  dictated  word  for  word — that  is,  in  the  original 
languages,  and  in  a  text  still  uncorrupted.  In  the  Helvetic 
Confession  of  1675  they  declared  that  not  only  the  matter 
but  the  very  words  of  Scripture  were  divinely  dictated — in- 
cluding consonants,  vowels,  and  vowel-points  (or  at  least 
their  force).  A  similar  view  had  been  strongly  maintained 
among  English  theologians  by  Dr.  John  Owen,  to  whom  an 
effective  reply  was  made  by  Brian  Walton,  editor  of  the 
Folyglot ;  and  the  theory  is  still  occasionally  advocated, 
although  under  various  modifications  ^ 

According  to  this  view  the  human  writer  is  but  an  aman- 
uensis of  the  Divine  Author.  To  employ  figures  that  have 
been  used  to  express  his  position,  he  is  the  pen  rather  than 

*  'The  Bible  is  none  other  than  the  voice  of  Him  that  sitteth  upon 
the  throne.  Every  book  of  it,  every  chapter  of  it,  every  verse  of  it, 
every  word  of  it,  every  syllable  of  it  (where  are  we  to  stop?),  every 
letter  of  it,  is  the  direct  utterance  of  the  Most  High.  .  .  .  The  Bible  is 
none  other  than  the  Word  of  God,  not  some  part  of  it  more,  some 
part  of  it  less,  but  all  alike  the  utterance  of  Him  Who  sitteth  upon  the 
throne,  faultless,  unerring,  supreme.* — Bui'gon,  Inspiration  and  Interpre- 
tation,' 1861,  p.  89.  So  Dr.  Tregelles  'held  the  sixty-six  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  to  be  veritably  the  Word  of  God,  as  absolutely 
as  were  the  Ten  Commandments  written  by  the  finger  of  God  on  the 
two  Tables  of  stone.'     See  also  Gaussen's  Theopneustia. 


120  INSPIRATION  AND  EEVELATION 

the  penman,  the  unconscious  lyre  from  which  the  touch  of 
the  Divine  musician  awakens  the  melody. 

Difftculties  in  the  Verbal  Inspiration  Theory. — The 

difficulties  in  the  way  of  this  theory  are  obvious,  and  seem 
conclusive.  Among  them  are  the  diversities  of  style  in 
Scripture,  the  varying  quotations,  and  the  very  professions 
of  the  writers  themselves.  Divine  dictation,  supposing  it  to 
have  existed,  did  not  supersede  the  necessity,  on  the  part  of  the 
writers,  of  diligent  and  faithful  research  ^,  of  the  expression 
of  the  same  thought  in  different  words,  of  such  differences 
in  the  accounts  of  the  same  occurrences  as  would  be  likely 
to  arise  from  the  different  standpoints  of  the  narrators,  and 
of  the  distinctive  personal  note  in  the  various  writings. 
The  freedom  observable  in  the  citations  of  Old  Testament 
passages  in  the  New  clearly  shows  that  little  stress  is  laid 
upon  mere  verbal  exactness  ^\-  while,  as  the  vast  majority 
of  readers  must  still  be  dependent  upon  translations,  the 
value  of  such  precision  would  to  a  great  extent  be  lost  by 
them.  It  is  a  greater  act  of  Divine  omnipotence  to  produce 
a  perfect  work  through  imperfect  agents,  whose  personality 
is  at  the  same  time  fully  preserved,  than  to  do  so  by  merely 
dictating  it.  On  the  other  hand,  inspiration  is,  in  some 
cases  at  least,  as  in  the  *  Ten  Words '  on  Sinai,  hardly 
distinguishable  from  Divine  dictation.  Sometimes  the 
inspired  writers  were  led  to  express  themselves  in  language 
which  they  themselves  imperfectly  understood  c  ;  and  there 
are  intimations  of  their  use  of  words  which  the  Holy  Spirit 
taught  and  approved  ^. 

Such  are  among  the  facts  of  Scripture.  And  apart  from 
preconceived  notions,  it  is  from  facts  that  any  theory  of 
inspiration  must  be  formed.     The  phenomena  of  inspiration 

•  Lu  ii-*. 

"  Compare  Mt  aS^e-^T  ^jth  Lu  22^9-20  and  i  Cor  ii'^*-'^^  also  Mt  3^^ 
with  Mk  ill  and  Lu  322.  c  See  i  Pet  i^o"  Pn  la^. 

d  See  Heb  i^  i  Cor  a^^is.     Compare  Mk  lo^'^^ 


DIVINE  AND  HUMAN  ELEMENTS  121 

are  those  which  we  find  in  the  Bible ;  not  those  which  we 
may  hold  to  be  necessary  to  our  belief  in  the  doctrine  *. 

85.  Divine  and  Hnman  Elements  in  Scripture. — And 

however  such  facts  may  be  interpreted,  there  is  one  conclusion 
to  which  they  together  point ;  the  coexistence  of  a  Divine 
and  of  a  human  element  in  Scripture.  There  is  an  often- 
remarked  analogy  in  this  respect  between  the  written  word 
and  the  Word  Incarnate.  Perfect  God  and  perfect  man — 
two  Natures  (according  to  the  language  of  theologians)  in 
One  Person — meet  in  mysterious  ineffable  union  ^.  It  may 
not  be  for  us  in  either  case  to  form  any  definite  theory  as 
to  the  method  of  this  union,  or  its  limits.  The  fact  we 
thankfully  accept,  and  on  that  our  faith  depends.  The 
endeavour  has  often  been  made  to  analyse  it  more  closely. 
From  the  evident  differences  between  difi'erent  parts  of 
Scripture  in  their  contents  and  their  tone,  distinctions  have 
been  drawn  between  'inspiration  of  direction*  and  'in- 
spiration of  suggestion,'  between  'illumination'  and  'dicta- 
tion '  as  well  as  between  '  dynamical '  and  '  mechanical ' 
influence.  Whatever  truths  these  phrases  may  embody, 
they  scarcely  bring  us  into  closer  contact  with  the  vital  truth. 
The  mystery  of  Being  and  of  Thought,  the  action  of  the 
Divine  mind  upon  the  human  spirit,  and  the  response  of  the 
human  spirit  to  the  Divine,  are  still  beyond  our  under- 
standing. Nor,  indeed,  do  such  theories  interfere  with  our 
reception  of  the  'living  Oracles.' 

86.  Dif5.ciilties. — Supposed  inaccuracies  in  the  details  of 

*  'The  student  must  not  approach  the  inquiry  with  the  assumption 
— sanctioned  though  it  may  have  been  by  traditional  use — that  God 
must  have  taught  His  people,  and  us  through  His  people,  in  one 
particular  way.  He  must  not  presumptuously  stake  the  inspiration 
and  the  Divine  authority  of  the  Old  Testament  on  any  foregone 
conclusion  as  to  the  method  and  shape  in  which  the  records  have 
come  down  to  us.' — Westcott,  Hebrews,  p.  493. 

*>  See  The  Inspiration  qf  Holy  Scripture,  Eight  Discourses  by  Archdeacon 
Jjee,  1864,  Lect.  i. 


122  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

Scripture  will  be  considered  in  the  sections  on  Interpreta- 
tion, especially  in  that  on  Scripture  Difficulties.  Suffice  it 
now  to  say  that  the  Bible  claims  to  be  a  certain  and 
infallible  revelation  of  Divine  Truth,  that  in  searching 
the  Scriptures  the  inquirer  must  look  beyond  the  letter  to 
the  spirit,  and  that  no  errors,  such  as  are  sometimes  alleged, 
as  in  matters  of  science,  chronology,  and  the  like,  invalidate 
the  grounds  of  faith.  With  this  assurance  firmly  fixed,  we 
are  free  to  investigate  the  record.  The  work  has  been  done 
by  many  a  competent  expositor.  The  result  is  thus  far  to 
confirm  the  accuracy  of  the  record,  to  clear  away  a  host  of 
difficulties,  and  to  discover  in  the  very  variations  of  the 
Sacred  Text  new  proofs  of  its  authenticity.  Scripture  is 
a  balanced  whole,  and  even  the  apparent  contradictions  and 
variations  may  be  but  intentionally  differing  aspects  of  truth 
which,  like  the  diverse  views  in  the  stereoscope,  need  only 
to  be  combined  to  produce  the  true  image  of  solidity.  And 
even  where  there  still  remains  a  hesitancy  on  our  part  as  to 
the  meaning,  or  an  impossibility  in  our  jDresent  state  of 
knowledge  in  harmonizing  different  accounts,  the  experience 
of  the  past  affords  good  hope  of  a  solution.  But  what 
if  that  solution  cannot  as  yet  be  attained  ?  Still  ^  the 
foundation  of  the  Lord  standeth  sure.' 

The  following  quotations  indicate  some  important  infer- 
ences from  the  princij^les  above  stated ; — 

*In  theories  of  inspiration,  one  factor  lias  too  offcon  been  brought 
into  exclusive  prominence,  and  the  other  passed  over.  A  purely 
mechanical  theory  has  practically  ignored  any  real  activity  on  the 
part  of  the  human  instrument,  or  an  entirely  subjective  theory  has 
virtually  denied  the  reality  of  the  Divine  communication  of  truth 
which  could  not  otherwise  have  been  known.  The  proposition  that 
"Scripture  is  the  Word  of  God  "  has  been  hardened  into  the  dogma  of 
the  verbal  inspiration  and  absolute  inerrancy  of  every  word  of  the 
Bible  ;  and  the  Jewish  theory  of  the  dictation  of  the  Pentateuch  to 
Moses  has  been  extended  to  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament ;  or,  on  the 
other  liand,  the  proposition  that  "  Scripture  contains  the  Word  of  God  " 
has  been  volatilized  till  all  distinction  between  Scripture  and  other 


THE  BIBLE  AS  KEVELATION  123 

books  is  obliterated,  and  the  inspiration  of  Moses  or  Isaiah  is  held  to 
be  not  materially  different  from  the  inspiration  of  Solon  or^sehylus.' — 
Prof.  A.  F.  Kirkpatrick's  Divine  Library  oj  the  Old  Testament,  p.  91. 

'It  is  certain,'  writes  Dean  Burgon,  '  (i)  That  when  various  persons 
are  giving  true  accounts  of  the  same  incident,  their  accounts  will 
sometimes  differ  so  consideiably  that  it  will  seem  at  first  sight  as 
if  they  could  not  possibly  be  reconciled,  and  yet  (2)  that  a  single 
word  of  explanation,  the  discovery  of  one  minute  circumbtance  — 
perfectly  natural  when  we  hear  it  stated — will  often  suffice  to  remove 
the  difficulty  which  before  seemed  insurmountable;  and,  further, 
that  when  this  has  been  done,  the  entire  consistency  of  the  several 
accounts  becomes  apparent,  while  the  harmony  which  is  established 
is  often  of  the  most  beautiful  nature.' — Sermons  on  Inspiration  and 
Interpretation,  186 r,  p.  63. 

BishopEllicott  writes  : — 'Fully  convinced  as  we  are  that  the  Scripture 
is  the  revelation  througli  human  media  of  the  infinite  mind  of  God  to 
the  finite  mind  of  man,  and  recognizing  as  we  do  both  a  liuman  and 
a  Divine  element  in  the  written  Word,  wo  verily  believe  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  was  so  breathed  into  the  mind  of  the  writer,  so  illumined  his 
spirit  and  pervaded  his  thoughts,  that  while  nothing  that  individual- 
ized him  as  man  was  taken  away,  everything  that  %v„j.  necessary  to 
enable  him  to  declare  Divine  Truth  in  all  its  fullness  was  bestowed 
and  superadded.' — Aids  to  Faith,  p.  411. 

Dean  Alford  writes  in  the  Profegomena  to  his  Greek  Testament  : — 'The 
inspiration  of  the  sacrei  writers  I  believe  to  have  consisted  in  the 
fullness  of  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  specially  raising  them  to, 
and  enabling  them  for,  their  work — in  a  manner  which  distinguishes 
them  from  all  other  writers  in  the  world,  and  their  work  from  all 
other  works.' — Vol.  i.  p.  ai. 

The  Bible  as  Revelation 

87.  Christianity  claims  to  be  a  revealed  religion :  the 
record  of  the  revelation  is  contained  in  its  sacred  Scriptures. 
In  these  it  possesses  an  authoritative  declaration  of  the  mind 
and  will  and  purpose  of  God  towards  man,  a  self-disclosure 
of  '  Him  that  is  invisible  '  which  transcends  all  manifesta- 
tions of  the  Divine  in  nature  or  in  history,  and  gives 
knowledge  which  the  human  mind  could  never  otherwise 
have  attained. 

What  then,  precisely,  is  Revelation,  and  what  is  the 
method  of  Pivine  revelation  disclosed  in  the  Bible? 


124  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

Natural  and  Revealed  Religion. — Revealed  religion 
is  often  set  in  contrast  with  natural  religion.  The  distinction 
implied  in  these  terms  is,  broadly,  this.  Natural  religion 
is  that  in  which  man  finds  God  ;  Revealed,  is  that  in  which 
God  finds  man.  In  the  one  process  we  are  separated  from 
God  by  the  world  and  our  own  human  nature ;  no  truth  is 
to  be  learned  concerning  Him  but  what  we  may  slowly  and 
painfully  decipher  there,  and  how  perplexing  the  search  and 
doubtful  the  issue  the  host  of  varying  and  even  contradictory 
Theisms  bear  witness.     See  Job  38,  39. 

The  possihility  of  natural  religion  is  attested  by  the  Scriptures  them- 
selves in  such  passages  as  Ps  19^  94^  143^^  Is  40^^^  42^  45^^  Job  12^  26^* 
2524  »qq.  Ac  i72'«-28  j^q  j19-22  .  j^g  insufficiency  and  failure  find  expression 
in  Job  11^  I  Cor  i'^^  and  elsewhere. 

In  Revelation,  on  the  other  hand,  the  silence  is  broken  *, 
the  sign  from  heaven  given  ;  the  certainty  and  the  authority 
craved  for  by  man's  religious  needs  are  in  the  miracle,  in 
the  Prophet's  '  Thus  saith  the  Lord,'  in  the  inspired  Book, 
and,  finally  and  completely,  in  Christ,  the  Incarnate  Word. 

88.  Harmony  between  the  two. — But  though  the  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  ways  of  apprehending  God  is  valid, 
a  little  consideration  will  show  that  it  is  not,  and  cannot  be, 
absolute.  God's  revelation  of  Himself  is  conveyed  through 
human  instruments  and  received  through  modes  of  human 
thought  and  feeling.  In  a  written  revelation  the  human 
element  is  necessarily  prominent.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  true  to  say  that  Nature  reveals  God  ;  that  He  manifests 
Himself  in  the  experience  of  individual  and  nation,  and 
speaks  through  the  intuitions  of  conscience.  Man's  search- 
ing after  God  is  also,  at  every  step,  a  self-revelation  of  God. 
To  every  upward  aspiration  of  thought  or  emotion  Paul's 
phrase  might  be  applied,  *  Knowing  Him,  but  rather  being 
known  of  Him.'     Pascal,  in  his   perplexity,  seeking  after 

*  This  is  precisely  the  meaning  of  the  Greek  verb  *  having  spoken/ 
*  hath  spoken,'  in  Heb  i^-^. 


MEANING  OF  EEVELATION  125 

God,  seemed  to  hear  a  Divine  voice  saying  to  him,  'Thou 
wouldst  not  seek  Me,  hadst  thou  not  already  found  Me.' 
In  this  Divine  quest,  to  seek  is  to  find. 

The  tendency  of  some  modern  religious  thinking  is  to  emphasize  the 
likeness  rather  than  the  difference  between  natural  and  revealed 
religion.  The  gap  is  reduced  from  both  sides  :  Revelation  is 
naturalized,  and  the  ordinary  processes  of  thought  towards  God  are 
shown  to  have  in  them  elements  which  are  supernatural.  The  con- 
viction that  the  Bible  is  revelation  has  largely  given  place  to  the  con- 
ception that  it  contains  a  revelation,  unique  and  authoritative,  but 
gradually  unfolded  in  the  history  and  literature  of  which  the  Scriptures 
are  the  records.  The  authoritxj  oi  this  revelation  is  regarded  as  inherent 
rather  than  extraneous.  The  stress  on  miracle  has  shifted  from  its 
function  as  attesting  a  revelation  independent  of  it,  to  its  nature  as  part 
of  the  revelation  itself.  The  changed  point  of  view  may  perhaps  be 
illustrated  by  contrast  of  the  immediate  effect  of  Christ's  teaching  in 
the  synagogue  at  Capernaum,  *  They  were  astonished  at  His  teaching, 
for  He  taught  them  as  having  authority  *  * — with  the  inference  drawn  by 
Nicodemus,  *  Rabbi,  we  know  that  Thou  art  a  teacher  come  from 
God :  for  no  man  can  do  these  signs  that  Thou  doest,  except  God  be 
with  him  ^' 

In  view  of  this  trend  of  thought,  whether  justified  or  not, 
it  becomes  more  important  to  examine  and  to  vindicate  the 
peculiar  claim  of  the  Bible  to  be  or  to  contain  a  special  and 
unique  revelation  of  God  to  men. 

89.  Meaning  of  Revelation. — The  word  Revelation 
(lit.  drawing  hack  the  veil)  is  the  Latin  equivalent  of  the 
Greek  a.TroKd\vK}/L^  (Apocalypse),  aw  uncovering.  In  the  LXX 
the  substantive  does  not  occur  in  the  metaphorical  sense, 
and  the  verb  (dTroKaAvTTTetv)  very  rarely.  The  idea,  indeed, 
is  characteristically  Christian.  In  the  New  Testament  God 
is  said  to  reveal  His  truth  to  men,  sometimes  through  the 
Holy  Spirit:  Mt  ii^s  l6^^  Lu  lo^i  i  Cor  2^^  14^0  ;•  the 
method  of  disclosure  and  the  truth  disclosed  are  alike  called 
revelation:  Eph  3^  i  Car  14^.  The  idea  of  supernatural 
communication  is  emphasized  by  the  many  passages  which 

•  Mk  i2«.  »•  Jn  32  R.  V. 


126  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

speak  of  the  mystery  of  God,  hidden  from  the  ages  but  now 
revealed  or  made  known  in  Christ:  Ro  16^'  Eph  3^  Col  i^^ 

Revelation,  then,  appears  essentially  as  a  special  operation 
of  God  upon  the  human  spirit,  by  which  He  manifests 
Himself,  His  will.  His  truth.  As  a  manner  of  knowins:, 
it  is  separate  from  ordinary  mental  processes  ;  as  that  which 
is  known,  it  is  knowledge  not  otherwise  attainable  by  men. 

By  way  of  more  precise  definition  the  following  may 
suffice.  'Revelation  means  God  manifesting  Himself  in 
the  history  of  the  world  in  a  supernatural  manner  and  for 
a  special  purpose*,*  i.e.  the  proper  object  of  revelation  is 
God  ;  its  sphere  is  history,  not  nature ;  its  method  is  super- 
natural. Again,  *  Revelation  can  only  concern  what  is  so 
above  nature  as  to  be  beyond  the  power  of  man  to  discover 
or  of  nature  to  disclose  ;  in  other  words,  it  must  relate  to 
God,  proceed  from  Him,  and  be  concerned  with  Him^.' 

90.  Moreover,  although  writing  is  not  essential  to  revela- 
tion as  thus  defined,  '  the  idea  of  a  written  revelation  may 
be  said  to  be  logically  involved  in  the  notion  of  a  Living 
God.  Speech  is  natural  to  spirit ;  and  if  God  is  by  nature 
Spirit,  it  will  be  to  Him  a  matter  of  nature  to  reveal 
Himself  c.' 

The  relation  of  Bevelatlon  to  Inspiration  (see  §  82)  is  dealt  with  by 
Dr,  Fairbairn  in  words  which  follow  those  just  quoted  :  'But  if  He 
speaks  to  man,  it  will  be  through  men  ;  and  those  who  hear  best  will 
be  those  most  possessed  of  God.  This  possession  is  termed  "inspira- 
tion." God  inspires,  man  reveals  :  inspiration  is  the  process  by  which 
God  gives  :  revelation  is  the  mode  or  form — word,  character,  or  institu- 
tion— in  which  man  embodies  what  he  has  received.  The  terms, 
though  not  equivalent,  are  co-extensive,  the  one  denoting  the  process 
on  its  inner  side,  the  other  on  its  outer.'  Dr.  Sanday,  in  quoting  this 
passage  with  approval,  remarks;  'The  context  shows  that  it  is  as 
correct  to  say,  "  God  reveals  " ;  but  it  is  through  man  that  the  revela- 
tion takes  concrete  shape**.'     A  passage  to  the  same  effect  may  be 

•  Dr.  A.  B.  Bruce. 

*»  Dr.  A.  M.  Fairbairn,  Christ  in  Modern  Theology,  p.  387. 

•  Ibid.f  p.  496.  •*  Dr.  Sanday,  Inspiration,  p.  125  note. 


METHOD  OF  REVELATION  127 

added  from  Bishop  Westcott :  *  Inspiration  may  be  regarded  in  one 
aspect  as  the  correlative  of  Revelation.  Both  operations  imply  a  super- 
natural extension  of  the  field  of  man's  spiritual  vision,  but  in  different 
ways.  By  Inspiration  we  conceive  that  his  natural  powers  are 
quickened  so  that  he  contemplates  with  a  Divine  intuition  the  truth 
as  it  exists  still  among  the  ruins  of  the  moral  and  physical  worlds. 
By  Revelation  we  see  as  it  were  the  dark  veil  removed  from  the  face 
of  things,  so  that  the  true  springs  and  issues  of  life  stand  disclosed  in 
their  eternal  nature*.' 

In  affirming  then  that  Christianity  is  a  Eevealed  Religion, 
we  affirm  that  God  has  so  spoken  to  men  :  that  we  know  it 
to  be  so,  because  we  have  a  record  of  the  revelation  in  the 
Scriptures.  The  Bible  is  a  revelation  because  it  contains 
the  history  of  the  Redeemer  and  of  our  Redemption.  So 
much  any  believer  in  revelation  must  affirm  :  any  further 
affirmations  as  to  the  nature  and  method  of  revelation  must 
be  based  on  a  study  of  the  Bible  itself. 

Method  of  Eevelation  in  the  BlUe. 

91.  The  Bible  is,  first,  a  revelation  of  Religious  Truth. 
This  has  already  been  stated  in  definition.  The  proper 
object  of  revelation  is  God,  in  the  relations  which  do  and 
may  subsist  between  Him  and  His  creatures.  The  Bible  is 
the  history  of  Redemption.  It  gives  the  history  of  the 
world  as  'God's  world,'  and  as  destined  to  become  the 
kingdom  of  His  Son.  It  tells  us  of  its  origin,  that  we  may 
know  by  what  God  has  done,  the  reverence  due  to  Him: 
what  is  His  power  Whose  law  this  book  has  revealed:  Whose 
creatures  we  are,  that  we  may  distinguish  Him  from  the 
idols  of  the  heathen,  who  are  either  imaginary  beings,  or 
parts  of  His  creation. 

I.  All  the  narrative  of  the  Bible  seems  written  on  the  same 
principle.  It  is  an  inspired  history  of  religion,  i.  e.  of  man 
in  relation  to  God  :  all  else  that  it  contains  is  in  subordination 
to  this  main  purpose.     Idolatrous  nations  are  introduced, 

*•  Westcott,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  p.  8. 


128  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

not  as  independently  important,  but  as  influencing  the 
Church,  or  as  influenced  by  it :  and  thus  narrative  and 
prophecy  continue  from  the  first  transgression,  through  the 
whole  interval  of  man's  misery  and  guilt,  to  a  period,  spoken 
of  in  a  great  diversity  of  expressions  and  under  both  econo- 
mies, when  '  the  God  of  heaven  shall  set  up  a  kingdom  that 
shall  never  be  destroyed.* 

These  historical  disclosures  supply  ample  materials  for 
inquiry;  but  it  is  the  principle  of  selection  and  the  clear 
scope  of  the  whole  which  are  now  under  notice.  To  convey 
religious  truth  is  clearly  the  writers'  chief  design.  What- 
ever is  revealed  must  be  studied  with  this  fact  in  view, 
and  whatever  is  withheld  may  be  regarded  as  not  essential 
to  the  accomplishment  of  this  purpose. 

2.  In  the  prophetic  Scriptures  this  peculiarity  is  equally 
obvious.  They  are  all  either  intensely  moral,  or  evangelical, 
or  both.  It  might  have  been  otherwise,  without  injury  to 
prophecy  as  an  outward  evidence  of  Scripture.  The  gifts  of 
prediction  and  of  moral  teaching  might  have  been  disjoined: 
but  in  fact  they  are  not.  What  might  have  ministered  to 
the  gratification  of  natural  curiosity  only  is  enlisted  on  the 
side  of  practical  holiness.  The  prophet  is  the  teacher ;  and 
the  revelation  of  the  future  becomes,  like  the  history  of  the 
past,  the  handmaid  of  evangelical  truth  and  of  spiritual 
progress. 

3.  So  is  it  in  all  that  is  revealed  in  relation  to  Christ.  We 
read  of  the  dignity  of  His  Person,  but  it  is  with  a  constant 
reference  to  *  us  men,  and  to  our  salvation.*  If  He  is  set 
forth  as  the  Light  of  the  world,  it  is  to  guide  us  into  the 
way  of  peace:  if  as  the  Lamb  of  God,  it  is  that  He  may 
redeem  us  by  His  blood  :  if  as  entering  into  heaven,  it  is  as 
our  Propitiation  and  Intercessor.  We  call  Him  justly  the 
*  Son  of  God ' :  He  loved  to  call  Himself,  as  His  Apostles 
never  called  Him,  and  with  a  peculiar  reference  to  His 
sympathy  and  work— the  'Son  of  man.' 


METHOD  OF  REVELATION  129 

Scripture,  then,  is  the  revelation  of  religious  truth,  and  of 
truth  adapted  to  our  nature  as  fallen  and  guilty.  We  use  it 
rightly,  therefore,  only  as  it  ministers  to  our  holiness  and 
consolation.  It  might  have  revealed  other  truth,  or  the 
truth  it  does  reveal  may  be  regarded  by  us  only  as  sublime 
and  glorious.  But  this  is  not  God's  purpose.  He  has  given 
it  'for  teaching,  reproof,  correction,  and  for  discipline  in 
righteousness.'  All  knowledge  may  be  useful  :  but  this 
knowledge  is  necessary. 

An  important  principle  follows  from  these  remarks.  We 
must  not  expect  to  find  revelation  in  Scripture,  except  of 
what  is,  in  a  religious  point  of  view,  important  for  us  to 
know.  Some  seek  'the  dead  among  the  living'  (as  Lord 
Bacon  phrased  it),  and  look  into  the  Bible  for  natural  philo- 
sophy and  human  science  :  others  inquire  in  it  for  the 
'  secret  things  '  which  '  belong  only  to  God  ' :  and  both  are 
rebuked  by  the  very  character  and  design  of  the  Bible.  It 
is  the  record  of  necessary  and  saving  truth  ;  or  of  truth  in 
its  religious  aspects  and  bearings,  and  of  nothing  besides : 
its  histories  being  brief  or  full,  as  brevity  or  fullness  may 
best  secure  these  ends. 

Not  everything  contained  in  Scripture  is  of  the  nature  of 
revelation.  God  reveals  the  unknown,  the  spiritual,  the 
secret  purpose  of  His  will.  But  more  than  this :  He  unveils 
hidden  meanings  in  what  is  already  known,  His  own 
mind  as  displayed  in  outward  facts ;  in  a  word,  the  religious 
interests  of  life. 

Professor  Hannah  has  acutely  remarked,  with  regard  to  many  of  the 
Bible  records  : — '  So  far  as  these  are  simple  facts,  bearing  a  plain 
historical  character,  and  holding  definite  external  relations  to  dates, 
to  geography,  to  the  histories  of  surrounding  nations,  it  is  clear  that 
no  special  revelation  was  required  for  their  record.  We  can  imagine 
that  even  uninspired  historians  might  have  nai-rated  the  whole  con- 
temporary portion  of  the  facts  of  Scripture,  in  histories  of  the  common 
type  and  order.  But  such  records  would  have  differed  widely  from 
the  existing  Scriptures,  because  they  could  not  have  presented  the 

K 


130  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

facts  under  the  aspect  which  a  knowledge  of  their  purpose  and  signi- 
ficance supplied.  Revelation,  properly  so  called,  is  the  supernatural 
counterpart  to  this  double  series  of  facts,  uniting  them  together  under 
one  religious  explanation.  Scripture  consists,  then,  not  of  facts  only, 
but  of  facts  arranged  with  a  view  to  one  overruling  purpose,  and 
lighted  up  by  a  peculiar  interpretation,  which  the  unassisted  mind  ol 
man  could  nerer  have  projected  or  supplied.' — Relation  between  the  Divim 
and  Human  Elements  in  Holy  Scripture  (Bampton  Lectures,  1863,  pp.  27,  28). 

In  general,  Scripture  speaks  in  relation  to  physical  facts 

in  the  language  of  common  life  and  contemporary  know- 
ledge ;  and  sometimes  that  language  is  popular  rather  than 
scientific,  as  in  Job  9^  38°  Ps  104^.  And  the  reason  is  plain. 
Supernatural  intervention  here  would  be  quite  outside  the 
purpose  of  revelation.  Indeed,  if  strictly  philosophical  lan- 
guage had  been  emf)loyed,  Scripture  must  have  been  less 
intelligible :  to  have  described  natural  facts  7iot  as  they 
appear,  but  as  they  really  are,  would  have  made  all  such 
facts  matters  of  revelation.  It  must  have  excited  doubts 
among  the  ignorant,  and  prejudice  (from  the  necessary 
incompleteness  of  Scripture  teaching  on  such  questions) 
among  the  philosophic ;  destroying,  among  all,  the  unity 
of  impression  which  the  Bible  seeks  to  produce.  The  Bible 
would  have  become,  in  that  case,  a  Divine,  though  incom- 
plete handbook  of  science ;  an  arrangement  as  little  con- 
ducive to  the  cultivation  of  a  truly  philosophical  spirit  as  to 
the  interests  of  religion  itself.  '■  And  yet,  although  the 
language  is  not  that  of  modern  science,  it  is  curiously 
accurate,  and  its  absolute  concurrence  with  the  latest 
discoveries  is  amazing  to  all  except  the  believer''^.' 

The  Scriptures,  for  example,  speak  of  the  earth  as  a  globe,  and  as 
suspended  upon  nothing,  Is  40-^  Job  26^-^^  Pr  S''^^.  In  treating  of  its 
age,  they  distinguish  between  the  creation  of  unorganized  matter  and 
that  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  Gen  i'-^.  They  give  to  man  a  very 
recent  origin,  and  their  accuracy  in  this  respect  is  attested  by  the 
ascertained  state  of  the  earth's  surface  and  by  the  monuments  of 
antiquity.     They  describe  the  lieavens  as  boundless  space,  not  as  a  solid 

*  See  Capron's  ConJUct  of  Faith. 


METHOD  OF  REVELATION  131 

sphere  ;  and  light  as  an  element  independent  of  the  sun,  and  as 
anterior  to  it,  anticipating  the  generally  received  theory  of  modern 
inquirers.  When  they  speak  of  air,  they  say  that  God  gave  it  weight, 
as  Galileo  proved  ;  and  of  the  seas,  that  He  gave  them  their  measure  : 
a  proportion  of  land  and  sea  such  as  now  exists  being  essential  to 
the  health  and  safety  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  waters 
above  *  the  expanse '  have  an  importance  attached  to  them  in  Scrip- 
ture which  modern  science  alone  can  appreciate  ;  many  millions  of 
tons  being  raised  from  the  surface  of  England  alone  by  evaporation 
every  day. 

When  they  speak  of  the  human  race  they  give  it  one  origin ;  and 
of  human  language  they  indicate  original  identity  and  subsequent 
division,  not  into  endless  diversities  of  dialect  such  as  now  exist,  but 
rather  into  two  or  three  primeval  tongues  ;  facts  which,  though  long 
questioned,  ethnography  and  philosophy  have  confirmed,  Gen  ii^  lo^^*. 

When  they  speak  of  the  stars,  instead  of  supposing  a  thousand,  as 
ancient  astronomers  did  (Hipparchus  says  1022,  Ptolemy  1026),  they 
declare  that  they  are  innumerable  ;  a  declaration  which  modern 
telescopes  discover  to  be  not  even  a  figure  of  speech.  '  God,'  says  Sir 
John  Herschel,  after  surveying  the  groups  of  stars  and  nebulae  in  the 
heavens,  '  has  scattered  them  like  dust  through  the  immensity  of 
space.'  And  when  the  Scriptures  speak  of  their  hosts,  it  is  as 
dependent,  material,  obedient  things.  Is  4o26-27_ 

In  the  domain  of  religious  truth  the  Bible  is  of  absolute 
and  final  authority  ;  in  that  of  scientific  fact  and  conception 
it  does  not  claim  to  be.  There  can  be  no  conflict  between 
science  and  religion.  The  dreary  records  of  the  warfare 
between  science  and  systems  of  tlieology  which  have  mistaken 
the  nature  and  limits  of  the  inspiration  under  which  the 
authors  of  the  Bible  wrote  its  several  books,  will  not  fail 
of  their  lesson  if  they  teach  us  to  rest  the  authority  of 
Scripture  on  its  matchless  and  unassailable  revelation  ol 
religious  truth. 

92.  A  second  peculiarity  of  Scripture  is,  that  it  is 
a  gradual  and  progressive  revelation. 

The  truths  and  purpose  of  God  are  in  themselves  incapable 
of  progress ;  but  not  the  revelation  of  those  truths.  In 
nature,  the  rising  sun  scatters  the  mists  of  the  morning, 
and  brings  out  into  light  first  one  prominence,  and  then 

K  2 


132  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

another,  till  every  hill  and  valley  is  clothed  in  splendour. 
The  landscape  was  there  before,  but  it  was  not  seen.  So  in 
revelation,  the  progress  is  not  in  the  truth,  but  in  the  clear- 
ness and  impressiveness  with  which  Scripture  reveals  it. 

In  the  beginning,  for  example,  God  taught  the  unity  of 
His  nature  ;  while  the  truth  that  there  is  a  plurality  in  the 
Godhead  was  taught,  but  indistinctly.  In  the  later  Prophets, 
the  truth  comes  out  with  greater  distinctness  ;  and  in  the 
New  Testament  it  is  fully  revealed.  In  the  same  way,  the 
work  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  recognized  in  the  Old  Testament, 
and  with  increasing  clearness  as  we  approach  the  times  of 
the  gospels  It  is  in  the  New  alone,  however,  that  we 
have  a  distinct  view  of  His  personality  and  work. 

This  gradual  disclosure  of  the  Divine  will  is  yet  more 
remarkable  in  the  anticipations  of  the  Christ.  The  first  pro- 
mise (Gen  3^^)  contained  a  prophetic  declaration  of  mercy,  and 
foretold  His  coming  and  work,  though  in  mysterious  terms. 
The  first  recorded  act  of  acceptable  worship  (Gen  4"^  Heb  1 1*) 
was  a  type,  expressing  by  an  action  the  faith  of  the  offerer 
in  the  fulfilment  of  the  first  prediction.  There  was  to  be 
triumph  through  suffering,  and  there  was  to  be  the  substi- 
tution of  the  innocent  for  the  guilty. 

These  pramises  and  types  were  multiplied  with  the  lapse  of  time. 
In  the  person  or  worsliip  of  Enoch ^,  of  Noah'',  of  Melchizedec*^,  and 
of  Job  ",  there  was  much  that  was  typical  and  predictive  ;  still  more 
in  the  history  of  Abraham'  and  his  immediate  descendants. 

Under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  other  typical  acts  or  persons,  and 
places,  and  things  were  instituted,  and  the  design  of  the  institution 
was  most  distinctly  explained*.  Prophecies,  also,  became  more  clear 
and  frequent  **. 

Between  the  days  of  Samuel  and  Malachi — a  period  of  more  than  six 

»  Gen  i2  6»  Ps  si^^-^'^  Is  48^^  ^^i  jze  3'^*'^''.  Compare  Num  62*-2g 
with  the  New  Testament  benediction  2  Cor  13^*.  ^  Ju  14. 

«=  I  Pet  320  Gen  S'^\  ^  Heb  5,  6.  •  Job  42^-^ 

'  Gen  12^  (compared  with  Gal  3^)  26*  49'*^,  &c 
*  Lev  i^  6'^~'^  17^^  compared  with  Heb  9-'''. 
^  Num  24'"^  Dt  iSi^Ac  3^--'^\ 


1 


METHOD  OF  REVELATION  133 

hundred  years— a  succession  of  pi-ophets  appear,  wlio  gradually  set 
forth  the  person  and  work  of  the  Messiah  ;  they  foretell,  too,  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Spirit  and  the  general  prevalence  of  the  truth  *  :  points 
on  which  the  earlier  revelation  is  silent. 

In  the  extent  of  their  predictions,  the  prophets  have  not  gone 
beyond  the  first  promise  which  was  intended  to  give  hope  of  complete 
redemption  ;  but  in  their  clearness,  in  the  detailed  account  they  give 
of  what  redemption  involved,  and  what  it  cost,  the  difference  is  most 
marked  ;  while  in  the  same  qualities,  the  Gospels  have  gone  at  least 
as  far  beyond  the  prophets  as  the  prophets  have  gone  beyond  the  Law. 

93.  It  is  noticeable,  too,  that  the  predictions  of  the  old 
economy  and  its  practical  doctrines  go  hand  in  hand.  The 
revelation  spreads  on  each  point.  The  light  that  illuminates 
the  living  spring,  or  the  harvest-field  of  truth,  shows  with 
equal  clearness  the  path  that  leads  to  them.  The  Law  gives 
Divine  precept  with  more  fullness  than  previous  dispensa- 
tions, and  the  Proj^hets  go  beyond  the  Law,  occupying  a 
middle  place  between  it  and  the  gospel.  They  insist  more 
fully  on  the  principles  of  personal  holiness,  as  distinguished 
from  rational  and  ceremonial  purity,  and  their  sanctions 
have  less  reference  to  temporal  promises.  The  precepts  of 
the  Law  are  in  the  Law  stern  and  brief:  its  penalties  de- 
nounced with  unmitigated  severity.  In  the  Prophets,  the 
whole  is  presented  in  colours  softer  and  more  attractive ; 
hues  from  some  distant  glory,  itself  concealed,  have  fallen 
upon  their  gloomy  features  and  illumined  them  into  its  own 
likeness.  The  Law  had  said,  '  Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy 
God  with  all  thy  heart  and  w^ith  all  thy  strength ' ;  and  the 
extent  of  this  command  nothing  could  exceed.  The  Prophets, 
however,  expound  and  enforce,  and  animate  it  with  a  new 
spirit,  and  direct  its  application  to  greater  holiness.  The 
rule  of  life  thus  becomes  in  their  hands  increasingly  luminous 
and  practical. 

The  Psalms,  again,  are  a  great  instrument  of  piety,  and 
are  so  far  additions  to  the  institutes  of  legal  worship,  which 
contain  no  specific  provision  for  devotion. 

•  I  Pet  ill  ps  6818  Is  5213-15  53I1.X2  61I.2  Joel  a^s  Zee  i^\ 


134  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

Ethical  Progress. — At  the  same  time,  there  is  an  un- 
doubted ethical  development.  Statutes  were  given  .'iiid 
actions  permitted  in  the  early  stages  of  human  history, 
which  became  obsolete  in  the  progress  of  Divine  revelation. 
Our  Lord  expressly  declares  that  certain  Mosaic  institutes 
were  given  for  the  hardness  of  the  people's  heart  ^  ;  that  is, 
because  they  were  as  yet  unprepared  for  what  was  higher 
and  purer.  The  essential  principles  of  morality  are  im- 
mutable ;  their  application  to  human  conduct  was  a  pro- 
gressive force. 

'That  God  has  not  thought  proper  to  raise  mankind  at  once  to  its 
highest  state  of  moral  perfection,  any  more  than  individuals  are  born 
at  once  to  their  maturity,  is  a  matter  of  actual  experience.  Why  He 
has  admitted  it  is  a  question  which  it  is  vain  to  ask,  and  because  vain, 
presumptuous.  The  human  species  has  gone  through  a  state  of  less 
fullness  of  moral  knowledge,  of  less  enlightened  conscience,  as  com- 
pared with  its  subsequent  attainments,  just  as  every  individual  has 
done.  Now  this  less  perfect  state  being  a  part  of  God's  will,  the 
training  applied  to  it  must  have  been  suited  to  it ;  that  is,  it  must 
have  taken  it  as  imperfect,  and  dealt  with  it  as  such  ;  not  anticipating 
the  instructions  of  a  more  perfect  state,  but  improving  it  in  its  imper- 
section  ;  not  changing  spring  into  summer,  but  making  of  spring  the 
best  that  could  be  made  of  it.  While,  therefore,  general  principles  of 
duty  were  given,  all  the  conclusions  which  follow  from  them,  with 
regard  to  our  particular  relations  in  life,  were  not  at  the  same  time 
developed,  and  men  did  not  at  once  develop  them  for  themselves.  .  .  . 
But  further,  this  imperfect  moral  knowledge  on  many  pai'ticular 
points  of  practice  being  allowed,  if  an  action  on  any  one  of  these  points 
was  capable  of  strengthening  their  moral  principle  generally,  or 
tended  to  serve  any  other  useful  end,  it  would  properly  be  commended 
to  them,  however  inconsistent  it  might  be  with  more  enlightened 
notions  of  particular  duty.  It  might  be  commended  to  them,  because 
it  could  do  them  no  moral  harm,  but  probably  the  contrary ;  and  because, 
being  a  command  in  a  particular  case,  and  not  a  statement  of  a  general 
principle,  it  could  not  justly  interfere  with  the  acquisition  of  purer 
views  by  future  generations  when  the  dispensation  of  the  fullness  of 
time  was  come.' — Dr.  T.  Arnold,  of  Rugby,  Essay  on  tlie  right  Interpreta- 
tion of  Scripture,  1834. 

If  the  reader,  for  instance,  will  compare  the  statements 

•  Mt  i9». 


UNITY  OF  REVELATION  136 

of  the  Pentateuch  with  those  of  the  Prophets  on  the  relation 
between  the  Jews,  or  of  the  world  generally,  and  Him  who 
came  to  enlighten  the  Gentiles  as  well  as  His  people  Israel  % 
or  w^ill  mark  the  increasing  spirituality  and  clearness  ^  of 
the  w^hole  horizon  of  spiritual  truth  as  the  dawn  of  the 
gospel  day  drew  on,  he  \^t[11  not  fail  to  understand  the  con- 
sistency and  progressive  develojDment  of  revelation.  In 
both  he  will  see  evidence  of  the  presence  of  that  God 
Who  (as  Butler  expressed  it)  '  appears  deliberate  in  all  His 
operations,'  and  Who  accomplishes  His  ends  by  slow  and 
successive  stages,  w^hether  they  refer  to  the  changes  of  the 
seasons,  the  movements  of  Providence,  or  the  more  formal 
disclosures  of  His  will. 

This  peculiarity  of  Scri^^ture  makes  it  imiDortant  that  the 
various  parts  of  the  Bible  should  be  read  in  the  order  in 
which  they  were  written.  A  chronological  arrangement 
of  sacred  Histoiy,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Prophets,  so  far  as 
attainable,  is  important  for  the  explanation  of  the  several 
parts :  nor  is  it  less  so  for  a  clear  and  consistent  view"  of  the 
progressive  unveiling  of  the  Divine  character  and  plans'^. 
This  applies  to  the  New  Testament  as  well  as  to  the  Old. 

94.  A  third  feature  of  the  revelation  in  the  sacred  volume 
is  its  unity.  It  has  the  first  requisite  of  a  great  book — 
a  single  purpose,  and  that  purpose  kept  in  view"  throughout 
every  page. 

This  unity  is  not  owing  (it  will  be  observed)  to  the 
circumstance  that  the  volume  is  the  w^ork  of  one  author, 
or  of  one  age.  As  many  as  forty  different  waiters  (including 
the  authors  of  smaller  portions)  composed  it.  The  style 
is  now"  history,  now  song,  now  arguments  or  dialogue,  now 

•  Cf.  Ex  195-6  (of  the  Jewish  people  Is  ei""')  with  Is  66^1  (of  the  con- 
verted Gentiles)  ;  i  Pet  2^  Rev  i^. 

*•  See  especially  Jer  31^^"^*. 

*=  For  a  chronological  arrangemeiit  of  the  whole  of  thi-.  Bible  ce^ 
Appendix;  X. 


136  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

biography,  or  prophecy,  or  letters.  Deeper  than  these 
causes  of  diversity,  and  sufficiently  strong  to  counteract  their 
influence,  must  be  the  secret  of  this  marvellous  harmony. 
It  is  found,  in  fact,  in  the  superhuman  care  of  One  Who 
is  infinite  in  power  and  wisdom.  The  entire  building,  which 
was  so  many  centuries  in  rearing,  is  symmetrical  throughout, 
and  must  have  had  a  Divine  Founder,  Who  first  planned  and 
then  superintended  the  whole. 

1.  One  moral  purpose. — Look  again,  for  example,  at  the 
uniformly  moral  purpose  of  the  volume.  It  is  the  story  of 
human  beings  in  relation  to  God:  first  of  man,  as  man: 
then  of  families :  then  of  a  nation :  then  of  the  wider  society 
of  the  Church.  In  all  other  professed  revelations,  the  writers 
dwell  at  length  on  the  origin  of  the  universe  (as  in  the 
Shastras  of  the  Hindus),  or  on  the  physical  theory  of  another 
life  (as  in  the  pretended  revelations  of  Mohammed),  or  on 
topics  which  cannot  even  be  imagined  to  be  of  any  practical 
importance  (as  in  the  fables  of  the  Talmud,  and  of  apocryphal 
New  Testament  books).  All  that  the  Bible  teaches,  on  the 
other  hand,  refers  to  God  as  connected  with  man,  singly 
or  socially,  or  to  man  as  connected  with  God :  and  is  moral 
and  practical.  It  contains  no  cosmogony,  no  mythology, 
no  metaphysics,  no  marvels  which  are  not  moral:  no  ideal 
which  is  not  also  a  reality.  In  its  histories,  biographies, 
prophecies,  and  psalmody,  it  has  but  one  aim,  to  knit 
together  the  broken  relations  between  God  and  man,  and 
between  man  and  man : — to  redeem  and  sanctify  our  race. 

2.  One  System  of  Doctrine. — If  we  look  at  the  doctrines 
which  were  believed  and  taught,  we  find  a  unity  no  less 
remarkable.  Under  every  dispensation,  the  great  principles 
of  Christianity  have  been  recognized  by  all  holy  men. 
Religion,  'subjectively'  regarded,  has  ever  been  faith  and 
obedience.  And  as  a  system  of  truth  ('objective')  it  has 
never  changed.     From  the  earliest  times,  we  find  a  belief 


UNITY  OF  REVELATION  137 

in  the  unity  of  God  ;  in  the  creation  and  preservation  of 
all  things  by  Divine  power ;  in  a  general  and  particular 
Providence ;  in  a  Divine  law,  fixing  distinctions  between 
right  and  wrong  ;  in  the  fall  and  corruption  of  man  ;  in  the 
doctrine  of  atonement  through  vicarious  suffering ;  in  the 
obligation  and  efficacy  of  prayer  ;  in  direct  Divine  influence ; 
in  human  responsibility ;  and  in  the  necessity  of  practical 
holiness. 

Law  and  Gospel  essentially  One. — The  Lmv,  as  given  by 
Moses,  abounds  in  ceremony,  and  was  evidently  adapted  to 
the  peculiar  circumstances  of  one  people.  The  Gospel  has 
but  few  ceremonies,  remarkable  for  their  simplicity,  and 
the  whole  is  of  universal  application.  But  though  at  first 
sight  so  dissimilar,  the  two  systems  are  essentially  one. 
They  present  the  same  views  of  God  and  of  man,  suggest  or 
plainly  teach  the  same  truths,  and  are  adapted  to  excite  the 
same  feelings. 

This  unity  comprehends  doctrines  entirely  beyond  human 
knowledge.  The  Bible  reveals  everywhere  the  same  God, 
holy,  wise,  and  good :  it  speaks  of  His  designs  in  governing 
the  world,  and  of  the  final  issue  of  the  present  struggle 
between  good  and  evil.  It  treats  of  human  nature  and  of 
true  happiness ;  analyses  with  matchless  skill  the  secret 
motives  of  human  action,  and  points  out  the  grand  source 
of  human  misery  :  subjects  which  have  engaged  the  thoughts 
of  the  wisest  men  in  all  ages. 

95.  Unity  amid  Diversity. — One  consideration  of  prime 
importance  is  suggested  by  this  characteristic  of  the  Bible. 
It  is  in  the  light  of  this  unity  in  the  whole  that  we  must 
interpret  the  diversities  amidst  the  parts.  If  not  all  in 
the  Bible  is  revelation  (§  91),  neither  is  the  quality  of  the 
revelation  always  on  the  same  level.  It  has  been  seen  that 
in  the  Prophets,  Old  Testament  inspiration  finds  clearest 
expression  and  reaches  its  height,  culminating,  perhaps,  in 


138  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

that  wonderful  utterance  of  Jeremiah  concerning  the  New 
Covenant,  on  which  the  central  revelation  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  is  based  ^.  We  do  not  look  for  revelation 
like  this  in  the  Books  of  Chronicles  or  Esther,  yet  can 
recognize  that  these  too  have  their  needful  and  honourable 
place  as  stones  in  the  Divine  fabric. 

96.  Essential  things  in  Revelation. — So  far  from  being 
a  source  of  perplexity,  the  perception  of  unity  amid  diversity 
should  bring  gain  every  way.  It  throws  the  stress  on  what 
is  essential  in  revelation,  the  vital  truths  and  moving  forces 
of  religion.  It  brings  into  clearer  light  the  design,  nature, 
and  method  of  revelation  in  exhibiting  it  as  the  history  of 
God's  redeeming  activity.  Above  all  it  fixes  attention  on 
the  goal  of  revelation.  The  Old  Testament  is  seen  as  the 
gradual  preparation  for  the  Christ.  The  New  Testament 
also  receives  its  meaning  from  Christ :  He  created  it :  it  is 
His  Self-manifestation  through  His  servants,  their  several 
message  to  the  world  centred  in  Him  into  a  unity  tran- 
scending all  art,  and  combined  into  a  living  book  which 
answers  at  all  points  to  the  living  Christ.  In  discerning 
the  process  we  become  aware  of  the  unity.  We  may  wonder 
and  revere  as  we  fall  under  the  spell  of  Prophet  or 
Psalmist,  of  Evangelist  or  Apostle  :  it  is  when  we  see  the 
whole  in  the  parts  that  we  feel  we  are  in  the  presence 
of  a  stupendous  miracle  of  revelation,  and  amid  all  that 
is  human  humbly  acknowledge  that  '  a  greater  than  man 
is  here.' 

97.  A  fourth  peculiarity  of  Scripture  is  the  absence  of 
all  systematic  form  in  the  truths  revealed.  There  is  no 
compend  of  Christian  doctrine,  nor  are  there  specific  rules 
on  the  duties  of  the  Christian  life:  an  omission  the  more 
marked,  as  in  the  books  of  most  false  religions  (the  Koran 
and  Shastras,  for  example)  the  description  of  the  '  faith  '  ia 

•  Jer  3i^i-3«  Ileb  8-io  :  d  l  Cor  ii^\ 


EXAMPLE  BEFOEE  SYSTEM  139 

most  precise,  and  the  minutest  directions  are  given  concern- 
ing fasts,  ablutions,  and  other  points  of  religious  service. 

This  peculiarity  is  both  natural  and  instructive.  In  the 
Old  Testament,  the  earlier  part  (and  much  of  the  later)  is  his- 
torical in  its  method.  Moral  truth  is  conveyed  exclusively 
through  narrative,  and  the  narrative  is  fragmentary  and 
concise.  God  had  been  in  communication  with  man  long 
before  He  gave  the  Law.  What  He  had  revealed,  or  how 
He  revealed  it,  cannot  be  fully  gathered  from  the  record. 
The  very  object,  indeed,  of  a  large  portion  of  the  Bible 
seems  to  be  not  so  much  the  disclosure  of  truth,  as  the 
embodiment  of  truth  already  disclosed. 

The  New  Testament,  again,  was  written  for  those  who 
had  received  instruction  in  the  Christian  faith,  and  had 
embraced  it.  It  does  not,  accordingly,  contain  regular 
elementary  instruction,  or  an  enumeration  of  articles  of 
faith.  When  the  Epistles  were  written,  the  churches  had 
been  formed  under  Divine  teaching  and  on  a  Divine  model ; 
while  the  Gospels  are  clearly  historical,  and  rather  imply, 
or  suggest,  religious  truth,  than  systematically  reveal  it. 

Teaching  by  Example. — Keligion  is  both  objective  and 
subjective  ;  a  system  of  holy  doctrine,  or  of  active  holy 
principles.  The  first  is  truth,  and  the  second  is  piety.  In 
Scripture  both  are  revealed,  but  it  is  rather  in  the  form  of 
examples,  or  of  incidental  illustrations,  than  of  systematic 
teaching. 

Let  us  notice,  for  example,  how  the  Bible  speaks  of  the 
character  of  God  as  a  Moral  Governor,  and  of  man,  both  as 
sinful  and  as  holy. 

Everywhere,  throughout  the  Bible,  the  perfections  of  God  are 
revealed,  but  they  are  revealed  in  His  works.  They  are  never  defined 
or  mentioned  even,  without  reference  to  some  practical  end. 

When  Abraham,  through  Sarah's  impatience  or  unbelief,  had  taken 
Hagar,  hoping  to  see  an  early  fulfilment  of  the  Divine  promise, 
Jehovah  rebuked  him,  and  for  the  first  time  spoke  of  Himself  as  the 
'Almighty  God,'  Gen  17^     "When  Israel  exclaimed,  'My  way  is  hid 


140  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

from  Jehovah,'  the  answer  was  given,  *  Hast  thou  not  known  .  .  . 
that  the  everlasting  God  .  .  .  fainteth  not,  neither  is  weary  ?  there  is 
no  searching  of  His  understanding,'  Is  40-^ 

Considering  His  government,  we  find  its  principles  embodied  in 
facts,  or  in  practical  precepts,  exclusively.  His  dispensations  are 
unchangeable,  like  Himself.  In  every  nation  and  age,  he  that  worketh 
righteousness  is  approved.  He  judges  according  to  every  man's  work*. 
He  controls  what  seems  most  accidental  ^.  He  brings  about  His  ends 
by  means  apparently  trifling  or  contradictory  ^.  He  makes  even  the 
wicked  the  instruments  of  His  will  ^.  He  forgives,  and  is  ready  to 
forgive®.  He  hears  and  answers  prayer ^  He  marks  the  motives 
of  men,  as  in  the  case  of  Lot's  wife  and  of  Joash^.  He  chastises 
those  whom  He  most  loves,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses,  of  David,  and 
of  Hezekinh'\  He  prescrveth  the  righteous,  and  none  that  trusteth 
in  Him  shall  be  desolate  '. 

Human  sinfulness  is  traced  through  its  manifold  disguises 
and  set  in  its  true  light  in  a  series  of  vivia  biographical 
touches — a  wonderful  gallery  of  portraits !  Every  variety 
of  character  passes  before  us,  not  brought  in  for  the  sake  of 
the  moral  lesson,  but  exhibited  often  without  comment, 
leaving  the  lesson  to  follow  of  itself.  So  of  human  excel- 
lence, as  implanted  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  the  moving  prin- 
ciples being  faith  in  the  Unseen. 

Thus,  if  we  would  analyse  and  describe  our  sinfulness,  we  maj'^  find 
scoffing  infidelity  in  the  antediluvians  ■* ;  envy  in  Cain  and  the 
brethren  of  Joseph  ^  ;  malice  in  Saul  ^ ;  slander  in  Doeg  and  Ziba™ 
contempt  for  Divine  teaching  in  Korah  and  Ahab  "* ;  covetousness  in 
Achan,  Balaam,  Gehazi,  and  Judas  °;  ambition  in  Abimelech  and 
the  sons  of  Zebedee  p  ;  pride  in  Hezekiah  and  Nebuchadnezzar  *>. 

To  set  forth  the  inconsistencies  of  human  nature,  it  shows  us,  in 
Ahithophel,  the  friend  and  the  traitor "";  in  Joab,  the  bivive  soldier 
and  faithful  servant",  yet  *a   doer  of  evil,'  and  one  who  opposed 

•  Dt  loi^  2  Ch  197  Ro  2I1  Gal  2'^  Eph  6^  Col  s^s  i  Pet  i^^,  b  Est  6^  Jer 
387-13  Ac  i6'^'\  •=  I  Sa  g^-^^-ie  ji„|g  ^i3-ir>^  d  ^^  132  ^^  323 

«  Dn  92^  2  Ch  7I*.  f  2  CJi  sa^'-i-is  Gen  2412.         b  Gen  19^6  2  Ki  13^^ 

h  Num  2oi'-^  2  Sa  24"-^-'''  2  Ch  32^^  '  i  Sa  if^  Phil  4^2.18,  j  j^  j^^  15. 
"  Gen  4''  37I1.  »  i  Sa  iS'^s'-^'*.  •»  i  Sa  22^  2  Sa  16^-3.  "  Num  16^ 
I  Ki  20*2.  o  Jos  7''=i  a  Ki  s'^^-^''  Mt  26''i-»«.  p  Judg  9^-5  Mk  iqS''. 

«>  2  Ki  ao^s  Dn  430.  '  Ps  ss'^'s  a  Sa  16^^  »  2  Sa  la^s  24^. 


TEACHING   BY   EXAMPLE  141 

God's  appointment  and  sided  with  Adonijah  * ;  in  Jelioiam,  a  destroyer 
of  the  images  of  Baal,  who  yet  cleaved  to  the  sin  of  Jeroboam  ^  ; 
in  Herod,  reverence  for  John,  and  a  spirit  of  hardened  disobedioncs  *  ; 
in  Agrippa,  belief  of  the  prophets,  and  a  rejection  of  the  Gospel  "^  ;  in 
many  of  the  chief  rulers,  a  belief  in  the  claims  of  Christ,  combined 
with  a  readiness  to  join  in  the  sentence  of  the  Sanhedrin,  that  He 
was  'guilty  of  death  ^' 

We  see  the  power  of  self-deceit  in  David  and  Balaam  ' ;  of  prejudice 
in  Naaman,  in  Nathanael,  in  Nicodemus,  in  the  people  of  Athens 
and  of  Ephesus  ^  ;  of  habit  in  Ahab,  who  humbled  himself  before 
Elijah,  and  yet  returned  to  his  idols'*,  and  in  Felix,  of  whom  we 
read  that  he  trembled  once,  though  we  never  read  that  he  trembled 
again  *. 

The  danger  of  ungodly  connexions  is  seen  in  the  antediluvians 
and  Esau,  who  married  with  those  who  were  under  the  curse  of 
God  J ;  in  Solomon^  ;  in  Jehoshaphat's  connexion  with  Ahab  (through 
Athaliah) ' ;  and  in  Ahab's  connexion  with  Jezebel  ™ ;  of  worldly 
prosperity,  in  Rehoboam  ^  and  Uzziah  °. 

If  we  seek  for  exhibitions  of  moral  excellence,  again,  we  have 
it  not  defined,  but  illustrated:  faith  in  Abraham P;  patience  in 
Job  ^  ;  meekness  in  Moses  '  ;  decision  in  Joshua ' ;  patriotism  in 
Nehemiah  *  ;  friendship  in  Jonathan  °.  In  Hannah  we  have  a 
pattern  to  mothers';  in  Samuel,  and  Josiah,  and  Timothy,  to 
children'';  in  Joseph  and  Daniel,  to  young  men*;  in  Barzillai, 
to  the  aged  ^ ;  in  Eliezer,  to  servants ' ;  in  David,  to  those  under 
authority  **  ;  in  our  Divine  Lord,  to  all  of  every  age  and  in  every 
condition. 

To  make  the  truth  taught  in  these  examples  (except  in  the  last) 
complete,  we  must  trace  the  evidence  of  their  weakness.  They  failed 
in  the  very  parts  of  their  character  which  were  strongest — Abraham 
through  fear^^.  Job  through  impatience  •=•',  Moses  through  irritability 
and  presumption  ^^. 

If  we  attempt,  again,  to  ascertain  from  Scripture  what  Paley  has 
called  the  'devotional  virtues'  of  religion,  veneration  towards  God, 
an  habitual  sense  of  His  providence,  faith  in  His  wisdom  and  dealings, 

»  I  Ki 228.  b  2  Ki  3I-'.  •  Mk  6^c-2o,  a  ^^ 262728.  e  j^  1342 
Mt  26''<5.  '  2  Sa  125-7  Num  23I0.         e  2  Ki  5I112  Jn  i*"  3^  Ac  17I8 19^«. 

»»  I  Ki  2i27  226.  »  Ac  2425.  i  Gen  6^-3  263*.  ^  Ne  is'^"^^. 

'  2  Ki  818-26  m  I  xi  2i5-i\  "  2Ch  i2\  «  2  Ch  26^^  p  Gal  3'^"^ 
•»  Jas  5".  '  Num  i2\  «  Jos  24^^  *  Ne  i'  5I*.  °  i  Sa  19'^-*. 
V  I  Sa  i27-28.  w  I  Sa  3  2  Ch  34=^  2  Tim  3^5.  '  Gen  39^  Dn  i^. 

y  2  Sa  193^-35.  ^  Gen  24.  **  i  Sa  2^^-'^^,  &c.  ^^  Gen  20^. 

««  Job  3I.  **''  Dt  3251. 


142  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

a  disposition  to  resort  on  all  occasions  to  His  mercy  for  help  and 
pardon,  we  shall  find  them  ratlier  illustrated  than  defined — embodied, 
that  is,  in  character  and  example,  and  not  in  propositions  ^ ;  the 
whole  adapted  to  our  wants  with  admirable  skill,  and  by  the  very 
form  tliey  assume. 

It  is  this  presence  in  Scripture  of  men  like  ourselves  that 
brings  it  home  to  our  heart  and  conscience.  There  is  felt 
to  be  something  human  in  it,  as  well  as  Divine.  It  meets 
us  at  every  turn.  We  feel,  as  we  look,  that  it  has  a  power 
which,  like  the  eye  of  a  good  portrait,  is  fixed  upon  us,  turn 
where  we  will  ^. 

Besides  answering  this  moral  purpose,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
the  style  of  Scripture,  consisting  of  figures  and  specific  examples,  or 
'singular  terms,'  is  the  kind  of  diction  least  impaired  by  translation. 
See  Whately's  Ehet.,  Part  III,  chap,  ii.  §  2. 

98.  Now  this  is  a  quality  essential  in  a  volume  desigrned  for  all 
countries  and  for  every  age.  If  articles  of  faith  or  minute  rules  of 
practice  had  been  given,  they  must  have  been  retained  for  ever,  and 
with  them  the  heresies  and  errors  which  they  were  intended  to  con- 
demn. Either  they  must  have  been  very  general,  and  therefore 
useless  for  their  avowed  purpose,  or  they  must  have  been  so  minute 
as  not  to  be  practicable  in  all  countries,  and  comprehensible  by  all 
Christians.  The  Koran,  for  example,  places  the  utmost  importance 
on  the  offering  of  prayer  at  sunrise  and  sunset ;  a  rule  which  proves 
that  the  religion  of  the  false  prophet  was  never  designed  for  Green- 
land or  Labrador,  where  for  several  months  the  sun  never  sets.  A  sum- 
mary of  doctrine,  too,  perfectly  intelligible  to  a  matured  Christian, 
might  be  nearly  all  mysterious  to  the  converted  Hottentot. 

And  even  if  such  a  summary  could  have  been  made  generally 
intelligible,  its  effects  upon  the  minds  of  Christians  would  have  been 
disastrous.  They  would  have  stored  their  memory  with  the  very 
words  of  the  creed,  without  searching  the  rest  of  Scripture.  There 
would  have  been  no  room  for  thought,  no  call  for  investigation,  and 
no  excitement  of  the  feelings  or  improvement  of  the  heart.  The 
creed  being,  not  that  from  which  the  faith  is  to  be  learned,  but  the 
faith  itself,  would  be  regarded  with  indolent  and  useless  veneration. 
It  is  only  when  our  energies  are  roused  and  our  attention  awake, 
when  we  are  acquiring  or  correcting,  or  improving  our  knowledge, 

•  Paley  has  some  admirable  remarks,  applying  these  principles  to 
the  character  (given  in  Scripture)  of  our  Lord,  Evidences,  p.  231, 
Religious  Tract  Society's  ed. 

''  See  Miller's  Bampton  Lectures,  p.  128. 


SYSTEM   AKD    LIFE  143 

tliat  knowledge  makes  the  requisite  impression  upon  us.  God  has 
not  made  Scripture  like  a  garden,  '  where  the  fruits  are  ripe  and  the 
flowers  bloom,  and  all  things  are  fully  exposed  to  our  view  ;  but  like 
a  field,  where  we  have  the  ground  and  seeds  of  all  precious  things, 
but  where  nothing  can  be  brought  to  maturity  without  our  industry'; 
nor  then,  without  the  dews  of  heavenly  grace.  '  I  find  in  the  Bible,' 
says  Cecil,  '  a  grand  peculiarity,  that  seems  to  say  to  all  who  attempt 
to  systematize  it,  I  am  not  of  your  kind  ...  I  stand  alone.  The  great 
and  the  wise  shall  never  exhaust  my  treasures  :  by  figures  and 
parables  I  will  come  down  to  the  feelings  and  understandings  of  the 
ignorant.     Leave  me  as  I  am,  but  study  me  incessantly.' 

Even  good  men,  too,  have  undue  preferences.  If  all  truth  of  the 
same  order  were  placed  together  in  Scripture,  men  would  read  most 
what  they  most  loved  :  to  the  neglect  of  what  may  be  as  important 
though  less  welcome.  But  as  truth  is  scattered  throughout  the  Bible, 
we  learn  to  think  of  doctrine  in  connexion  with  duty,  and  of  duty  in 
connexion  with  the  principles  by  which  it  is  enforced. 

99.  Character  above  System. — Ttese  facts  suggest  a  lesson  to  those 
who  regard  the  Bible  as  influential  only  when  made  a  treasury  of 
intellectual  truth.  Systematic  Divinity,  founded  upon  the  Bible,  is 
perhaps  the  last  perfection  of  knowledge,  but  not  necessarily  of 
character.  A  man  may  be  drawn  to  the  sacred  page  by  its  pictures 
of  Divine  goodness,  and  may  love  it  with  a  return  of  affection  for  all 
its  mercy,  or  of  hope  for  its  promises,  or  may  feed  his  soul  with  its 
provisions,  or  direct  his  life  by  its  counsel,  and  yet  do  nothing  to 
systematize  its  doctrines,  or  at  all  understand  the  technical  phrases 
of  theological  truth.  This  life  of  devotion,  with  its  acknowledgement 
of  Providence  and  imitation  of  Christ,  is  the  chief  thing  :  combined 
with  systematic  thinking,  it  makes  a  man  profoundly  holy  and  pro- 
foundly wise  ;  but  without  the  systematic  thinking  there  may  be 
both  holiness  and  wisdom. 

The  Divine  Instrument  of  Man's  Improvement. — They  suggest 
another  lesson.  Systematic  catechetical  treatises  on  doctrine  are  of 
use,  chiefly  in  defining  or  preserving  unity  of  faith  :  but  must  not  be 
regarded  as  the  instruments  of  religious  training,  or  as  the  store-houses 
of  effective  knowledge.  They  address  the  intellect  only,  and  that  too 
in  logical  forms,  without  narrative,  or  example,  or  feeling,  or  power. 
They  contain  no  patterns  of  holiness :  no  touches  of  nature.  Use 
them  therefore  in  their  right  place  ;  but  remember  that  the  Divine 
instrument  of  man's  improvement  is  that  book  which  abounds  in 
examples  of  tenderness,  of  pity,  of  remonstrance  ;  which  gives  forth 
tones,  and  looks,  and  words,  at  once  human  and  Divine,  ever  the 
same,  and  yet  ever  new — the  Bible. 


144  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

100.  The   Revelation  in  the  Bible  is  authoritative. — 

A  word  may  be  added,  finall}'',  on  the  Aiitliority  of  Scripture. 
If  there  is  revelation  at  all  there  is  essentially  and  neces- 
sarily authority.  The  Prophets  speak  as  men  who  believe 
they  speak  the  Word  of  God  :  it  is  for  those  who  hear  to 
believe  and  to  obey.  Authority  thus  belongs  to  Scripture 
as  the  vehicle  of  revelation. 

The  distinction,  indeed,  which  is  sometimes  drawn 
between  the  Bible  as  an  authoritative  book  and  as  authori- 
tative revelation  is  theoretical  rather  than  practical.  The 
authority  is  there,  claiming  us,  and  the  vast  majority  who 
have  yielded  to  its  claim  and  lived  by  obedience  to  it  have 
not  been  careful — perhaps  not  able — to  distinguish.  At 
the  same  time  it  may  be  acknowledged  that  the  true 
authority  of  the  Bible  is  immediate,  spirit  finding  spirit. 
Unless  God  be  heard  in  the  soul,  He  will  not  be  found  in 
the  Word.  To  forget  this  may  lead  to  a  mischievous 
bondage  to  the  letter :  it  is  possible  with  all  zeal  and 
sincerity  to  'search  the  Scriptures,'  teeming  with  their 
witness  to  Christ,  and  yet  fall  under  the  judgement,  'Ye 
will  not  come  to  Me  that  ye  might  have  life.'  If  there 
may  seem  some  loss  of  definiteness  and  fixity  in  ascribing 
authority,  less  to  the  Bible  as  a  whole  than  to  the  revela- 
tion it  contains,  this  danger  should  be  remembered.  The 
loss  may  well  be  compensated  by  gain  in  vitality  and 
spiritual  power,  while  the  Scriptures  still  hold  indisputable 
sway  over  mind  and  will  as  alone  '  able  to  make  wise  unto 
salvation.' 

101.  The  Ultimate  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion. — 
Authority  has  been  denied  to  the  Bible  mainly  on  two 
grounds :  (i)  Revelation  is  defined  as  essentially  immediate 
and  personal;  there  cannot  therefore  be  written  revelation. 
God  reveals  Himself  directly  to  the  soul  that  seeks  Him. 
(2)  Criticism  is  alleged  to  have  shaken  the  pretensions  of 
Scripture    to    be    in   all    its    parts    the    infallible  Word  of 


AUTHORITY  :   ITS  ULTIMATE  SEAT  145 

God  *.  With  the  latter  we  are  not  now  concerned,  though 
it  may  be  unhesitatingly  maintained  that  the  authority  of 
the  Scripture  revelation  as  expounded  above  stands  fast 
in  face  of  any  critical  results  with  regard  to  the  books 
containing  it.  But  the  first  and  main  reason  assigned 
surely  does  not  lead  to  the  conclusion.  Granted  that 
revelation  always  involves  direct  intercourse  between  God 
and  each  recipient  soul:  yet  the  word  which  has  come 
to  one,  and  stands  written,  may  cause  multitudes  to  hear 
a  Voice  to  which  they  would  otherwise  have  remained  deaf. 
*  The  man  who  has  most  clearly  and  certainly  heard  God, 
has  done  more  than  hear  Him  for  himself ;  he  has  heard 
Him  for  the  world,  and  the  world  ought  to  be  able  to  hear 
God  in  the  man^\'  He  is  become  an  authority  in  religion, 
and  the  record  of  his  consciousness  has  value  even  of  an 
authoritative  kind  for  less  inspired  men.  Nor  need  we 
depend  simply  on  individual  recognition  of  the  written  Word 
as  having  authority.  Our  own  response  is  justified  and 
reinforced  by  the  experience  of  countless  others  and  by  the 
sway  the  Bible  has  exercised  over  human  life. 

The  position  here  contended  for  may  be  summed  up  in  words  of 
Principal  Rainy  in  a  review  of  Dr.  Martineau's  book  '^  : — 

'  The  Bible  discloses  a  revealing  process  of  which  it  is  itself  the 
effect.  That  process,  entering  into  the  history  of  the  world,  has  made» 
proof  of  its  nature  and  source.  It  claims  to  be  nothing  less  than 
God  making  Himself  objective  in  the  religious  liistory  of  men  — 
approaching  us  not  merely  through  the  hidden  avenues  of  our  indi- 
vidual consciousness,  but  outwardly  in  the  plane  of  facts  and  events. 
It  is  claimed  that  He  broke  the  silence  and  spoke,  put  aside  the  veil 
and  wrought,  in  an  order  of  words  and  works,  specifically  His  own, 
leading  up  to  and  crowned  by  the  Incarnation.  This  history  is  for  us 
embodied  in  a  literature — no  otherwise  could  it  live  for  us  and  for 
the  world.  In  this  literature,  the  revealing  process  finds  its  voice 
and  continues  to  be  vocal  ;  and  as  it  utters  the  mind  of  God  in  Christ, 

*  Dr.  James  Martin eau.  The  Ultimate  Seat  of  Authority  in  Religion, 
^  Fairbairn,  Christ  in  Modern  Theology,  p.  495. 
"  In  Th$  Critical  Review. 


146  INSPIRATION  AND  REVELATION 

it  becomes  for  men  the  Word,  the  voice  of  which  is  gone  out  into 
all  the  world. 

'The  evidence  of  the  reality  of  all  this  is  exceedingly  various.  It 
would  be  a  long  story  to  set  forth  by  how  many  avenues  the  persua- 
sion reaches  us  of  the  historicity  of  this  process,  of  its  moral  continuity 
and  progress,  of  its  religious  depth  and  vitality,  of  its  mighty  works 
and  wonders,  of  its  great  personalities  in  fellowship  with  God,  its 
prophecies,  its  psalms,  above  all  its  crowning  and  sealing  Person, 
full  of  grace  and  truth.  The  inward  witness  only  assures  us  that 
we  are  not  mistaking  the  character  of  this  great  phenomenon,  of 
which  the  various  aspects  touch  us  at  a  thousand  points.  But  when 
we  have  come  so  far,  then  we  know  that  God  has  spoken — we  know 
that  He  has  been  holding  fellowship  with  men  as  One  Who  stands  over 
against  them,  not  less  than  as  One  Who  is  within  them.  And  it 
becomes  our  right  to  deal  with  the  revelation  with  a  sense  of 
expectancy,  and  with  a  recognition  of  authority. 

'Such  a  revealing  process  by  no  means  supersedes  the  inner  fellow- 
ship with  God  and  the  longing  for  His  presence.  Indeed  no  other 
influence  in  this  world  has  so  stimulated  and  sustained  that  faith  and 
longing.  It  remains  true,  that  every  disclosure  which  comes  to  tis 
through  the  Scripture  only  reveals  its  full  Divine  significance,  only 
opens  its  final  and  conclusive  evidence  when  God  meets  us  in  it. 
John  Bunyan  tells  us  how  in  his  early  religious  life  his  pastor  used 
to  admonish  him  that  God  must  set  him  down  and  root  him  in  the 
truths  which  he  seemed  to  find  in  the  Word,  otherwise  he  should  not 
have  stability  and  abiding  profit.  All  is  not  done  as  soon  as  we  have 
read  our  Bibles.  Yet  we  may  be  persuaded  that  here  we  are  in  the 
region  where  God  is  emphatically  teaching,  both  in  things  which 
have  been  made  sure  to  us  by  an  inward  witness,  and  also  in  things 
which  we  are  only  in  progress  to  understand,  to  discern  in  their  true 
meaning,  and  to  feel  in  their  Divine  intiuence." 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

*No  book  is  so  translatable  as  the  Bible.  It  runs  with  the  least 
difficulty  into  all  languages,  East  and  West.  When  it  fails  to  meet 
with  idioms  that  are  perfect  equivalents,  it  will  always  be  found  that 
its  own  may  be  successfully  transplanted,  and  that  they  will  grow 
with  surprising  freshness  and  vigour  in  their  new  soil.  Hence  no  so 
ready  a  way  to  enrich  a  language,  even  an  old  and  copious  language. 
as  to  translate  the  Bible  into  it.  We  are  not  generally  aware  how 
many  of  our  own  most  life-like  idioms  are  in  fact  orientalisms  thus 
introduced  into  our  remote  Western  world.  The  reason  is  that  it  is 
the  Living  Word — ''  the  Word  of  God,  quick  and  powerful,"  yet 
clothed  in  humanity  ;  and  hence  it  is  so  intensely  human  because  it 
is  the  Divine  in  the  human.  In  other  words,  it  could  not  have  been 
so  human  had  it  not  also  been  Divine.' — Pkof.  Tayler  Lewis,  The 
Divine  Human  in  the  Scriptures. 

I.    Modern  Versions  in  Different  Languages. 

102.  Latin  Versions. — Of  modern  versions  the  merits 
are  very  various.  Here  Erasmus  claims  the  first  mention. 
In  1505  he  published  a  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  in  15 16  accompanied  his  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  by  a  Latin  version.  He  was  followed  by 
others,  who  undertook  the  translation  of  the  whole  Bible. 
The  versions  made  by  Komanists  are  generally  extremely 
literal,  and  often  obscure :  such  are  the  versions  of  Pagninus 
(Lyons,  1528),  Arias  Montanus  (Antwerp  Polyglot,  1584), 
and  Cardinal  Cajetan  (Venice,  1530,  and  Lyons  repub.,  1639). 
Some,  as  the  version  of  Clarius  (Venice,   1542)%  are  mere 

•  Clarius  claimed  to  have  corrected  the  Vulgate  in  8,000  places  j  but 
his  work  was  for  a  time  placed  in  the  Index  Expurgaiorius. 

L    2 


148  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

corrections  of  the  Vulgate.  Houbigant  (1753)  gives  an 
elegant  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  accompany 
his  emended  Hebrew  text. 

Among  Protestants,  Sebastian  Miinster  (Heidelberg,  1534) 
gives  an  intelligible  version  from  the  Hebrew,  preferable  to 
the  versions  of  Pagninus  and  Montanus.  He  follows,  how- 
ever, the  same  text,  and  does  not  widely  diifer  in  principles 
of  translation  from  those  authors. 

Leo  Juda  at  Ziirich  began  another  version  of  the  Hebrew 
and  LXX,  which  was  completed  and  published  after  his  death 
in  1542  by  Bibliander,  the  New  Testament  being  added  by 
others.     This  version  is  both  free  and  faithful. 

Sebastian  Castellio  (Basel,  1557-1573),  gives  a  version  from 
the  original,  in  which  he  studied  to  give  the  sense  in  elegant 
classical  Latin.  It  is  wanting,  however,  in  simplicity  and 
force. 

The  version  of  Tremellius,  a  Jewish  Christian,  assisted 
by  his  son-in-law  F.  Junius  (Leipzig,  1579),  is  deemed 
among  the  best.  They  expressed  the  Greek  article  by  the 
demonstrative  pronoun.  The  version  of  Sebastian  Schmidt 
(Strassburg,  1696)  is  extremely  literal,  and  that  of  J.  A. 
Dathe  (Old  Testament,  Leipzig,  1 781-1789)  is  remarkable 
for  fidelity  and  elegance.  The  New  Testament  of  Beza 
(Geneva,  1556)  is  valuable,  not  only  for  its  faithfulness  as 
a  translation,  but  for  its  employment  of  all  the  then  acces- 
sible sources  for  textual  criticism.  It  was  frequently 
reprinted,  in  some  editions  with  the  Greek  original  and  the 
Vulgate,  and  exerted  a  marked  influence  on  the  English 
Revisers  of  161 1.    • 

2.    Versions  in  European  Vernacular  Languages. 

103.  The  German   Bible. — A  translation   of  the  Bible 

into  German,  from  the  Vulgate,  was  in  existence  before  the 

fifteenth  century  ;  and  after  the  invention  of  printing  it  was 

issued  from  the  presses  of  Mainz,  Strassburg,  Augsburg,  and 


EUROPEAN  VERNACULAR  VERSIONS        149 

Basel.  It  was  literal  and  unscholarly,  and  had  but  a  small 
circulation.  Before  1521  Martin  Luther  had  translated, 
'not,'  as  he  says,  'for  scholars  but  for  the  people,'  certain 
parts  of  Scripture  ;  and  during  his  seclusion  in  the  Wartburg 
he  began  the  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  from  the 
original  languages.  The  New  Testament  appeared  in  1522, 
but  at  first  without  the  name  either  of  translator  or  printer. 
The  Old  Testament  was  issued  in  successive  portions,  and 
the  whole  was  completed  in  1532,  the  Apocrypha  being 
added  two  years  afterwards.  Luther  frequently  revised  his 
work,  forming  a  committee  to  assist  him  {Collegium  Bihlicum), 
of  which  Melanchthon  and  Bugenhagen  weie  the  most 
distinguished  members.  The  final  touches  were  added  to 
the  version  in  1544.  The  effect  of  its  publication  was 
marvellous  and  lasting.  It  not  only  greatly  aided  the 
Reformation,  but  gave  form  and  fixedness  to  the  German 
language.  It  also  was  of  material  help  to  Protestant  Bible 
translators  in  other  countries.  Revisions  have  been  fre- 
quently attempted.  In  1883,  after  much  discussion  among 
German  scholars  and  divines,  a  tentative  edition  was 
published,  and,  after  being  subjected  to  general  criticism 
for  two  years,  was  thoroughly  re-examined  and  submitted 
to  a  theological  Conference  at  Halle  in  1890.  The  Con- 
ference entrusted  the  publication  to  the  Cannstein  Bible 
Institute,  by  which  it  was  issued  in  1892.  In  1897  an 
edition  of  the  revised  text  was  published  by  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  It  is  no  doubt  in  some  such 
form  that  Luther's  Bible  will  in  future  be  best  known. 

104.  Translations  founded  on  Luther's. — Luther's 
Bible  has  been  the  basis  of  translation  into  the  languages 
of  North- Western  Europe — the  Swedish  (1541) ;  the  Danish 
(1550) ;  the  Icelandic  (1584) ;  an  early  Dutch  version  (1560) ; 
and  the  Finnish,  with  its  cognate  dialects  (1642,  &c.).  The 
followers  of  Zwingli  also  revised  the  version  for  the  use 
of  the  German-Swiss  Church  in  1679,  superseding  an  old 


150  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

translation  which  had  been  made  for  the  same  church  by 
Leo  Juda  and  others  between  1524  and  1529. 

Of  other  German  versions,  that  of  De  Wette,  JDie  Heilige 
Schrift,  must  be  especially  mentioned.  It  was  a  work  of 
his  earlier  years  at  Heidelberg  (1809-1814);  and  the  final, 
standard  edition  was  published  in  1839.  It  is  the  work  of 
a  man  of  genius :  and  for  scholarship,  brilliancy,  and 
exegetical  tact,  is  perhaps  unsurpassed. 

105.  French  translations. — In  France,  many  versions 
of  parts  of  Scripture,  made  from  the  Vulgate,  especially 
of  the  Psalter  and  Gospels,  existed  from  a  very  early  period. 
The  evidence  respecting  them  is  scanty  ;  but  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  Peter  Valdo  of  Lyons  gave  an  impulse  to  the 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  (the  Romance 
dialect),  which  made  the  Waldenses  a  Bible-reading  people, 
and  called  forth  the  prohibitions  of  synods  and  councils. 
The  first  printed  French  Bible  was,  however,  the  work  of 
Guiars  des  Moulins,  an  ecclesiastic  of  Picardy,  with  others. 
It  was  printed  in  Paris,  1487.  Another  version,  by  J.  Lefevre 
d'^fitaples,  was  printed,  anonymously,  at  Paris  and  Antwerp 
(1523-1528),  and  is  a  scholarly  work,  the  renderings  from  the 
Vulgate  being  in  several  places  corrected  from  the  Greek. 
It  was  placed  in  the  Index,  1546,  but  was  republished  in 
1550  without  the  renderings  deemed  'heretical.' 

The  first  Protestant  version  was  issued  by  P.  R.  Olivetan 
(1535),  a  relative  of  Calvin,  with  a  considerable  number  of 
references  from  the  LXX  placed  in  the  margin.  This  version 
followed  in  the  Old  Testament  the  Latin  of  Pagninus,  in 
the  New  that  of  Erasmus.  It  was  corrected,  chiefly  as  to  the 
language,  by  Calvin  (1540) ;  again,  by  Beza  and  others,  under 
the  editorship  of  Cornelius  Bertram  (Geneva,  1588).  It  has 
since,  from  time  to  time,  undergone  other  alterations:  the 
revisions  by  Martin  (1707)  and  Ostervald  (1721)  are  best 
known.  A  French  version  by  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant 
(17 18)  was  published  at  Amsterdam,  and  is  highly  esteemed 


EUEOPEAN  VERNACULAR  VERSIONS        151 

for  its  accuracy.  But  all  these  editions,  more  or  less  founded 
upon  Ostervald's  work,  will  probably  be  superseded  by  the 
translation  of  Dr.  Louis  Segond  (Geneva,  Old  Testament, 
1874 ;  New  Testament,  Oxford,  1880). 

Among  translations  by  Romanist  scholars  from  the 
Vulgate,  several  appeared  in  the  seventeenth  century,  chiefly 
of  the  New  Testament.  Distinguished  above  the  rest  was 
the  version  by  the  Jansenists  Antoine  Lemaitre,  Louis 
Lemaitre  de  Sacy,  and  Antoine  Arnauld  (1667),  variously 
known  as  the  Port  Royal  Bible,  the  Mons  Bible  (from  the 
places  of  its  first  publication),  and  the  Bible  of  De  Sacy. 
Of  this  many  editions  have  appeared. 

A  translation  of  the  Gospels  by  Lamennais  (1846),  and 
especially  one  by  Henri  Lasserre  (1886),  must  be  mentioned. 
The  latter,  of  all  recent  versions,  is  the  most  essentially 
modern,  of  fine  literary  quality,  and  with  true  insight  into 
the  meaning  of  the  sacred  text. 

106.  Other  Languages  of  Europe. — By  order  of  the 
Synod  of  Dort  (16 18),  a  version  was  made  into  the  Dutch 
language  by  a  committee  of  able  scholars,  in  place  of  the 
version  made  from  Luther's  Bible,  which  had  been  used  till 
then.  This  version  was  printed  in  1637,  and  is  highly 
valued  for  its  fidelity.  A  revised  edition  of  the  New 
Testament  appeared  in  1867,  but  has  failed  to  command 
general  approval. 

An  early  Italian  version  was  made  by  Antonio  Brac- 
cioli  of  Florence  (1530-1532).  Although  a  Romanist,  he 
translated  from  the  original  texts.  The  work  was  con- 
demned by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  and  is  now  very 
rare.  The  great  Protestant  version  is  that  of  Giovanni 
Diodati,  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Geneva  (1607).  It  was 
made  directly  from  the  original  texts,  and  is  free,  accurate, 
and  clear.  A  version  from  the  Vulgate,  by  Antonio  Martini, 
Archbishop  of  Florence,  was  published  at  Turin  in  1776, 
and  has  had  considerable  currency,  even  among  Protestants. 


152  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

There  are  two  versions  of  the  Bible  in  Spanish  ;  the 
one  made  by  a  Romanist,  Cassiodoro  Reyna,  Basel  (Old 
Testament,  1569;  New  Testament,  1625),  and  the  other  by 
a  Protestant,  Cyprian  de  Vaiera  (Amsterdam,  1602).  They 
are  founded  chiefly  on  the  Latin  version  of  Pagninus,  the 
second  also  partly  on  the  Genevan-French  Bibles.  There 
are  also  three  Spanish  versions  made  from  the  Vulgate 
(1478,  1793-4,  1824)  a. 

In  Portuguese,  the  version  chiefly  circulated  is  that  by 
J.  Ferreira  d'Almeida,  a  convert  from  Rome  (New  Testa- 
ment, 1 7 12;  Old  Testament,  17 19).  Another  version,  by 
Anton  Pereira  de  Figuerido,  was  printed  in  1784,  but  has 
never  obtained  much  currency. 

107.  Versions  by  Missionaries. — The  various  transla- 
tions made  by  Missionaries  in  countries  beyond  Europe 
cannot  here  be  enumerated.  Among  the  great  Bible  trans- 
lators the  names  of  Dr.  William  Carey  in  India  (i 761-1834), 
and  of  Dr.  Robert  Morrison  in  China  (1782- 1834),  will  ever 
hold  a  distinguished  place. 

108.     The  English  Bible. 

*  Who  will  say  that  the  uncommon  beauty  and  marvellous  English 
of  the  Protestant  Bible  is  not  one  of  the  great  strongholds  of  heresy  ^ 
in  this  country  ?  It  lives  on  the  ear  like  a  music  that  can  never  be 
forgotten,  like  the  sound  of  church  bells,  which  the  convert  hardly 
knows  how  he  can  forego.  Its  felicities  often  seem  to  be  almost  things 
rather  than  mere  words.  It  is  part  of  the  national  mind,  and  the 
anchor  of  national  seriousness.  The  memory  of  the  dead  passes  into 
it.  The  potent  traditions  of  childhood  are  stereotyped  in  its  verses. 
The  power  of  all  the  griefs  and  trials  of  a  man  is  hidden  beneath  its 
words.  It  is  the  representative  of  his  best  moments,  and  all  that 
there  has  been  about  him  of  soft,  and  gentle,  and  pui'e,  and  penitent, 

*  See  Sorrow's  Bible  in  Spain. 

^  It  must  be  remembered  that  Dr.  Faber  writes  as  a  Romanist. 
His  testimony  is  all  the  more  valuable,  as  he  speaks  of  the  power  of 
the  Englif^h  Scriptures  as  '  unhallowed,'  and  of  the  veneration  paid  to 
them  as  '  idolatry.' 


THE  ENGLISH  BIBLE  153 

and  good,  speaks  to  him  for  ever  out  of  his  English  Bible.  It  is  his 
sacred  thing,  which  doubt  has  never  dimmed,  and  controversy  never 
soiled.  It  has  been  to  him  all  along  as  the  silent,  but  oh  !  how 
intelligible  voice  of  his  guardian  angel ;  and  in  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  land  there  is  not  a  Protestant,  with  one  spark  of 
religiousness  about  him,  whose  spiritual  biography  is  not  in  his 
Saxon  Bible.' — Dr.  Frederick  William  Faber. 

'  The  English  Bible  is  consecrated  by  the  blood  of  martyrs.  Wyclif 
was  not  murdered,  but  in  revenge  for  his  exemption  his  bones  were 
exhumed  and  burned  ;  Tindale  was  strangled  and  consumed  to  ashes  ; 
Coverdale  escaped  almost  by  miracle;  Eogera  and  Cranmer  "loved 
not  their  lives  unto  the  death " ;  the  Genevan  scholars  were  exiles 
while  many  of  their  brethren  at  home  were  perishing  at  Smithfield  ; 
the  Elizabethan  bishops  had  been  in  imminent  peril  during  a  season 
when  the  "hour"  was  ruled  by  the  "power  of  darkness."  The  Divine 
presence  was  frequently  and  palpably  apparent  in  moulding  circum- 
stances, in  paralysing  the  arm  of  opposition,  and  in  cheering  and 
supporting  those  wlio  were  walking  in  the  furnace.' — Dr.  John  Eadie, 
History  of  the  English  Bible,  vol.  ii.  p.  333. 

109.  Early  English  Versions. — The  various  Anglo- 
Saxon  translations  of  parts  of  Scripture,  like  the  older 
European  versions,  were  made  from  the  Vulgate.  About 
the  year  700,  Aldhelm,  the  first  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  trans- 
lated the  Psalms  into  Saxon  ;  and  Egbert,  Bishop  of  Holy 
Island,  the  four  Gospels.  A  little  later,  the  'Venerable' 
Bede  translated  parts  of  the  Bible,  including  the  Gospel  by 
John  (a.d.  735).  King  Alfred  prefixed  to  his  Laws  a 
version  of  the  Ten  Commandments ;  he  also  undertook  to 
translate  the  Psalms,  but  died  (900)  when  his  work  was 
about  half  finished.  JEUric  Hhe  Grammarian,'  an  abbot 
in  Wessex  ^  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  century,  translated 
the  Pentateuch  and  some  of  the  historical  books.  From 
the  seventh  century  onwards  there  had  been  metrical 
summaries  and  paraphrases  of  Scripture,  among  which 
the  chief  was  that  of  Caedmon,  lay-brother  and  monk  of 
Whitby,  a  true,  although  unlettered  poet,  who  versified  the 

*  Probably  a  different  person  from  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  of 
the  same  name  (994-1006). 


154  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

translations  dictated  to  him  by  his  more  learned  brethren  ^ 
In  the  Norman  period  a  monk  of  the  northern  part  of  the 
kingdom,  named  Orme,  produced  a  similar  metrical  transla- 
tion of  the  Gospels,  entitled  Ornmhim  after  his  name  (about 
ii8o)^  Several  'glosses/  as  they  were  termed,  were  pre- 
pared in  monasteries,  the  Latin  text,  chiefly  of  the  Psalter, 
but  often  of  the  Gospels,  being  accompanied  by  an  inter- 
linear version  in  literal,  often  rude.  Old  English.  Of  these 
there  are  MSS.  in  many  public  libraries  c. 

110.  The  Wyclif  Bible.— The  first  complete  translation 
of  the  Bible  into  English  was  made  also  from  the  Vulgate, 
by  John  Wyclif,  about  a.  d.  1380,  and  was  revised  after 
his  death  by  his  devoted  fellow-labourer  .John  Purvey. 
It  existed  ,only  in  MS.  for  many  years,  but  the  whole  is 
now  in  print  (New  Testament,  1831  ;  Old  Testament,  1848, 
and  both  in  the  splendid  edition  of  Forshall  and  Madden, 
1850).  The  work  was  regarded  with  grave  suspicion ;  and 
a  bill  was  introduced  into  the  House  of  Lords  for  suppress- 
ing it ;  but  through  the  influence  of  John  of  Gaunt  this 
was  rejected.  In  1408,  however,  the  Convocation  of  the 
Province  of  Canterbury  at  Oxford  resolved  that  no  one 
should  translate  any  text  of  Scripture  into  English,  as  a 
book  or  tract,  and  that  no  book  of  the  kind  should  be  read, 
publicly  or  privately,  until  approved  by  ecclesiastical  au- 

•  *  He  sang  of  the  creation  of  the  world,  of  the  origin  of  man,  and 
of  all  the  history  of  Isi-acl ;  of  their  departure  from  Egypt  and  entering 
into  the  Promised  Land  ;  of  the  incarnation,  passion,  and  resurrection 
of  Christ,  and  of  His  ascension ;  of  the  terror  of  future  judgement,  the 
horror  of  hell-pangs,  and  the  joys  of  heaven.' — Bede,  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  the  Anglo- Saxoyis. 

**  He  says  in  his  dedication  to  his  brother  : — 

*  Ice  hafe  wennd  inntill  Ennglissh 
Goddspelless  haliglie  lore.' 
*I  have  wend  (turned)  into  English  Gospel's  holy  lore.' 
The  time  is  that  of  Henry  II  (died  1189). 

"  The  Bodleian  Library  has  a  remarkable  MS.  entitled  Salus  Animi, 
or  Sowle-hele,  containing  a  paraphrastic  version  of  Scripture. 


THE  ENGLISH  BIBLE  155 

thority,  on  pain  of  the  greater  excommunication.  This 
edict  led  to  great  persecution,  though  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that,  notwithstanding,  many  MSS.  of  Scripture 
were    in   extensive    circulation    throughout  England. 

111.  Tindale's  Version  and  others. — The  first  printed 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  English,  translated  from 
the  Greek,  with  help  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  and  Luther's 
German  version,  was  published  by  William  Tindale  in 
1525,  and  the  Pentateuch  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
in  1530.  Tunstall,  Bishop  of  London,  and  Sir  Thomas  More 
took  great  pains  to  buy  up  and  burn  the  impression  of  the 
New  Testament,  but  with  the  effect  thereby  of  enabling  the 
translator  to  publish  a  larger  and  improved  edition ". 

Just  prior  to  the  death  of  Tindale,  martyred  at  Vilvorde 
in  1536,  Miles  Coverdale  translated  the  Bible  from  '  the 
Douche  and  Latyn,'  using  also  Tindale's  translations,  and 
published  the  edition  with  a  dedication  to  King  Henry  VIII, 
A.D.  1535.  This  was  the  first  complete  version  of  the 
English  printed  Bible.  In  1537  John  Kogers,  who  had 
assisted  Tindale,  and  was  then  residing  at  Antwerp,  reprinted 
an  edition,  taken  mainly  from  Tindale  and  Coverdale,  but 
also  bearing  traces  of  careful  revision.  This  was  a  great 
improvement  on  the  edition  of  1535,  and  may  be  regarded 
as  the  true  editio  princeps  of  the  English  Bible.  It  was 
published  under  the  assumed  name  of  Thomas  MattJmv. 

The  Great  Bible  appeared  a.  d.  1539.  It  was  Coverdale's, 
revised  by  the  translator,  under  the  sanction  and  with  the 
aid  of  Thomas  Cromwell.  It  was  printed  in  large  folio. 
For  the  edition  of  1540  Cranmer  wrote  a  preface,  and  hence 
this  and  the  subsequent  folio  editions  are  often  incorrectly 

*  On  the  history  of  the  English  Bible,  both  external  and  internal, 
see  The  English  Bible,  by  Dr.  John  Eadie  ;  Westcott's  General  View  of  the 
English  Bible  (second  edition) ;  Demaus'  William  Tindale ;  and  a  com- 
pendious little  volume  published  by  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  27tc 
Printed  English  Bible,  1525-1885,  by  Richard  Lovett,  M.A. 


156  THE  BIBLE  AS  TKANSLATED 

called  Cranmer's  Bible,  It  was  published  'by  authority.* 
From  this  volume  the  Prayer-book  Version  of  the  Psalter 
is  taken,  with  some  slight  variations. 

During  the  seven  years  of  King  Edward  VI,  eleven 
editions  of  the  Scriptures  were  printed  :  but  no  new  version 
or  revision  was  attempted. 

The  Geneva  New  Testament  was  published  during  the 
reign  of  Mary  in  1557 ;  the  complete  Bible,  with  an 
entirely  new  version  of  the  New  Testament,  in  1560. 
Coverdale  and  others  who  had  taken  refuge  in  Geneva 
edited  it,  and  added  marginal  annotations,  expository, 
doctrinal,  practical,  and  sometimes  highly  controversial. 
This  was  the  first  Bible  printed  in  a  handy  size,  in  Roman 
type,  and  unhappily  with  verse  divisions. 

Archbishop  Parker  obtained  authority  from  Queen  Eliza- 
beth to  revise  the  existing  translations,  and,  with  the  help 
of  various  bishops  and  others,  published  in  1568  what  was 
called  the  Bishops'  Bible.  This  also  contains  short  annota- 
tions, and  the  text  is  divided,  like  the  Genevan,  into  verses. 
An  edition  in  quarto  was  printed  in  1569,  and  a  second 
folio  edition  in  1572.  This  Bible  continued  in  common 
use  in  the  churches  for  forty  years,  though  the  Geneva 
Bible  was  almost  universally  read  in  private,  and  frequently 
found  in  the  churches  also.  It  was  not  finally  superseded 
until  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

The  English  Bible  of  the  Eomanists  was  produced  by  the 
divines  of  the  English  College  at  Douay  in  Flanders,  removed 
for  a  few  years  to  Kheims.  Among  the  chief  translators 
was  William  Allen,  designated  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
had  the  Spanish  Armada  succeeded  in  its  enterprise.  The 
New  Testament  appeared  at  Rheims,  1582 ;  the  Old 
Testament  at  Douay,  1609-10.  Both  are  affirmed  on  their 
respective  title-pages  to  be  translated  '  out  of  the  authentical 
Latin,  diligently  compared  with  the  [Hebrew,]  Greeke,  and 
other    editions    in    divers    languages.'      This    version    is 


THE  ENGLISH  BIBLE  167 

remarkable  for  its  Latinisms  *.  A  '  Table  of  References  ' 
is  appended,  in  which  the  texts  are  classified  that  are 
thought  to  support  Romanist  doctrine.  The  annotations 
all  through  bear  in  the  same  direction,  and  this  edition 
is  disfigured  by  the  most  aggressive  and  violently  con- 
troversial notes  found  in  any  edition  of  the  Bible. 

112.  The  'Authorized  Version.* — In  1603  King  James 
resolved  on  a  revision  of  the  translation,  and  for  this 
purpose  appointed  fifty-four  men  of  learning  and  piety. 
Forty-seven  only  undertook  the  work,  and  in  four  years 
(1607-11)  it  was  completed.  The  text,  as  thus  prepared 
and  printed  in  161 1,  is  generally  known  as  the  Authorized 
Version,  although  no  direct  evidence  is  to  be  found  of  its 
appointment  by  authority,  whether  civil  or  ecclesiastical. 
The  Preface  of  the  Translators  To  the  Eeacler,  retained  in 
the  earlier  editions,  deserves  to  be  carefully  studied. 

For  a  long  time,  the  Great  Bible,  the  Geneva  Bible,  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  and  King  James's  Version  were  used  concur- 
rently ;  the  last  at  length  prevaiHng  by  general  consent,  and 
so  becoming  The  Bible  of  all  English-speaking  peoples. 

113.  Proposals  for  Revision. — Suggestions  for  revising 
this  translation  have,  almost  from  the  first,  been  made. 
A  Committee  appointed  in  the  days  of  the  Commonwealth 
to  inquire  into  the  possibility  of  improving  it  reported,  that 
while  it  contained  some  mistakes,  it  was  in  their  judgement 
'  the  best  of  any  translation  in  the  world.'  Nor  is  it  only 
as  a  translation  that  this  verdict  holds  good.  The  genius 
of  the  first  translators,  Wyclif,  Coverdale,  Tindale,  with 
the  reverent  care  and  literary  skill  of  the  revisers  in  161 1, 

*  e.  g.  Ps  23^  'My  inebriating  chalice,  how  goodly  is  it ! '  In  the  Lord's 
Prayer  'Give  us  this  day  our  siipersubstantial  bread.'  On  the  other 
hand,  our  Bible  has  been  enriched  by  the  Rheims  translators  with 
some  felicitous  renderings.  Thus  Phil  i^i  'To  me  to  live  is  Christ, 
and  to  die  is  gain.'  Previous  translations  had  '  Christ  is  to  me  life, 
and  death  is  to  me  advantage.' 


158  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

combined  to  imiDress  upon  it  the  character  of  a  great  English 
classic :  and  it  is  no  mean  advantage  that  a  book  which 
contains  the  revelation  of  God  should  also  by  the  perfection 
of  its  style  v^in  its  way  to  the  minds  and  hearts  of  men. 

114.  The  Revised  English  Bible. — Still,  unquestionable 
errors  and  defects  remained  ;  and  the  question  of  revision 
was  much  discussed  after  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  eminent  scholars  taking  part  in  the  debate,  and 
many  attempts  at  improvement  being  made,  both  in  Great 
Britain  and  America.  At  length,  the  work  was  under- 
taken by  the  Convocation  of  the  Canterbury  Province  of 
the  English  Church,  and  two  Companies  of  Revisers  were 
appointed  for  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  respectively 
(thirty -seven  for  the  former  and  twenty-seven  for  the  latter), 
representing  different  Christian  communions,  while  similar 
companies  were  afterwards  formed  for  the  United  States 
(fifteen  for  the  Old  Testament,  nineteen  for  the  New). 
The  result  of  their  labours,  the  Revised  New  Testament,  was 
published  in  1881,  the  complete  Revised  Bible  in  1885. 

The  work  is  throughout  based  upon  the  Authorized 
Version.  It  is  a  Revision,  not  a  Neiv  Translation;  while 
it  was  associated  with  a  new  and  careful  examination 
of  the  original  texts,  in  the  light  of  modern  discovery 
and  criticism.  Great  attention  was  paid  to  every  minute 
detail,  including  orthography  and  punctuation.  To  secure 
as  general  a  consent  as  possible  in  so  large  a  body  of 
scholars,  it  was  agreed  at  the  outset  of  their  work  that 
no  change  should  be  introduced  without  the  consent  of 
at  least  two -thirds  of  the  respective  companies ;  other 
proposed  alterations,  some  of  which  commanded  an  actual 
plurality  of  votes,  being  relegated  to  the  margin.  This 
margin  is  therefore  of  high  importance,  and  will  be  increas- 
ingly valued  as  the  use  of  the  Revision  extends. 

What  will  be  the  future  of  the  work,  it  is  for  another 
generation  to  decide.     The  following  paragraphs  illustrate 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:   EMENDATIONS  159 

in  various  ways  its  indispensableness  to  students  of  the 
English  Bible  \ 

115.  English  Translations  compared  with  the 
Original.  —  It  remains  to  be  asked,  Are  the  English 
versions  of  the  Bible  accurate  ;  and  may  the  reader  regard 
them  as,  on  the  whole,  expressive  of  the  mind  of  the  Spirit 
of  God  ?  The  question  relates  to  the  two  versions  now  in 
the  hands  of  all  readers ;  and  to  a  great  extent  the  same 
remarks  will  apply  to  both  ;  while  the  alterations  made  by 
the  Revisers  will  deepen  rather  than  destroy  our  confidence 
in  our  old  and  familiar  Bible. 

The  nature  of  the  emendations  introduced  must  be  con- 
sidered under  different  heads ;  a  few  only  of  the  more 
important,  out  of  a  multitude  available,  being  quoted  by 
way  of  illustration. 

The  textual  changes  have  been  discussed  in  a  previous 
chapter  ;  the  following  instances  are  from  trandation  only  ; 
and  the  Authorized  Version  is  quoted  where  no  further 
reference  is  given. 

In  six  distinct  cases,  alteration,  generally  slight,  brings 
out  the  sense  more  clearly. 

I.  In  some  instances  the  English  version  gave  a  wrong 
meaning  to  the  words  or  expressions  of  the  original. 

In  Gen  36^^  one  Anah  is  said  to  have  <  found  the  mules  in  the 
wilderness ' ;  he  really  found  '  hot  springs  '  there  (R.  V.).  In  Ex  12^^ 
the  Israelites  are  said  to  have  '  borrowed'  of  the  Egyptians  things  which 
they  never  intended  to  return.  The  original  says  simply,  that  they 
asked  for  them.  In  a  Sa  12^^  it  would  appear  that  David  cruelly 
tortured  his  captives.  He  put  them  to  ignominioics  employments,  is  the  mean- 
ing proposed  by  Eosenmiiller  (see  K.  V.  margin).  So  in  the  clause 
following  :  '  made  them  pass  through,'  with  a  very  slight  change  in 
the  original  becomes  '  made  them  labour  at.' 

*  The  references  given  are  mostly  from  the  former  editions  of  this 
Handbook.  A  few  have  been  omitted,  and  several  have  been  added. 
The  Handbook  in  numberless  instances  anticipated  the  changes  that 
have  been  made  ;  the  author,  as  is  well  known,  having  been  among 
the  most  intiuential  of  the  Eevisera. 


160  THE  BIBLE  AS  TEANSLATED 

It  may  be  observed,  generally,  that  the  use  of  prepositions  and 
particles  is  often  indeterminate  in  our  version.  For  sometimes  means 
because,  2  Cor  5^  ;  it  is  often  a  preposition  denoting  relation  :  instead  of, 
on  account  of,  with  a  view  to.  So,  of  means  from,  as  in  Jn  8*°  (R.  V.)  ; 
and  by,  as  in  i  Cor  156.  These  ambiguities  are  not  in  the  original.  The 
vp-ord  translated  *  children '  in  the  narrative  of  Elisha,  2  Ki  223,  ^g 
translated  elsewhere  '  young  men '  ;  and  is  applied  to  Isaac  when 
he  was  twenty-eight  years  old,  and  to  Joseph  when  he  was  thirty. 

In  2  Ki  626  the  article  sold  for  five  shekels  of  silver  was  a  kind 
of  pulse,  or  vetch,  as  Bochart  has  shown ;  the  fourth  part  of  a  kab 
being  about  a  pint.  Gen  4^",  for  'set  a  mark  upon,'  read  (R.  V.) 
'  appointed  a  sign  for.'  Lev  7^0,  for  '  mingled  with  oil  and  dry,'  read 
(R.V.)  'or  dry'  (i.e.  whichever  it  be).  Dt  3325,  for  'shoes,'  iron 
and  brass,  read  (R,  V.)  '  bars,'  describing  the  chain  of  mountains 
which  protected  Asher  from  the  inroads  of  the  Gentiles.  Judg  i5»-", 
for  'top,' read  'cleft.'  Jos.  2414-16,  for  'the  flood,' read  'the  River' 
(i.  e.  Euphrates).  i  Ki  18*2,  for  '  he  cast  himself  down  upon,'  read 
'he  bowed  down  to.'  2  Ch  82,  for  'restored,'  read  (R.  V.)  'given.' 
2  Ch  21I1,  for  'compelled  thereto,'  read  'led  astray,'  as  in  Dt  4!^  301^. 
Ne  6",  for  '  to  save  his  life,'  read  'and  live '  (see  R.  V.  margin).  Not 
being  a  priest,  Nehemiah  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  holy  place. 
Ps  862,  fQj.  <j  ^^  holy,'  read  'I  am  a  devout  man,'  or,  'the  object 
of  Thy  favour.' 

'Light'  should  be  'lamp'  in  Jn  s'^  Rev  2i28.  In  Acts  12* 
'  Easter '  should  be  '  the  Passover '  ;  and  in  i(f^  '  churches '  ought  to 
be  '  temples.'  It  would  have  been  well  always  to  discriminate  between 
the  different  words  rendered  '  miracles'  in  the  A.  V.,  '  signs,'  'mighty 
works,'  and  '  wonders'  ;  the  first  conveying  spiritual  truth,  the  second, 
'supernatural  power,'  and  the  third  producing  astonishment  and  awe. 
On  all  these  passages,  see  the  R.  V. 

In  Jn  io28-29,  for  'any  man,'  ^ no  man,'  read  'any,'  (R.  V.)  'no  one.' 
In  Ac  7'^^^  for  'that  came  after,'  read  (R.  V.)  'in  their  turn.'  In  Ac 
1723,  for  'ignorantly,'  read  'without  knowing  Him.'  In  Ac  222^,  for 
'cast  off,'  read  'threw  up.'  In  Ac  261^  for  'to  turn  them,'  read 
(R.  V.)  'that  they  may  turn.'  In  Ac  2712,  for  '  lieth,'  read  '  looketh,' 
lit.  down  the  south-west  wind  and  down  the  north-west  wind,  i.  e. 
facing  the  NE.  and  SE.  Verse  15,  for  '  into  the  wind,'  read  '  against 
the  wind'  (R.  V.  'could  not  face  the  wind').  In  2  Cor  3^,  for 
'who  hath  made  us  able  ministers,'  read  'who  hath  fitted  us  to  be 
ministers'  (R.  V.  'made  us  sufficient  as  ministers').  In  Gal  42*  the 
history  of  the  sons  of  Hagar  and  Sarah  is  said  to  be  an  '  allegory,'  or 
a  fictitious  narrative.  The  Apostle  merely  says  that  it  represents 
important  spiritual  truth  (R.  V.  'contains  an  allegory')  :  i.e.  the  Jews 
of  the  Apostles'  day  ('  Jerusalem  that  now  is')  answered  to  lahmael ; 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:   EMENDATIONS  161 

and  true  believers — the  Church — to  Isaac,  the  heir  of  the  promise. 
In  2  Pet  i^,  for  '  and  beside  this,'  read  '  and  for  this  very  reason ' 
(see  R.  v.).  Miletws  (not  um),  Euodia  (not  as),  Urbanus  (not  «),  are 
the  correct  renderings  ;  Joshua  is  less  liable  to  mistake  tlian  Jesus 
(Ac  7*5  Heb  4*),  and  *  Marcus,'  '  Lucas,'  should  be,  as  elsewhere, 
'  Mark  '  and  '  Luke.' 

2.  In  some  cases  the  fall  force  of  the  original  is  not 
expressed  in  the  A.  V. 

In  Jn  i^*,  the  Word  is  said  '  to  have  dwelt  among  us'  :  the  original 
connects  His  appearance  with  the  ancient  tabernacle  as  the  dwelling- 
place  of  the  Divine  glory  (R.  V.  margin,  '  tabernacled  ').  In  i  Cor  4^', 
the  Apostles  are  said  to  have  been  made  as  '  the  filth  of  the  earth ' : 
literally,  'the  sweepings*  (classical  usage),  or  'appeasing  offerings' 
(LXX  and  classical  usage),  R.  V.  margin,  *  refuse.'  *  Rid  of  us,  the 
world  will  deem  itself  comparatively  clean  ' ;  or  *  it  offers  us  in 
expiation  to  its  gods,'  Jn  16^.  In  Heb  12^  Christians  are  described 
as  'looking  to  Jesus'  :  the  original  implies,  looking  up  to  Him,  and 
away  from  every  other  object  of  trust  (A.  V.  margin).  In  2  Tim  2^, 
read  '  if  a  man  contend  in  the  games.'  So  in  i  Cor  9^'.  In  i  Th  4^, 
read  'in  that  matter.' 

Sometimes  the  older  translators  neglected  the  peculiar  expressive- 
ness of  the  original,  substituting  a  tamer  phraseology.  Several  instances 
of  this  kind  occur  in  the  rendering  of  the  so-called  'hendiadys*,' 
where  a  literal  translation  would  have  more  accurately  conveyed  the 
sense  of  the  original.  Thus  Ro  8^^,  '  the  liberty  of  the  glory  of  the 
children  of  God'  ;  Phil  3^1,  'the  body  of  our  humiliation';  Col  i*^, 
*  the  Son  of  His  love '  ;  i  Tim  i^\  '  the  gospel  of  the  glory  of  the 
blessed  God.'  See  also  2  Cor  4*  Eph  i^*  422.24  Col  i"  2  Th  i"^  Tit  2^^ 
I  Pet  ii*  I  Tim  6^^. 

In  several  passages  the  sense  of  the  original  is  weakened  in  A.  V.  by 
a  disregard  of  the  force  of  the  Greek  Article,  an  inaccuracy  evidently 
due  to  the  Vulgate,  the  Latin  having  no  definite  article.  Generally 
speaking,  the  article  recognizes  the  object  of  thought  as  definite,  or 
familiar,  or  well  understood  ;  in  many  cases  also  it  refers  to  previous 
mention.  Thus,  we  should  read  with  R.V.,  'the  virgin,'  Mt  i^^ 
(Is  7^);  'the  mountain,'  Mt  5^  14^^;  'the  synagogue,'  Lu  7^;  'the 
half-shekel,'  Mt  172*;  'the  way  of  escape,'  i  Cor  10^^;  'the  Amen,' 
I  Cor  14^''  ;  'the  crown  of  righteousness,'  2  Tim  4**  ;  'the  great  tribu- 
lation,' Rev  7^*.  Definiteness  is  also  marked  in  such  references  as 
those  to  the  usual  furniture,  &c.,  in  a  house  ;  Mt  5^^  Jn  13^.  For 
other  usages  see  Mt  4^  Mk  4^  Lu  2^^  Jn  6^^  Ac  i^^  Ro  5^^  i  Cor  i^i 

*  "Ev  5ia  dvoTi',  '  one  thought  in  double  expression.' 
M 


16S  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

I  Cor  5^.  In  i  Th  4^^,  for  '  even  as  others,'  read  'even  as  the  rest  of 
the  world.*  In  i  Cor  4^,  read  '  and  then  shall  every  man  have  of  God 
the  praiae  that  is  His.^  Some  of  these  corrections  may  at  first  sight 
appear  unimportant;  but  many  of  them  will  repay  careful  study*. 
For  others,  often  of  deep  theological  significance,  see  Ch.  VIII,  §  133. 

On  the  other  hand  there  are  cases  in  which  the  absence  of  the 
article  is  rightly  noted  in  the  R.  V.  either  by  the  indefinite  a,  an,  or 
by  the  omission  of  the  article  inserted  in  A.  V.  Such  instances  are  Lu 
2'2,  <  ye  shall  find  a  babe' ;  Lu  3^^  7^  19^"  Ac  18*  (referring  respectively 
to  some  of  the  soldiers,  elders,  bond-servants,  Jews,  Greeks)  ;  Lu  6^*^, 
'on  a  level  place,'  i.  e.  in  the  mountain,  as  Mt  5^;  Lu  10®,  'a  son  of 
peace,'  a  person  well  disposed  to  the  message ;  Jn  4^,  '  Jews  have  no 
dealings  with  Samaritans ' ;  4'^'^,  '  He  was  speaking  with  a  woman ' ; 
Ac  4^,  '  a  good  deed  done  to  an  impotent  man'  ;  14^'^,  'a  door  of  faith '; 
17^^^,  '  to  an  unknown  God  '  ;  2  Cor  3^,  '  ministers  of  a  new  covenant' ; 
I  Tim  6^^,  '  the  love  of  money  is  a  root  of  all  kinds  of  evil.'  Other 
instances  out  of  many  are  Mk  12'^^  Ac  6^^  7^^  18^^  i  Cor  1^'^  6^^ 
9^"  2  Pet  2*  3^ ;  Rev  14'',  '  an  eternal  gospel.'  To  this  list  Lu  la^^-^^ 
and  Mt  12*^*2  might  advantageously  have  been  added:  'Men  of 
Nineveh,'  *a  queen  of  the  south.'  Still  more  instructive  are  the 
correction  in  Jn  5^"^  (R.  V.  margin,  and  American  revised  text), 
'because  Ho  is  a  son  of  man'  ;  and  that  in  Heb  1^  (R.  V.  margin), 
God  hath  spoken  unto  us  '  in  a  Son'  ;  compare  Rev  i^^  14^*.  All 
these  changes  rightly  '  throw  emphasis  on  the  character  of  the  subject 
instead  of  the  concrete  subject  itself  {Westcott). 

The  Hebrew  article,  though  less  definite  than  the  Greek,  is  often 
important.  In  Ex  17^*,  read  'in  the  book'  (viz.  of  the  Law);  in 
Ps  89^*^,  read  '  as  the  faithful  witness  in  the  sky  '  (the  rainbow). 

3.  In  some  cases  the  peculiar  idiom  of  the  original  has 
been  overlooked. 

In  I  Cor  4*  'I  know  nothing  by  myself  is  'I  am  not  conscious  of 
anything'  (viz.  wrong  'against  myself  R.  V.).  In  Gal  5^'^  'cannot' 
should  be  'may  not.'  In  Ac  172^,  for  'devotions,'  read  'objects  of 
devotion.'  In  i  Cor  i'^^  for  'the  foolishness  of  preaching,'  read  'the 
foolishness  of  the  preaching,''  i.  e.  with  special  reference  to  the  doctrine 
preached.  So  Lu  ii^'^.  In  2  Pet  2^,  read  '  Noah,  with  seven  others'  (R  V.). 
In  Heb  12^^,  read  'the  mountain  that  could  be  touched.' 

Both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  again,  verbs  are  sometimes 
translated  in  the  wrong-  tenses. 

The  present  translation  of  Jn  is'^,  'supper  being  ended,'  contradicts 

*  For  other  instances,  see  Handbook  to  Grammar  of  the  Greek  New  Testa- 
ment (R.T.S.),  §  213. 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:    EMENDATIONS  163 

verses  26,  28.  The  original  is  *  supper  being  come.'  So  in  Ac  2*'',  for 
*  such  as  should  be  saved,'  read  *  such  as  were  being  saved.'  So  i  Cor  i^^ 
2  Cor  2^5-^5  4^  In  Lu  5®,  read  'began  to  break,'  or  'was  breaking' 
(see  verse  7).     So  Mt  82*  Lu  823  ^t  ^st  j  Cor  ii-^. 

In  2  Cor  5^*,  read  '  then  are  all  dead,'  or  '  have  all  died.'  In  a  Cor  la^-', 
for  '  I  knew,'  read  '  I  know.'  In  Lu  23*^,  read  '  And  Jesus  cried  with 
a  loud  voice,  saying.'  In  Philem,  verse  21,  for  'I  wrote,'  read  'I 
have  written,'  as  in  verse  19.     See  also  .Jas  2^1  i  Th  i^°. 

In  some  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  the  numlsers  mentioned  seem 
enormously  large,  and  may  be  corrected  by  the  idiom. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  that  at  Bethshemesh  (a  small  town)  the 
Lord  smote  50,070  men,  i  Sa  6^^  :  and  in  Judg  12^  there  are  said  to 
have  fallen  of  the  Ephraimites  42,000  :  while  a  short  time  before  the 
tribe  contained  only  32,500  persons.  Both  passages  are  possibly  to  be 
corrected  by  a  mode  of  notation  still  common  among  the  Arabians. 
They  say  'in  the  year  12  and  300  '  for  312.  Translating  literally,  we 
have  for  the  first  passage,  '  the  Lord  smote  seventy  men,  fifties  and 
a  thousand,'  or  1170.  Some,  however,  think  that  seventy  men  only 
are  intended,  the  remaining  numbers  being  a  transcriber's  error.  And 
for  the  second,  'there  fell  of  the  Ephraimites  40  and  2000,'  or  2040. 

It  deserves  to  be  noticed  generally  that  numerical  statements  in 
Oriental  languages  are  peculiarly  liable  to  error  in  transcription. 

In  the  Hebrew,  for  example,  «  is  i ;  n  is  1000 ;  2  is  a ;  3  is  20  ;  i  stands 
for  7000  ;  1  for  700  ;  and  the  one  letter  being  inadvertently  written  in 
very  early  copies  for  the  other  has  given  rise  to  some  apparent  contra- 
dictions, 2  Sa  8*  I  Ch  18*.  There  is  a  similar  error  in  2  Sa  lo^^,  700  (]) ; 
see  I  Ch  19^^  7000  (V).  i  Ki  4^^,  40,000  ;  see  a  Ch  9^^,  4000.  i  Ki  g^^, 
550  ;  see  2  Ch  8^0^  250  (2i).  i  Ki  9^8,  420  ;  see  2  Ch  8^^,  450.  a  Ki  826, 
22  ;  see  2  Ch  22^,  42. 

4.  In  some  cases,  the  same  word  in  the  original  is 
rendered  by  different  words  in  the  English,  sometimes 
impairing  the  effect  of  a  sentence,  and  occasionally  suggesting 
a  difference  in  meaning  where  none  exists. 

In  Is  37*  an  accurate  translation  would  suggest  that  the  insult 
Rabshakeh  had  offered  to  Judah  was  to  recoil  upon  himself.  He 
reproved  Judah,  and  God  reproved  him.  So  in  other  antithetic  sentences, 
I  Cor  13^'^  'If  any  one  destroyeth  the  temple  of  God,  him  will  God 
destroy.'  Compare  Mt  21*^  '  He  will  miserably  destroy  those  miserable 
men.'  In  Ps  1326  '  the  fields  o/the  wood'  is  the  translation  of  what  is 
really  a  proper  name,  '  of  Jearim,'  as  it  is  given  in  i  Ch  13°  '  Kirjath  ' 
(or  the  city  of)  '  Jearim.'  In  Lev  19^  '  at  your  own  will,'  should  rather 
be  '  that  it  may  be  accepted  of  you,'  as  in  verse  7,  and  so  aa^^-ai. 

M  2 


164  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

In  Mt  25''^  tho  eternal  life  of  the  righteous  and  the  everlasting  punish- 
ment of  the  wicked  are  expressed  by  tlie  same  word.  To  '  apprehend ' 
may  be  translated  to  lay  hold  of  or  obtain  in  Phil  3^2^  as  in  i  Cor  g"^*. 
The  same  word  is  translated  '  imputed,' '  counted,'  and  'accounted' 
in  Ro  4^  Gal  3^  Jas  2^3.  <  Attendance '  is  everywhere  translated  *  heed ' 
or  '  attention,'  except  in  i  Tim  4^^  '  Comforter'  (Jn  14^°  15-^  16'^)  is 
the  word  translated  *  advocate '  in  i  Jn  3},  and  the  idea  is  given  in  the 
word  'consolation'  in  Lu  2"^^,  and  elsewhere.  In  2  Cor  3  and  Heb  8 
'  covenant '  and  '  testament '  represent  tho  same  words.  In  Ac  19^ 
a  phrase  is  translated  '  if  there  be '  a  Holy  Ghost,  which  perhaps  ought 
to  be  rendered,  as  in  Jn  7^^,  '  whether  the  Holy  Ghost  was  given.' 

Such  variations  are  sometimes  perplexing  :  as  Mk  15^^,  *  darkness 
over  all  the  land ' ;  Lu  23**,  '  darkness  over  all  the  earth ' ;  Mk  lo^^, 
'  thy  faith  hath  saved  thee  ' ;  Lu  18*2,  <  thy  faith  hath  made  thee  whole.' 
The  altei-native  of  'love'  and  'charity,'  for  the  same  word,  is  more 
defensible  ;  but  still  it  creates  difficulties.  In  2  Cor  5^*^  much  is  lost 
by  not  translating,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  chapter,  '  we  must  all  be 
made  manifest  before  the  judgement-seat  of  Christ.' 

The  following  should  be  translated  uniformly  :  i  Cor  is^^-ae  (p^t 
down);  Ro  c^'^-^'^^  (rejoice,  glory,  joy);  Ro  S'^-'-'^  (creature,  creation); 
Mt  20^1  ;  Mk  io^«  {charged,  rebuked) ;  Mk  S^^-sfl  (life,  soul) ;  i  Cor  i^-^  ; 
Eph  i^  (in,  by) ;  1  Cor  7^2.13  (^leave,  put  away).  See  also  Heb  3^'  4^  9^^ 
(verse  14)  i^  lo^  Tit  2^*  i  Jn  i^  Jn  is^-^  and  Ro  12^^  15^-^  Heb  io^^ 

In  the  Revised  Version  the  plan  of  uniform  translation  has  been 
carried  out  wherever  possible,  while  it  has  not  been  forgotten  that,  as 
the  translators  of  161 1  expressed  it,  'there  be  some  words  that  be  not 
of  the  same  sense  everywhere.'  These  translators  may  have  carried 
variation  to  too  great  a  length,  on  the  curious  principle  of  not  honour- 
ing one  word  above  another.  Probably  their  successors  have  gone  to 
an  opposite  extreme,  as  the  genius  of  the  English  language  is  to  avoid 
tautology  by  the  judicious  use  of  synonyms. 

5.  On  the  other  hand,  different  words  in  the  original  are 
often  rendered  by  the  same  word  in  English,  where  it  is 
important  to  preserve  variety. 

Jehovah,  in  the  Old  Testament,  is  the  Covenant  God — God  as 
revealed  to  Israel.  *  The  Lord  '  is  a  more  general  word,  of  various 
application,  signifying  *  my  Master'  (see  Ps  iio^).  The  use  of  capital 
letters  in  the  English  version  for  Lord  in  the  former  sense  marks 
the  distinction  to  the  eye  (although  not  always  sufficiently  noted  by 
readers)  ;  but  to  the  ear  it  is  lost,  as  when  the  Scriptures  are  read 
in  public  worship.  The  American  Revisers  of  the  Old  Testament 
observe  the  distinction,  to  the  great  advantage  of  their  version. 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  :   EMENDATIONS  165 

In  the  Old  Testament  the  word  'vanity'  represents  three  Hebrew 
words  at  least,  one  meaning  *  breath '  or  nothingness,  as  in  Ps  62^ ; 
another  meaning  wicked,  profitless  deception,  as  the  heathen  idols, 
Is  41^^  ;  and  a  third  meaning  falsehood,  as  in  Ps  41^  Job  31^  All 
these  terms  convey  sometimes  the  ideas  of  profitlessness  and  of  sin  ; 
but  the  first  especially  is  used  to  indicate  mere  insignificancy.  In  Ps 
89*'^  the  sense  is.  How  vain  (fleeting,  insignificant)  are  the  sons  of 
men,  whom  Thou  hast  created  1 

The  word  '  repentance '  is  used  to  translate  a  word  denoting  that 
change  of  disposition  (/xeTavoia)  to  which  the  term  is  properly  applied  : 
and  this  is  the  common  meaning.  But  it  is  also  used  to  translate 
another  word,  denoting  merely  regret  or  a  change  of  plans  (fxerafjiiXna), 
without  implying  any  change  of  disposition.  This  is  the  meaning 
in  Mt  2i2^-32  27^  a  Cor  7^-^°  Heb  7^^^.  Elsewhere,  the  former  word 
is  used. 

'Conversation'  again  is  the  translation  of  two  words ;  and  means 
(i)  citizenship,  as  in  Phil  3^^°  ;  and  (2)  everywhere  else  in  the  New 
Testament,  course  of  life,  or  behaviour.  The  Greek  word  for  conversation, 
in  the  modern  sense,  is  translated  in  our  version  '  communication,' 
Mt  5^^  Lu  24^"^  Eph  4^^".  In  i  Cor  15'',  however,  'communication' 
is  the  rendering  of  a  word  which  signifies  intercourse  (R.V.  company). 

'  Hell '  again  means  (i)  the  invisible  state,  the  place  of  departed 
spirits,  without  reference  to  their  condition  of  happiness  or  misery, 
hades;  as  in  Mt  ii^s  le^s  Lu  lo^s  16^3  Ac  a^'-si  i  Cor  15^^  Rev  f-s  6^ 
2o^^-^*  ;  and  (2)  the  place  of  future  punishment,  gehenna,  in  Mt  522.29.so 
10"^  18^  23^^-^^  Mk  9*3.45.47  Lu  J25  jas  36.  These  two  meanings  are 
represented  in  the  original  and  in  the  R.  V.  by  different  words.  In 
the  Old  Testament  the  equivalent  of  hades  is  Sheol,  as  also  given  in 
R.V. 

The  word  'temple'  is  the  translation  of  two  words;  and  means 
either  the  whole  consecrated  precinct  (Itpuv),  or  the  portion  appro- 
priated as  the  local  abode  of  God's  presence  (raos).  In  the  former 
sense  (including  the  outer  or  unroofed  court)  markets  were  held  in  it 
(Mt  21^2^,  and  the  rabbis  met  their  pupils  there.  It  is  to  the  second 
that  our  Lord  referred,  when  He  said,  '  Destroy  this  temple'  (alluding 
to  the  indwelling  of  the  Divine  nature  in  His  person).  So  is  it  applied 
to  Christians  in  i  Cor  3^^  6^^  In  this  second  sense,  the  R.  V.  margin 
explains  by  sanctuary. 

'  Ordained  '  is  the  translation  of  several  words ;  and  means  determined 
in  Ac  10*2  i^si  .  and  foredetermined  in  i  Cor  a'^.  The  word  used  in 
the  following  passages  is  different ;  and  means  ordain,  with  the  idea 
of  setting  in  order,  Ac  13*8  Ro  13^  Gal  3^^  i  Cor  9^*.  In  Ac  16*  it 
represents  a  word  that  means  to  decide.  In  Eph  2^",  to  prepare  (as  in 
Ro  9^3  (so  R.  v.).      In  I  Tim  a'^,  to  appoint  (as  in  a  Tim  i"  Ac  13*^ 


166  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

Ac  ao'^*).  In  Heb  5^  8',  to  constitute  or  establish.  In  Ju,  verse  4,  to 
ivrite  up  in  the  face  of  men ^  or  denounce,  or  to  write  concerning  a  thing  before- 
hand (R.  V.  set  forth).  In  Ac  1^2  and  Ro  7^°  there  is  no  corresponding 
word  in  the  original. 

The  word  '  devils '  (pi.)  should  always  be  translated  demons  or  evil 
spirits  :  and  the  word  *  devil '  should  be  translated  demon,  as  R.  V. 
margin  and  American  Revisers,  in  the  following  passages  :  Mt  9^2 
11I8  1222  1522  1^18  .  Mark  throughout  ;  Lu  ^^^-^^  7^8  ni?  jn  ,^20  848.49.52, 
In  all  other  passages  the  word  used  is  rightly  translated  the  devil,  as 
in  Mt  4^  Rev  20^. 

'  Will'  is  sometimes  the  translation  of  the  future;  but  sometimes 
of  an  independent  verb,  as  in  Jn  5*0  ^^''  8'^  Mt  ii^*-^^  162*26  igi7.2i 
Lu  9"  1331  I  Pet  3^"  Rev  ii^  In  all  these  passages,  excepting 
Jn  5*°,  the  distinction  is  noted  in  R.  V.  In  two  passages  '  I  would ' 
expresses  a  duty  in  addition  to  a  wish  (ofcXov),  Gal  5^^  Rev  3^^. 
'  Shall  *  is  sometimes  used  imperatively,  and  sometimes  as  a  simple 
future.  It  is  a  simple  future  in  Mt  17^2  Mk  10'  Ac  23^  Ro  4"* 
8^'.  The  word  translated  *  shall '  in  some  of  these  passages  (/iJt'AAcu) 
is  translated  'will'  or  'would'  in  Mt  2"  Lu  10^  ('was  about  to,' 
R.  V.)  Jne"  735 1422  Ac  i62'^  (*  was  about  to,"  R.  V.)  25*  (ib.)  27IO  Rev3^«. 
Simple  futurity  is  expressed  in  each.  On  the  other  hand,  duty  or 
necessity  (Set)  is  found  in  Mt  26^5  ('must,'  R.  V.).  This  is  the  word 
generally  translated  *  must'  or  'ought.' 

In  Jn  13^^  the  true  meaning  of  the  passage  is  obscured  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  word  '  wash ' ;  see  R.  V.  The  following  words  again  may 
be  instructively  compared  :  '  know '  for  full  Christian  knowledge,  as 
Eph  i^*^,  in  distinction  from  ordinary  knowledge  ;  'keep  '  in  Jn  17^2  . 
'  people,'  'peoples'  in  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  and  '  teach '  compared 
with  the  word  to  *  make  disciples,'  Mt  13^2  27^7  28^^  Ac  142^ 


6.  Some  of  the  expressions  of  the  English  Bible  are 
obsolete  in  the  sense  in  which  the  Translators  used  them. 

116.  In  accordance  with  the  last  observation  it  will  be 
useful  to  distinguish,  as  in  the  following  Table,  between 
archaic  words  belonging  to  a  former  stage  of  the  English 
language,  and  current  words  which  have  altered  in  meaning. 
In  some  cases  the  Kevisers  have  retained  the  former,  as 
not  liable  to  be  misunderstood. 

In  the  following  list  K.  and  R.  V.  refer  to  both  revisions  ; 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:   AKCHAISMS  167 

A.  R  to  the  American  revision  only  ;    E.  R.  to  the  English 
version  only  ;  m.  is  for  margin. 

Abjects.     Ps  35^^  R  V.  m.  smiters. 

Aflfect.     Gal  4^^^  court. 

Allow.     Lu  11^^  approve. 

All  to.     Judg  g^^  entirely  (read  brake).     E.  V.  omits. 

Amaze.  Mk  lo^^  14'^  bewildered  ('  in  a  maze  ')  ;  amazement,  Ac  3^^ 
joy,  I  Pet  3^  K.  V.  m.  teiror. 

Artillery,     i  Sa  20^"  R.  V.  weapons. 

Astonied.  Job  17*  Is  52^*,  &c.  A.  R.  astonished,  Dn  5^  R.  perplexed. 
In  Eze  3^^  astonished  is  altered  in  R.  to  astonied. 

Audience,  i  Sa  25^*  Lu  7^  R.  V,  ears,  Lu  20*^  R.  V.  hearing  ;  to  g-ive 
audience,  Ac  13^^  15^2  j^^  iq  hearken. 

Away  with.     Is  i^^  put  up  with. 

Barbarian,     i  Cor  14^^  foreigner  (comp.  Ac  28-). 

Bestead.     Is  8^1  circumstanced,  situated. 

Bestow.     Lu  is^"^-^^ put  away  (not  give  away). 

Boiled.     Ex  9^^  podded  for  seed,  or  as  R.  m.  '  in  bloom.' 

Bravery.     Is  13^*  A.  R.  beauty  (comp.  Scotch  '  braw  '). 

Brigandines.     Jer  46*  R.  coats  0/ mail. 

By  and  by.     Mt  13"^  Lu  21^  R.  V.  straightway  (immediately). 

Carriage.  Judg  iS^i  R.  V.  goods  (pL),  i  Sa  1722  Is  lo^^  Ac  21^5  r^  y, 
baggage.  Is  46^  R.  things  that  ye  carried  about. 

Cliarger(s).     Num  7^^,  etc.     A.  R.  platter,  Mt  14^1  Mk  625  (unaltered). 

Charity,     i  Cor  13  R.  V.  love. 

Coast(s).  Ex  10*  Dt  z^*-^*^  Mt  2^^  Ac  13'^*',  &c.  R.  V.  borders,  regions, 
uttermost  parts,  &c.  (not  implying  sea). 

Comfort,  n.  and  t;.  (besides  consolation),  i  Cor  14^  R.  V.  exhortation, 
I  Th  5^*  R.  V.  encourage. 

Convenient.  Ro  i'^^  Eph  5*  R.  V.  JitUng,  befitting,  i  Cor  i6'2  convenient 
time,  R.  opportunity. 

Conversation.     Phil  3^''  2  Pet  2^  (manner  of  life). 

Convince.     Tit  i^  Ju  ^^  Jn  8*6  Jas  2^  R.  convict,  Ac  iB^^  R.  coyifute. 

Cunning.     Ex  31*  i  Ki  17^*,  &c.  A.  R.  skilful. 

Curious.     Ex  28^  35^^  Ac  19!^.   E.  R.  cunning,  A.  R.  skilful. 

Damn,  -ation.  Mt  23^*  Ro  3^,  &c.  R.  V.  condemnation,  Jo  5^^  Ro  13^ 
R.  V.  judgement;  damnable  heresies,  2  Pet  2^  heresies  of  destruction,  i.e. 
leading  to  destruction. 

Daysman.     Job  9^^  arbitrator,  R.  m.  umpire. 

Deal.     Ex  29*'^  R.  V.  part  (or  portion). 

Dispensation,     i  Cor  9^'^  R.  V.  steuxirdship. 

Draught,  -house.     Mt  15^''^  2  Ki  10^^  drain,  sewer. 

Bar,  -ed,  -Ing.     Dt  21*  Gen  45^  Ex  34"  R.  V.  plow  (Lat.  arare). 


168  THE  BIBLE  AS  TKANSLATED 

Emerods.     i  Sa  5*^  R.  tumours  (haemorrhoids). 

Enlarge.     Ps  4^  R.  V.  set  at  large,  2  Cor  10'"'  R.  V.  magnify. 

Ensue,      i  Pet  3^^  R.  pursue. 

Entreated.  Ac  zf  E.  R.  treat,  Gen  12I6  A.  R.  dealt  well,  Ex  5^2  Dt  26^ 
(evil  entreated),  A.  R.  dealt  ill  with. 

Eschew,  -ed.     i  Pet  3^^  R.turn  away  from,  Job  i^  (unaltered  :  avoided). 

Fats,  n.     Joel  2^*  A.  R.  vats. 

Fetched  a  compass.     Jos  15^  2  Ki  3"  Ac  28^^  R.  V.  made  a  circuit. 

Fray,  v.     Dt  28^^  scare,  frighten. 

Goodman  of  the  house.  Mt  20^^  R.  V.  householder,  Mt  24^^  Lu  12^^ 
R.  master  of  the  house. 

Kale,  V.     Lu  12^**  Ac  8^  drag  aicay. 

Harness,  i  Ki  22^*  2  Ch  9^*  R.  V.  armour;  harnessed.  Ex  13'^  R. 
armed. 

Heir.     Mic  i^"  Jer  49^  R.  V.  possessor. 

Kis  for  its,  R.  V.  (In  Old  English  the  masc.  and  neut.  forms  were 
the  same.) 

Honest,  -ly.  Ac  6'  R.  V.  good,  Ro  12^'^  2  Cor  8^^,  &c.  R.  V.  honourable, 
I  Pet  2^2  J].  R.  seemly,  i  Th  4^^  A.  R.  becomingly,  Heb  13^^  A.  R.  honourably ; 
honesty,  i  Tim  2^^  R.  V.  gravity. 

Instant,  -ly.  Lu  23^^  A.  R.  urgent,  Ro  12^^  j^_  y_  stedfastly,  Lu  7*  Ac  26"^ 
R.  V.  earnestly. 

Jot  or  tittle.     Mt  5^^  (the  smallest  letter  or  part  of  a  letter). 

Knop.     Ex  25^^-^^  sqq,  '  knob.' 

Iieasing*.     Ps  4^  5^  R.  V.  falsehood,  lies. 

Let  (as  well  as  ordinary  meaning).  Is  43^^  E.  R.  m.  reverse,  A.  R. 
hinder,  a  Th  2^  R.  V.  restrain.  'There  are  two  Anglo-Saxon  verbs 
somewhat  alike  in  spelling,  but  directly  opposite  in  meaning,  la'tan  to 
permit,  and  lettan  to  hinder.' — Hastings.  Hence  the  apparent  con- 
fusion. 

Lewd,  -ness.     Ac  17-^  18^*  R.  V.  vile,  villany. 

Libertines.     Ac  6^  freed  slaves,  or  the  children  of  such. 

Marish.     Eze  47^^  '  marsh,'  an  old  form  of  the  word. 

Minish,  -ed.  Ex  s^^  Ps  107^^  and  E.  R.  Is  19^  Ho  S^^  ^  r,  diminish,  -ed. 

Mortify.     Ro  8^^  Col  3^  A.  R.  put  to  death. 

Motions.     Ro  7^  R.  V.  passions. 

Mystery.  Often  a  revealed  secret,  as  Eph  i^-^^  ;  sometimes  a  doctrine. 
Mysteries  =  doctrines,  i  Cor  4^. 

ITeese.     2  Ki  4'"*  '  sneeze '  ;  neesings.  Job  41^^  A.  R.  sneezings. 

Nephews.  Judg  12'*  Job  18^^  Is  i^'^'^  i  Tim  5''  R.  V.  sons'  sons,  grand- 
children. 

Occupy.  Eze  27"-^''  E.  R.  exchange,  A.  R.  deal  in,  Lu  19^^  R.  V.  trade. 
So  occupation,  as  Ac  18^, 

Or  ever.     Ps  90^^  Pr  8^^  Dn  6^*  even  b^ore. 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:   ARCHAISMS  169 

Offend.  Mt  s^^-^o  Jn  6«^  2  Cor  ii^^,  &c.  R.V.  cause  to  stumble  or  to 
sin  ;  offence,  Mt  16'^'  i  Cor  lo^^  stumbling-block. 

Ouches.    Ex  28^^  39®,  &c.  A.  R.  settings  (properly  '  nouches,'  Chaucer). 

Painful,  -ness.     Ps  731^  2  Cor  ii^"^  R.  V.  travail 

Peculiar.  Tit  2^*  i  Pet  2^  R.  Y./or  (God's)  possession^  Dt  7'  14^  26^^ 
E.  R.  peculiar  unto  Himself,  A.  R.  for  His  owyi  possession,  Dt  7^  E.  R.  for  A.  V. 
special. 

Peep.  Is  8^^  10^*  R.  V.  chirp  (rather  *  cheep,'  the  faint  cry  of 
a  nestling. — Hastings). 

Poll,  V.     2  Sa  1426  Eze  44^0  Mic  i^s  A.  R.  cut  (the  hair). 

Prevent.  Ps  119  ^^^  A.  R.  anticipate,  Mt  1725  R.  V.  spake  first  to,  i  Th  4'^ 
R.  V.  precede. 

Provoke.  2  Cor  9^  R.  V.  stirred  up,  Heb  10"  Ro  11^*  stimulate  :  else- 
where in  a  bad  sense. 

Purg-e.     Mt  3"  Jn  15^  Heb  9^*  R.  V.  cleanse  (in  any  way). 

Quick,  quicken.     Num  16^^  Ps  124'  Heb  4^2  j^^  y.  living,  make  alive. 

Quit.     I  Sa  4^  I  Cor  16"  'acquit.' 

Reins.     Ps  7^  Is  ii^,  &c.     Lit.  '  kidneys':  met.  for  emotions,  affections. 

Beligrion,  relig-ious.  Ac  13*^  R.  V.  devout :  used  chiefly  of  outward 
manifestation  of  piety  Ac  26''  Gal  i^^-^*  Jas  i26.27^ 

Boad.     I  Sa  27'*^  R.  V.  raid. 

Boom.     Ps  3i»  Lu  i^^-^^  R.  V.  place. 

Scrabble,  i  Sa  21^^  'scrawl'  (not  connected  with  'scribble.' — 
Hastings). 

Scrip.  I  Sa  17*°  Lu  22^*^  R.V.  (in  New  Testament)  wallet  (a  small 
bag  for  provisions,  &c.). 

Several.     2  Ki  15^  2  Ch  26^^  A.  R.  separate  (R.  m.  '  a  lazar  house '). 

Sherd.     Is  30^*  '  shred  '  or  fragment  (comp.  '  potsherd  '). 

JShroud.     Eze  31^  covering,  shelter, 

Sith.     Eze  35^  A.  R.  since. 

Skill,  V.     I  Ki  5^  2  Ch  s'-^  A.  R.  to  know  how. 

Sometimes.     Eph  2}^  R.V.  once  ;  sometime,  i  Pet  3^^°  R.  V.  aforetime. 

Steads,     i  Ch  5^^  (R.  V.  '  stead  '),  places  of  abode. 

Straw,  V.     Mt  21^  '  strew,'  R.  V.  spread,  Mt  252*-2C  R.  V.  scatter. 

Stuff.     I  Sa  lo^'^  25^'  30^^*  A.  R.  baggage,  Lu  17'^  R.  goods. 

Tabering*.     Nah  2'^  A.  R.  beating,  as  on  a  tabor. 

Take  thought,  to.  i  Sa  9^  A.  R.  he  anxious,  Mt  6^^  ^^  1326  r.  y.  be 
anxious,  Lu  24^^  thoughts,  E.  R.  reasonings,  A.  R.  questionings. 

Target,  i  Sa  17^  a  light  shield  or  buckler  (R.V.  reads  ^'areiin,  from 
a  different  text). 

Trow.     Lu  17'  suppose. 

Usury.  Mt  252^  Lu  19"  R.  V.  interest  (in  a  general  sense;  not  extor- 
tionate interest)  ;  usurer,  Ex  22'2'^  R.  V.  creditor. 

Virtue.     Mk  ^^^  Lu  6^^  8^^  R.  V.  power.     Elsewhere,  excellency. 


170  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

Ware.     Ac  14"  R.  V.  aware. 

Wealth.     I  Cor  10^^  welfare. 

Wit,  V.  Gen  24"  Ex  2*  R.  V.  know  ;  do  you  to  wit,  2  Cor  8^  R.  make 
known  to  you  ;  wist,  Ex  16^^  Jos  2*  A.  R.  kneiv  ;  wot.  Gen  21^6  398  Ex  32^ 
A.  R,  know  ;  Rom  ii'^  A.  R.  knoio. 

On  these  words  and  others  used  in  peculiar  senses,  a  series  of  articles 
in  Hastings'  Biblical  Dictionary  may  be  profitably  consulted. 

117.  Some  special  features  of  the  English  versions 
are  important : — 

I.  The  use  of  italics,  adopted  by  the  TransLators  of 
1611  from  earlier  versions,  which,  in  the  language  of  the 
Genevan  editors,  inserted  'words  which,  lacking,  made  the 
sentence  obscure  ;  but  set  them  in  such  letters  as  may 
easily  be  discerned  from  the  common  text.'  The  principal 
purposes  of  italics  are  : — 

(a)  To  indicate  uncertainty  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
text :  I  Jn  2^^,  where,  as  the  genuineness  of  the  clause  is  now 
established,  the  R.  V.  prints  it  in  ordinary  type.  In  Jn  8^ 
the  italicized  clause  is  omitted  as  an  interpolation. 

(b)  To  point  out  words  necessary  to  the  sense  ;  as  auxiliary 
verbs,  the  many  uses  of  the  verb  to  be,  unemphatic  pronouns 
and  particles,  the  words  man,  thing,  &c.,  understood  after 
adjectives,  and  often  the  conjunctions  and  and  but. 

This  usage  in  the  A.  V.  is  very  irregular,  often  rendering  the  same 
original  differently  in  the  same  chapter  ;  thus  Dt  2*  *  ye  are  to  pass'; 
verse  18  '  thou  art  to  pass  '  ;  Lev  10^^  '  his  sons  that  were  left '  ;  verse 
16  *  the  sons  of  Aaron  which  wereleft '  ;  Dt  21'  '  the  slain  man'  ;  verse  6 
'  the  slain  man'  ;  Job  5^^  'He  taketh  the  wise  in  their  own  craftiness'; 
Pr  1^*  '  they  lay  wait  for  their  own  blood'  ;  Lu  17^^^  '  destroyed  them 
all' ;  verse  29  'destroyed  thon  all '  ;  19^'^  'thou  good  servant' ;  verse 
22  Uhou  wicked  servant';  Heb  3'  Hhis  man  was  counted  worthy'; 
8'  *  that  this  man  have  somewhat  also  to  offer.'  In  Lu  io^°  '  a  certain 
man  went  down  ' ;  15^^  '  a  certain  man  had  two  sons,'  where,  however, 
the  Greek  expresses  '  man  '  in  both  passages.  Such  inconsistencies 
are  countless  ;  and  the  Revisers  have  introduced  uniformity  of  usage, 
following  the  rule  'to  print  no  words  in  italics  which  are  necessarily 
involved  in  the  original*.'      This  rule  also  applies  to  the  word  'not' 

•  The  Cambridge  Paragraph  Bible,  edited  by  Dr.  Scrivener,  also  secures 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:   ITALICS  171 

in  such  passages  as  Ps  75^  Job  30^^  Is  38^*,  -where  the  Hebrew  idiom 
implies  a  repeated  negative.  Some  explain  Dt  33*^  in  the  same  sense  ; 
see  R.  V.  and  margin. 

(c)  To  complete  the  sense  in  various  wa^'s,  supplementing 
the  brevity  of  the  original.  Such  italic  words  and  phrases 
are  often  felicitously  introduced,  but  are  at  times  uncertain  ; 
and  now  and  then  they  express  a  sense  which  is  not  in  the 
sacred  text. 

Of  felicitous  italics  there  are  instances  in  Ps  109*  *I  give  myself  to 
prayer'  ;  Pr  14^'*  '  A  good  man  shall  be  satisfied  from  himself  ;  Ro  8^ 
*  God  sending  His  own  Son  in  the  likeness  of  sinful  flesh  and  as  an 
offering  for  sin  *  (R.  V.)  ;  Heb  8''  priests  'who  serve  that  which  is  a  copy 
and  a  shadow  of  heavenly  things,'  i.  e.  the  tabernacle.  See  also  Ex 
34"^  (compare  Ps  7^^)  Job  3^^^  Mt  20^^^  Jn  i9\  Sometimes  the  italicized 
supplement  is  uncertain  :  Mai  i^^  *My  name  shall  be  great  among  the 
Gentiles'  ;  some  expositors  preferring  '  is  great '  ;  the  difference  being 
between  a  prophecy  and  a  fact.  Ps  24^  '  that  seek  Thy  face,  0  God  of 
Jacob,'  or  (as  margin,  R. V.)  'that  seek  Thy  face,  even  Jacob';  i.e. 
these  are  the  true  Jacob.  So  Ps  68"  should  probably  read  '  Jehovah 
is  among  them  ;  Sinai  is  in  the  Sanctuary.'  The  Temple  is  another 
Sinai,  where  God  is  manifest  to  His  people,  i  Pet  5^'  the  church, 
probably  correct ;  R.  V,  has  simply  she.  Unnecessary  or  erroneous 
italics  in  A.  V.  are  in  Job  19^®  {tcorms)  ;  Ac  28*  {ve7io77wus)  ;  Heb  a^^ 
(the  nature  of).  See  also  i  Cor  14^^  Jn  20"  Ac  27**.  In  Ac  7"  the  Lord 
is  a  preferable  addition.  An  interesting  insertion  is  that  of  the 
word  saying  in  Pr  31^^^,  showing  that  the  husband's  commendation  is 
expressed. 

Appropriate  additions,  marked  in  both  versions  by  italics,  are :  (i) 
the  unexpressed  conclusion  of  conditional  sentences — the  '  apodosis' : 
as  Gen  30'^'^  '  If  I  have  found  favour  in  thine  eyes,  tarry^ ;  Lu  13^  'If 
it  bear  fruit,  well.'  (2)  the  mark  of  transition  from  indirect  to  direct 
speech,  as  Ac  i*  '  the  promise  of  the  Father,  which,  saith  He,  ye  have 
heard  of  Me.'  See  also  Gen  ^-^  Ex  18*.  (3)  Cases  of  zeugma,  where 
two  clauses  are  united  under  a  verb  which  strictly  applies  only  to  one. 
Here  the  English  idiom  requires  a  second  verb  :  Dt  4^^  '  ye  saw  no 
similitude,  only  ye  heard  a  voice'  ;  2  Ki  ii^'^  '  he  put  the  crown  upon 
him,  and  gave  him  the  testimony ' ;  Lu  i^*  '  his  mouth  was  opened 
immediately,  and  his  tongue  loosed ' ;  i  Tim  4^  '  Forbidding  to  marry, 
and  commanding  to  abstain  from  meats.'  For  similar  forms  of  ex- 
uniformity,  but  on  the  reverse  plan,  by  printing  all  such  words  in 
italics. 


172  THE  BIBLE  AS  TKANSLATED 

pression,  see  Gen  4^^"  Ex  3^^  i  Cor  3^  (where  fed  in  original  is  literally 
'  given  you  to  drink,'  necessarily  changed  to  a  neutral  word  in  trans- 
lating). (4)  Omissions  supplied  from  parallel  passages.  Sometimes 
these  are  evidently  needful  to  the  sense,  as  Judg  2^  Num  20"^  2  Ki 
25'  I  Ch  17^^^  18^  2  Ch  25^*.  In  other  cases  they  are  doubtful : 
2  Sa  21^^  the  brother  of;  8*  chariots  ;  Jer  6^*  0/  the  daughter,  where  the 
sentences  are  complete  without  the  added  words.  They  are  probably 
correct,  but  they  are  exposition  rather  than  translation,  and  are  marked 
in  R.  v.,  where  see  margin. 

Occasionally  italics  are  unnecessary,  and  even  obscure  the 
sense.  Thus  Ps  19^,  read  '  There  is  no  speech  nor  language  : 
their  voice  is  not  heard  '  (compare  Addison's  paraphrase). 
Ps  133^,  read  *  As  the  dew  of  Hermon  that  descended  upon 
the  mountains  of  Zion.'  The  subject  of  the  psalm  is  the 
unity  of  brethren  ;  and  this  is  illustrated  by  the  dew  of 
heaven,  which  comes  down  alike  upon  the  loftiest  and  the 
lowliest  heights. 

118.  The  Margin. — This  valuable  adjunct  to  many 
editions  of  the  A.  V.,  and  to  all  editions  of  the  K.  V.,  contains 
different  renderings  of  words  and  phrases,  in  two  forms:  (i) 
the  literal  translation  of  the  Hebrew  or  Greek,  where  the 
English  idiom  requires  a  different  turn  of  expression.  Such 
instances  are  often  picturesque  and  suggestive,  and  should 
on  no  account  be  overlooked  ;  (2)  alternative  translations  in 
doubtful  cases.  In  the  E.  V.  these  are  very  numerous,  and 
worthy  of  careful  note,  especially  as  they  often  express  the 
opinion  of  a  majority  of  the  Eevisers,  since  no  change  was 
introduced  into  the  text,  excepting  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds. 
The  margin  of  the  K.  V.,  and  to  some  extent  that  also  of  the 
A.  v.,  indicates  the  most  important  various  readings.  On 
this  see  further  in  the  chapter  on  Textual  Criticism,  §  62  ». 

The  margin  of  the  A.  V.  also  contains  a  large  selection  of  parallel 
passages,  as  compiled  by  the  Translators  of  161 1,  with  largo  additions 

»  The  earlier  English  versions  contain  also  in  the  margin  expositoiy 
notes,  exegetical,  doctrinal,  hortatory,  and  sometimes  of  a  highly 
polemic  character. 


ENGLISH  BIBLE:   THE  MARGIN  173 

by  subsequent  editors,  especially  by  Dr.  Paris  (1762)  and  Dr.  Blayney 
(1769).  Special  editions,  as  Bagsters  Comprehensive  Bible  (1828),  the 
Annotated  Paragraph  Bible  of  the  R.T.  S.  (1893),  and  the  Cambridge  Para- 
graph Bible  (1873),  contain  further  selections.  But  these  will  probably 
be  ultimately  superseded  by  the  series  of  references  prepared  for  the 
English  Revisers  (1898),  in  which  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
passages  are  for  the  first  time  reduced  to  a  definite  system.  The 
references  indicate  :  (i)  quotations,  or  exact  verbal  parallels  ;  (2)  pas- 
sages similar  in  idea  or  expression  ;  (3)  passages  explanatory  or 
illustrative;  (4)  historical,  geographical,  and  personal  names  else- 
where occurring  ;  and  (5)  passages  that  illustrate  differences  of 
rendering,  A.  V.  and  R.  V,  Not  the  least  valuable  feature  of  this  new 
sei'ies  is  the  avoidance  of  a  multitude  of  erroneous  or  non-applicable 
references  which  had  accumulated  in  course  of  time  *.  It  is  also  an 
advantage  in  the  R.  V.  that  its  two  margins  are  kept  entirely  distinct 
from  each  other. 

The  A.  V.  margin  contains  also  a  series  of  chronological  notes, 
principally  dates,  known  by  usage  as  '  The  Received  Chronology,' 
sometimes  even  as  'The  Bible  Chronology.'  These  are  mainly  from 
Archbishop  Ussher's  Annals  0/  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (1650),  and 
were  first  included  in  the  edition  of  1701,  by  Dr.  W.  Lloyd,  Bishop  of 
Worcester.  These  notes  are  undoubtedly  useful,  in  indicating  the 
succession  and  relation  of  events  ;  but  the  more  accurate  investigations 
of  modern  times  have  shown  their  incorrectness  in  many  particulars, 
and  they  are  not  therefore  to  be  relied  upon.  They  are  entirely 
absent  from  the  R.V.  See  further  the  sections  on  Chronology,  §§  195- 
203,  and  the  Tables  in  Appendix  I. 

119.  The  Summaries  of  Chapters  in  the  A.  V.  have 
nothing  correspondent  in  the  original,  and  are  without 
authority  ^.  Some  are  really  expositions,  as  in  the  Song  of 
Solomon ;  others  are  doubtful  in  point  of  fact,  as  the 
identification  in  Lu  7  of  '  the  woman  that  was  a  sinner ' 
with  Mary  Magdalene.  The  headings  to  Gen  18  and  32 
explain  the  '  men '  spoken  of  in  the  text  as  angels,  and  that 

*  Dr.  Scrivener  in  his  Preface  to  the  Cambridge  Paragraph  Bible  gives 
a  long  and  remarkable  list  of  such  errors. 

^  It  was  an  original  instruction  to  the  Revisei-s  to  examine  and 
rectify  these  headings,  but  they  soon  found  the  task  impracticable, 
and  omitted  them  altogether.  Several  are  undoubtedly  correct,  but 
they  add  something  to  the  contents  of  Scripture.  Thus,  Ps  127  '  Good 
children  are  His  gift.' 


174  THE  BIBLE  AS  TRANSLATED 

to  Ac  6  describes  the  '  seven  men  '  of  the  history  as  deacons. 
The  heading  to  Gen  lo  tells  us  that  Nimrod  was  the  first 
monarch.  Those  to  Ps  2  Dt  i8  Is  22  define  the  following 
text  as  Messianic,  and  that  to  Rev  22  extends  the  warning 
which  guards  the  apocalyptic  vision  to  the  whole  of  Scripture. 

The  Titles  of  the  Psalms  are  from  the  Hebrew  :  they  are 
considered  in  the  Intkoduction  to  the  Psalter,  Part  II. 
The  subscriptions  to  the  Epistles  in  the  New  Testament  are 
from  the  Greek  of  late  MSS.,  and  were  introduced  by  Eutha- 
lius  (see  §  42),  in  many  cases  erroneously  (i  Cor  Gal  i  and 
2  Th).     In  the  R.  V.  they  have  no  place. 

Chapters,  Verses,  and  Paragraphs. — The  division  of 
the  Scriptures  into  chapters  and  verses,  and  the  order  of  the 
several  books,  are  not  of  Divine  origin,  nor  are  they  of  great 
antiquity.  The  Vulgate  was  the  first  version  divided  into 
chapters :  a  work  undertaken  by  Cardinal  Hugo,  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  or  as  others  think,  by  Langton,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,    1227. 

The  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  similarly  divided  by  Mor- 
decai  Nathan,  in  1445,  and  in  1661  Athias  added  in  his 
printed  text  the  division  into  verses.  The  New  Testament 
was  divided  in  the  same  way  by  Robert  Stephens,  who  is 
said  to  have  completed  it  in  the  year  1551,  during  a  journey 
{inter  equitandum)  from  Paris  to  Lyons.  He  placed  the 
verse-numbers  in  the  margin ;  the  paragraphs  were  first 
broken  up,  as  in  the  present  method,  by  the  editors  of 
the  Geneva  version. 

These  divisions  are  very  imperfect :  and  even  when  not 
inaccurate,  they  tend  to  break  the  sense  and  to  obscure  the 
meaning. 

The  subject  of  2  Ki  7  begins  at  the  24th  verse  of  ch.  6.  The 
description  of  the  humiliation  and  glory  of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah 
begins  at  Is  52^^  :  and  the  previous  verses  of  ch.  52  belong  to  ch.  51. 
The  sixth  verse  of  Jer  3  begins  a  distinct  prophecy,  which  is  continued 
to  the  end  of  ch.  6, 

The  first  verse  of  Col  4  belongs  to  ch.  3.     Connect  in  the  same  way, 


PARAGRAPHS:    CHAPTERS:    VERSES       175 

Gen  ^-^  with  ch.  i  ;  Ro  15^"^^  with  ch.  14;  i  Cor  11^  with  ch.  10. 
Mt  9  from  verse  35  belongs  to  the  tenth  chapter.  Jn  8^  belongs  to  the 
seventh  ;  and  the  last  two  verses  of  Ac  4  belong  to  ch.  5. 

As  a  rule,  no  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  the  division  of  verses 
or  of  chapters,  unless  it  coincide  with  the  natural  pauses  of  the 
narrative.  Hence  the  value  of  the  paragraph  arrangement,  now 
common  in  editions  of  the  A.  V.,  and  universal  in  those  of  the  R.  V. 

The  A.  V.  has  the  elements  of  the  paragraph-division,  indicated  by 
the  sign  U,  which,  for  some  reason,  is  abruptly  discontinued  at  Ac  20'®. 

Modern  Jews  use  the  present  division  of  chapter  and  verse.  But 
ancient  MSS.  were  differently  divided.  The  Law  had  fifty-four  greater 
divisions,  called  Parashioth,  and  the  Prophets  had  similar  divisions 
called  Haphtaroth,  or  '  Dismissions,'  being  read  shortly  before  the  close 
of  the  service.  One  of  each  of  these  divisions  was  read  on  the  Sabbath. 
The  Parashioth  of  the  Law  were  subdivided  into  Parhuchoth  {'  open ') 
where  there  is  an  obvious  bi-eak  in  the  sense,  and  Sathumoth  (*  shut  *) 
where  the  sense  runs  on.  Of  these,  there  are  in  the  Pentateuch 
alone  669.     They  are  marked  c  and  d  respectively. 

When  Jews  referred  to  the  Old  Testament,  it  was  their  custom  to 
mention  the  subject  of  the  paragraph,  as  it  still  is  among  the  Arabs, 
in  quoting  from  the  Koran. 

*  In  Elijah,' Ro  ii^  (margin),  refers  to  i  Ki  17-19.  'The  bow'  in 
2  Sa  i^**  refers  to  the  poem  so  called,  in  the  Book  of  Jasher.  So  per- 
haps '  in  the  bush,'  Mk  1226,  to  Ex  3  ;  R.  V.  '  in  the  place  concerning  the 
Bush.' 

These  corrections  and  explanations  have  been  given  at 
considerable  length,  for  several  reasons.  They  furnish 
answers  to  objections  which  have  been  brought  against 
sacred  Scripture.  They  remove  difficulties  and  reconcile 
apparent  contradictions.  They  are  of  value,  moreover, 
because  they  illustrate  very  fully  the  nature  of  the  dif- 
ferences which  exist  between  the  English  version  and  the 
original  text.  It  is  obvious  that  very  many  of  these 
differences  may  be  rectified  by  a  comparison  of  parallel 
passages,  so  that  the  English  reader  has  in  his  own  hands 
the  means,  to  a  large  extent,  of  correcting  them.  Nor  do 
they  disturb  the  conclusion  to  which  the  most  competent 
authorities  have  long  come,  and  which  the  Revised  Version 
makes  more  than  ever  manifest,  that  the  English  Bible  is 
on  the  whole  identical  with  the  Bible  of  the  early  Clmrch. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

ON  THE  INTERPRETATION  OF 
SCRIPTURE 

'Man  can  weaiy  himself  in  any  secular  affair,  but  diligently  to 
search  the  Scriptures  is  to  him  tedious  and  burdensome.  Few  covet 
to  be  mighty  in  the  Scriptures ;  though  convinced  their  great  concern 
is  enveloped  in  them.'— Locke,  Commonplace  Book,  Preface. 

'  Strict  grammatical  analysis,  and  the  rigid  observance  of  exegetical 
rules,  lead  to  the  same  views  of  truth  as  are  entertained  by  theologians, 
who  bring  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  strong  sense  and  devout  piety.' — 
Tholuck. 

'  The  various  controversies  among  interpreters  have  commonly  led 
to  the  admission  that  the  old  Protestant  views  of  the  meaning  of  the 
sacred  text  are  the  correct  views.' — Winer, 

'  He  that  shall  be  content  to  use  these  means,  and  will  lay  aside 
the  prejudices  .  .  .  which  many  bring  with  them  to  every  question, 
will  be  honoured  to  gain  an  understanding  of  Scripture  ;  if  not  in  all 
things,  yet  in  most ;  if  not  immediately,  yet  ultiznately.' — Whitaker, 
Disput.  of  Scrip.,  p.  473. 

*  He  who  has  not  believed  will  not  experience  ;  and  he  who  has  not 
experienced  cannot  know.' — Anselm. 

*  The  most  illiterate  Christian,  if  he  can  but  read  his  English  Bible, 
and  will  take  the  pains  to  read  it  in  this  manner,  will  not  only  attain 
all  that  practical  knowledge  which  is  essential  to  salvation,  but,  by 
God's  blessing,  he  will  become  learned  in  everything  relating  to  his 
religion  in  such  a  degree  that  he  will  not  be  liable  to  be  misled,  either 
by  the  refuted  arguments,  or  the  false  assertions  of  those  who  endea- 
vour to  engraft  their  own  opinions  upon  the  oracles  of  God.' — Horsley. 

'  Pectus  est  quod  facit  theologum.'— Neander's  motto. 

Preliminary  Considerations 

120.  Importance  of  the  study.— The  importance  of 
carefully  studyinii  the  Bible  with  every  accessible  help  may 


PRELIMINARY  CONSIDERATIONS  177 

be  abundantly  gathered  from  the  statements  in  the  two 
preceding  chapters  as  to  its  Divine  origin  and  purpose. 
The  greatness,  as  well  as  the  difficulty,  of  the  task  is  en- 
hanced by  the  circumstances  connected  with  the  preparation 
of  the  sacred  books.  Their  authorship  was  various ;  the 
dates  of  their  respective  composition  extend  over  many 
centuries.  They  were  written  in  different  places,  Arabia, 
Judsea,  Babylonia,  and  in  the  midst  of  Western  civilization  ; 
the  allusions,  and  figures,  and  expressions  being  taken  from 
customs,  scenery,  and  habits  altogether  diverse  from  one 
another,  and  from  those  of  modern  Europe. 

Their  matter  is  as  various  as  their  authorship ;  laws  and 
histories,  psalms,  proverbs,  prophetic  poetry,  biography 
and  epistles.  Whole  books,  and  parts  of  books,  refer  to 
the  heathen,  as  in  Isaiah  and  Nahum  ;  while  parts  are 
addressed  to  the  Jews  only :  one  Gospel  was  intended  for 
Hebrew  converts,  and  another  for  Gentiles.  The  Epistles 
vary  in  tone  and  style  according  to  the  persons  to  whom 
they  were  addressed,  and  the  condition  of  the  churches  at  the 
period  of  their  composition.  Of  all  these  things  the  reader 
must  know  something  before  being  in  a  position  to  interpret 
the  writings.  And  as  the  relations  of  the  Chosen  People 
with  the  surrounding  nations  were  manifold  and  ever- 
changing,  the  histories  of  these  nations  throw  important 
and  even  necessary  light  upon  the  sacred  records. 

The  importance  of  a  careful  study  of  Scripture  will  appear 
when  we  further  consider  the  difficulty  of  communicating 
to  men,  and  in  human  language,  any  ideas  of  religious  or 
spiritual  truth.  We  enter  new  regions  of  thought,  and 
become  familiar  with  conceptions  which  tax  all  the  resources 
of  human  speech.  Hence  the  largely  figurative  character  of 
much  that  Scripture  contains,  as  will  be  shown  at  length 
in  another  section.  For  the  present,  the  fact  is  mentioned 
to  show  the  necessity  of  mental  and  spiritual  preparation 
for  the  effective  study  of  the  Word  of  God. 

N 


178      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

121.  Mental  and  spiritual  prerequisites. — The  first 
prerequisite  for  this  study  is  unquestionably  the  exercise  of 
a  humble  and  devout  mind.  It  becomes  us  to  cherish  the 
habit  of  earnest  and  reverential  attention  to  all  that  Scripture 
reveals,  and  to  seek  that  inward  teaching  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
which  God  has  promised  to  them  that  ask  Him.  This 
disposition  is  essential  to  the  application  of  all  rules  of 
interpretation.  An  analogous  truth  is  admitted  in  relation 
to  every  other  subject  of  inquiry.  To  understand  true 
poetry  there  must  be  a  poetic  taste.  The  study  of  philo- 
sophy requires  a  philosophic  spirit.  An  inquirer  into  the 
processes  of  nature  needs  to  be  imbued  with  the  temper 
of  the  inductive  system  which  Bacon  taught ;  to  sink  pre- 
judice, and  inquire  humbly  at  Nature's  shrine.  This  principle, 
then,  cannot  be  questioned  when  applied  to  the  study  of  the 
Bible.  There  must  be  the  alert  intellect ;  there  must  be 
also  'the  heart  that  watches  and  receives.' 

Men  need  Divine  teaching,  not  because  of  the  peculiar 
difficulty  of  Scripture  language,  nor  because  of  the  incompre- 
hensibility of  Scripture  doctrine — for  the  things  most 
misunderstood  are  the  things  which  are  revealed  most 
clearly^but  because,  without  that  teaching,  men  will  not 
learn,  nor  can  they  Jcnow  those  truths  which  are  revealed 
only  to  those  who  feel  them.  When  Christ  appeared,  the 
light  shone  in  the  darkness,  and  the  darkness  comprehended 
it  not.  Unhol}''  affection  had  surrounded  the  mental  eye 
with  the  very  opposite  of  clear  '  dry  light,'  and  had  impaired 
the  organ  itself.  Blindness  of  heart  produced  ignorance  ; 
and  alienation  '  from  the  life  of  God '  was  at  once  the  cause 
and  the  aggravated  effect  of  an  'understanding  darkened,' 
Eph  4^^.  The  source  of  this  teaching  is  clearly  revealed  : 
Christians  are  '  all  taught  of  the  Lord  ' ;  and  He  Who  gave 
to  the  Church  as  of  old  'the  spirit  of  wisdom  and  revela- 
tion,' was  'the  God  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Fatlier 
of  glory,'  Eph  i^'. 


PRELIMINARY  CONSIDERATIONS  179 

The  means  of  securing  this  teaching  is  equally  revealed. 
'  The  meek  will  He  guide  in  judgement,  the  meek  will  He 
teach  His  way.'  He  that  willeth  to  do  His  will  'shall 
know  of  the  teaching,  whether  it  be  of  God,'  Jn  f\  '  If 
any  of  you  lack  wisdom,  let  him  ask  of  God  .  .  .  and  it  shall 
be  given  him.'  A  child-like  docility,  an  obedient  heart, 
a  dependent  and  prayerful  temper,  are  evidently  essential 
to  the  successful  study  of  Divine  truth.     Bene  orasse  est  bene 

stiiduisse  ^. 

It  is  necessary  to  complete  this  truth  by  adding  that  the 
Spirit  of  God  does  not  communicate  to  the  mind  of  even 
a  teachable,  obedient,  and  devout  Christian,  any  doctrine 
or  meaning  of  Scripture  which  is  not  contained  already 
in  Scripture  itself.  He  makes  men  wise  wp  to  what  is 
written,  but  not  beyond  it.  When  Christ  opened  the 
understanding  of  His  Apostles,  it  was  'that  they  might 
understand  the  Scriptures,'  Lu  2^''.  The  psalmist  prayed 
that  God  would  be  pleased  to  open  his  eyes,  that  he  might 
behold  wondrous  things  out  of  the  Divine  laiv,  Ps  119''. 
'The  Bible,  and  through  the  Bible,'  indicates,  therefore,  at 
once,  the  subject  and  the  method  of  Divine  wisdom.  '  To 
the  law  and  to  the  testimony ! '  exclaims  the  prophet ;  '  if 
chey  speak  not  according  to  this  word,  surely  there  is  no 
morning  for  them,'  Is  8^0  R.  V. 

This  first  principle  of  Bible  interpretation  is  taken  from 
the  Bible  itself.  It  occupies  the  same  place,  too,  in  the 
teaching  of  our  Lord,  who,  in  His  first  recorded  discourse, 
assured" Nicodemus  that  'except  a  man  be  born  again,  he 
cannot  see  '—can  neither  understand  the  nature  nor  share 
the  blessedness  of— 'the  kingdom  of  God,'  Jn  3^ 

Compare  also  i  Cor  2^*  12^  i^-^  i  Jn  22«-2t  ^  Cor  4^'^  i  Pet  2^  Jas  i^^ 
Ps25*-5  ii988  2Tim3^^  &c. 


•  *To  pray  well  is  to  study  well.' 


N    2 


180     THE  INTERPBETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


Rules  of  Interpretation 

Subsidiary  to  this  all -important  attitude  of  reverent 
approach  to  the  Bible,  there  may  be  formulated  certain 
Rules  of  Interpretation.  These  are  not  peculiar  to  Scripture, 
but  simply  bespeak  in  regard  to  it  those  qualities  of  candour 
and  intelligent  common  sense  which  the  study  of  any 
literature  requires. 

122.  The  first  rule  of  Biblical  Interpretation  is  :  Interpret 
grammatically  ;  with  due  regard  to  the  meaning  of  words, 
the  form  of  sentences,  and  the  peculiarities  of  idiom  in  the 
language  employed. 

The  sense  of  Scripture  is  to  be  determined  by  the  words; 
a  h'ue  knowledge  of  the  words  is  the  knowledge  of  the  sense. 
The  meaning  of  words  is  fixed  by  the  usage  of  language. 
Usage  must  be  ascertained  whenever  possible  from  Scripture 
itself.  The  words  of  Scripture  must  be  taken  in  their 
common  meaning,  unless  such  meaning  is  shown  to  be 
inconsistent  with  other  words  in  the  sentence,  with  the 
argument  or  context,  or  with  other  parts  of  Scripture.  Of 
two  meanings,  that  one  is  generally  to  be  preferred  which 
was  most  obvious  to  the  comprehension  of  the  hearers  or 
original  readers  of  the  inspired  passage,  allowing  for  the 
modes  of  thought  prevalent  in  their  own  day,  as  well  as  for 
those  figurative  expressions  which  were  so  familiar  as  to  be 
no  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

The  true  meaning  of  any  passage  of  Scripture,  then,  is 
not  every  sense  which  the  words  will  bear,  nor  is  it  every 
sense  which  is  true  in  itself,  but  that  which  is  intended  by 
the  inspired  writers,  or  even  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  though 
imperfectly  understood  by  the  writers  themselves.  These 
important  points  will  be  fully  illustrated  in  the  following 
pages. 


RULE  I.     LANGUAGE:   IDIOMS  181 

123.  Peculiarities  of  Idiom;  Hebrew. — Several  phrases, 
and  turns  of  expression,  characteristic  of  the  original  languages 
of  Scripture  and  reproduced  in  translations,  must  be  noticed. 
Especially  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  English  version  often 
employs  the  idioms  and  expressions  of  the  original  tongue  ; 
these  are  to  be  understood,  therefore,  not  according  to  the 
English,  but  according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom. 

1.  The  Jews,  for  example,  frequently  expressed  a  quali- 
fying thought  by  the  use,  not  of  an  adjective,  but  of  a 
second  nonn ;  a  practice  which  may  also  be  traced  in  the 
Hebrew  Greek  of  the  New  Testament. 

'  Your  work  of  faith,  and  labour  of  love,  and  patience  of  hope,'  means 
'  your  believing  work,  and  loving  labour,  and  hopeful  patience,' 
I  Th  i'.  So,  in  Eph  i^^,  the  '  Spirit  of  promise  '  means  the  *  promised 
Spirit.'  So  Mt  24^^  Mk  13^*  Ro  7-*  Jas  2*  Rev  3^°.  In  some  of  these 
passages,  however,  the  idiom  is,  perhaps,  emphatic.  Compare  the 
remarks  on  '  hendiadys,'  Ch.  VII,  §  115,  2. 

2.  It  was  a  common  idiom  of  the  Hebrew  to  call  a  person 
having  a  peculiar  quality,  or  subject  to  a  peculiar  evil,  the 
child  or  son  of  that  quality. 

In  1  Sa  2^2  Eli's  sons  are  called  *  sons  of  Belial,'  that  is,  of  worth- 
lessness,  '  Belial '  not  being,  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  sometimes 
supposed,  the  name  of  an  idol  or  demon,  but  of  an  abstract  quality. 
In  Lu  10"  a  *  son  of  peace  '  means  a  person  of  gentle  and  attentive 
mind,  disposed  to  give  the  gospel  a  willing  reception.  In  Eph  5^-^ 
'  children  of  disobedience  '  and  '  children  of  light '  mean,  respectively, 
disobedient  and  enlightened  persons.  In  Eph  2"  '  children  of  wrath' 
refers  to  a  disposition  which  involves  exposure  to  the  Divine  anger 
against  sin. 

3.  Comparison,  again,  is  very  peculiarly  expressed  in 
Hebrew. 

To  love  and  to  hate,  for  example,  is  a  Hebrew  expression  for  pre- 
ferring one  thing  to  another.  Thus  it  is  said  in  Lu  14^^,  '  If  any  man 
come  to  Me,  and  hate  not  his  father ':  for  which  we  find,  as  in  Mt  lo^'', 
'He  that  loveth  father  more  than  Me.'  The  same  expression  is  used 
in  Jn  1225,  in  Ro  9^^  from  Mai  i^-^,  in  Gen  29^1,  and  in  Dt  21^5^ 


182      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Comparison  is  sometimes  intimated  by  the  use  of  adverbs 

of  negation. 

Thus  in  Gen  45^,  '  not  you  sent  me  hither,  but  God ' :  it  was  God 
rather  than  you.  So  Ex  168  i  Sa  8^  Pr  S^o  Ho  6^  (Mt  9^^  and  12^)  Jer 
^22.23^  So  in  Mk  9^'^,  '  Whosoever  shall  receive  Me  receiveth  not  Me, 
but  Him  that  sent  Me  ' ;  not  so  much,  or,  not  only  Me,  but  Him.  So 
in  Lu  lo^o  14I2  Jn  52212  527  Ac  5*  i  Cor  i"  Eph  6^2  i  Th  48.  Caution, 
however,  must  be  used,  lest  this  idiom  be  pressed  where  it  does  not 
apply,  to  the  weakening  of  the  sense. 

4.  Plural  nouns  are  sometimes  used  in  Hebrew  to  imply 
that  there  are  more  than  one,  though  it  may  be  to  one  only 
that  reference  is  made. 

Gen  8*  19'*^  Judg  12'^  Ne  3^  So  in  N.T.,  Mt  24I,  where  'disciples ' 
means  one  of  them  (Mk  13^)  Mt  26^  (Jn  12^)  Mt  27**  and  Mk  15S2 
(Lu  23'^)  Lu  23^°  (Mt  27*8).  In  some  of  these  instances,  however, 
all  or  several  shared  in  the  sentiment.  In  Jn  13*,  for  '  garments,' 
read  '  one  of  them,'  the  upper,  see  Mk  527.30^ 

5.  The  names  of  parents,  or  ancestors,  are  often  used  in 
Scripture  for  their  posterity. 

Thus  in  Gen  9^^  it  is  said,  'Cursed  be  Canaan,'  i.e.  his  posterity. 
(This  curse,  it  will  be  remembered,  did  not  affect  those  of  his  posterity 
who  were  righteous ;  for  both  Melchisedec  and  Abimelech  were 
Canaanites,  as  was  the  woman  who  came  to  Christ,  and  whose 
daughter  was  healed,  Gen  14^^-20  ^o'^  -j^/n^  j^22-28^^  jj^  ^j^g  same  way, 
Jacob  and  Israel  are  often  put  for  the  Israelites,  as  in  Gen  49''^  Ps  14'' 
246  I  Ki  18171S. 

6.  The  word  '  son '  is  sometimes  used,  by  a  Hebraism 
(common,  indeed,  to  nearly  all  languages),  in  general  for 
a  descendant. 

The  priests  are  called  the  sons  of  Levi.  Mephibosheth  is  called  the 
Bon  of  Saul,  though  he  was  the  son  of  Jonathan,  2  Sa  19'''*  :  so  Gen  4622. 
Zechariah,  the  grandson  of  Iddo  (Zee  i^),  is  called  his  son,  Ezr  5^.  In 
like  manner,  '  father  '  is  used  for  any  ancestor,  i  Ch  i^^.  See  Dn  5^^ 
Belshazzar  was  probably  the  grandson  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

*  Brother  '  is  used  in  the  same  way  for  any  collateral  relation.  It  is 
thus  applied  by  Abraham  to  Lot,  who  was  his  nephew*.  In  one 
instance,  too,  the  descendants  of  a  man  who  married  a  daughter  of 

*  Gen  14"  2q1»-i*. 


KULE  I.     LANGUAGE:   IDIOMS  183 

Barzillai  are  called,  from  the  name  of  their  maternal  ancestor's 
father,  the  children  of  Barzillai ».  In  the  same  way,  Jair  is  called  the 
son  of  Manasseh,  because  his  grandfather  had  married  the  daughter  of 
one  of  the  heads  of  Manasseh.  Marj'  is  also  thought  by  some  to  have 
descended  from  David  in  this  way  ;  so  that  our  Lord  was  David's  son, 
not  only  through  His  reputed  father,  but  by  direct  descent  through  His 
mother  ^ 

A  knowledge  of  the  last-mentioned  usage  will  sometimes  correct 
apparent  contradictions.  Athaliah,  for  example,  is  called  in  2  Ki  8^6 
the  daughter  of  Omri,  and  in  verse  18  she  is  called  the  daughter  of 
Ahab.  She  was  really  Ahab's  daughter,  and  Omri's  grand-daughter. 
See  also  i  Ki  15^^  2  Ch  13^  and  i  Ch  3^^,  compared  with  2  Ch  36^-^0. 

Semi-Hebraisms. — Among  Hebraisms  of  another  kind 
(sometimes  called  semi-Hebraisms),  the  following  may  be 
noticed : — 

1.  Some  numeral  expressions  in  frequent  use  denote 
indefinite  numbers. 

'  Ten '  means  '  several,'  as  well  as  that  precise  number.  Gen  31'^ 
Dn  I'o. 

'  Forty '  means  '  many.'  Persepolis  is  called  in  Eastern  language 
'  the  city  of  forty  towers,'  though  the  number  was  much  larger.  This 
is  probably  the  meaning  in  2  Ki  8^,  where  Hazael  is  said  to  have 
brought  as  a  present  to  Elisha  forty  camels'  burden  of  the  good  things 
of  Damascus.  See  also  Eze  29^^-13 ;  and,  perhaps,  some  chronological 
notes  in  the  histories. 

'Seven'  and  'seventy'  often  express  a  large  and  complete,  though 
an  uncertain  number,  Pr  26'®-^^  Ps  1 19^^*  Lev  26-*,  &c.  We  are  com- 
manded to  forgive  till  '  seventy  times  seven,'  to  indicate  that,  if  our 
brother  repent  of  his  sin,  there  must  be  no  end  of  our  forgiveness. 
The  'seven  demons'  cast  out  of  Mary  of  Magdala  indicate  extreme 
suffering,  though  not  necessarily  great  wickedness. 

2.  The  Scriptures  sometimes  use  a  round  number,  rather 
than  a  more  exact  specification. 

From  comparing  Num  25^  and  i  Cor  10',  we  learn  that  between 
23,000  and  24,000  were  slain  by  the  plague.  The  first  passage  mentions 
24,000,  the  second  23,000.     See  Judg  11^®  20^^-*®. 

»  Ezr  261  Ne  7^3. 

^  For  an  argument  that  the  genealogy  in  Lu  3  is  that  of  Mary,  see 
Godet,  St.  Luke,  i.  pp.  195-204. 


184     THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

3.  Occasionally,  verbs  denoting  being  or  action  are  used, 
when  the  declaration  only  is  intended  that  the  thing  is  so, 
or  is  so  done. 

In  Lev  13,  for  example,  where  the  priest  is  said  (Hebrew)  to  'make 
the  leper  unclean '  or  to  *  make  clean,'  or  to  pronounce  such  to  be  the 
state.  Again,  *  the  letter  killeth,'  2  Cor  3",  that  is,  declares  death  as 
a  consequence  of  sin,  Ro  4^*^  5^0  78.  So  in  prophecy,  the  speaker  is 
said  to  do  what  he  only  foretells,  Jer  i^^  Eze  43'  Is  6^^. 

124.  Proper  Names :  persons. — In  interpreting  the 
words  of  Scripture,  the  usage  of  proper  names  needs  care- 
fully to  be  noticed. 

Different  persons  have  often  the  same  name. 

Pharaoh  (or  ruler)  was  the  general  name  of  the  kings  of  Egypt  from 
the  time  of  Abraham  till  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  the  Persians,  as 
Ptolemy  was  the  common  name  of  their  kings  after  the  death  of 
Alexander.  Ahimelech  (meaning  *my  father  the  king')  seems  to  have 
been  the  common  name  of  the  kings  of  the  Philistines  ;  Agag  was  the 
name  of  the  kings  of  the  Amalekites,  as  was  Benhadad  of  the  kings  of 
Damascus.  Among  the  Romans,  Augustus  Ccesar  was  the  common  title 
of  their  emperors.  The  Caesar  mentioned  in  Lu  2^  was  the  second 
of  that  name.  The  Caesar  who  reigned  when  Christ  was  crucified  was 
Tiberius.  The  emperor  to  whom  Paul  appealed,  and  who  is  called 
both  Augustus  and  Caesar,  was  Nero,  Ac  2521.  The  Egyptian  and  the 
Philistine  kings  seem  to  have  had,  like  the  Romans,  a  proper  as  well 
as  a  common  name.  We  read,  for  example,  of  Pharaoh  Neco  and  of 
Pharaoh  Hophra  ;  and  the  Abimelech  mentioned  in  the  title  of  PS34 
is  called  Achish  in  i  Sa  21'^. 

In  the  New  Testament  several  very  different  persons  bore  the  name 
of  Herod,  as  shown  in  Part  II  of  the  present  work,  Ch.  XVII,  §  419  : 
Genealogical  Table  of  the  Herods. 

Or,  different  names  are  given  to  the  same  person. 

Abiel,  I  Sa  9^,  is  Ner,  i  Ch  g^^ ;  Ishvi,  i  Sa  14",  is  Abinadab,  31^ 
and  I  Ch  g^^  ;  Maacah,  i  Ki  152  2  Ch  ii^o,  is  Micaiah,  2  Ch  132; 
Daniel,  i  Ch  3^,  is  Chileab,  2  Sa  3'.  See  also  Hobab  and  Jethro, 
Judg  4^1  Ex  3I ;  Levi  and  Matthew  ;  Thomas  and  Didymus  (meaning 
twin  in  Hebrew  and  Greek  respectively)  ;  Thaddeus,  Lebbaeus,  and 
Judas  ;  Silvanus  and  Silas.  (In  the  original.  Ex  2"  Num  10^^,  Reuel 
and  Raguel  are  alike.  So,  in  New  Testanientj  Lucas  and  Luke, 
Timotheus  and  Timothy.     See  R.  V.) 


RULE  I.     LANGUAGE :   PROPER  NAMES     185 

Proper  Names:  places. — So,  again,  with  the  names  of 
places.     Different  places  often  have  the  same  name. 

Caesarea  is  the  name  of  two  cities  ;  one  called  Caesarea  Philippi,  in 
Galilee  ;  the  other  on  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  one  men- 
tioned throughout  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  was  the  port  whence 
travellers  generally  left  Judaea  for  Rome. 

Antioch,  in  Syria,  again,  is  the  place  where  Paul  and  Barnabas 
commenced  their  labours,  and  where  the  followers  of  Christ  were 
first  called  Christians,  Ac  n2o-26^  xhe  Antioch  'of  Pisidia,'  Ac  13^* 
and  2  Tim  3^^  is  in  Phrygia. 

There  is  a  Mizpeh  ('  watch-tower')  in  Mount  Gilead,  where  Jephthah 
resided,  where  Jacob  and  Laban  made  their  covenant,  Gen  31*^  Judg  1 1'* ; 
a  Mizpeh  of  Moab,  i  Sa  22',  perhaps  the  same  as  the  previous  ; 
a  Mizpeh  of  Gibeah,  where  Samuel  resided,  and  where  Saul  was 
chosen  king,  1  Sa  7^^ ;  and  there  is  also  a  Mizpeh  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
Jos  15^^  *  Mizpah  '  is  the  same  name,  interchangeably  used  with  the 
above. 

Different  names  are  given  to  the  same  places. 

In  Gen  31*^  Laban  calls  the  heap  of  stones  Jegar-sahadutha  in 
Aramaic  ;  Jacob  names  it  Galeed  in  Hebrew.  Hermon,  Dt  3"^,  is  said 
to  be  called  Sirion  by  the  Sidonians,  Shenir  by  the  Amorites  ;  in  Dt 
4*^  it  is  called  Sion  ;  while  in  Ct  4^  ( i  Ch  5^^)  Shenir  and  Hermon  refer 
to  different  peaks  of  the  same  mountain  range.  Poetically,  Egypt  is 
called  Ham,  Ps  78^1,  the  land  of  Ham,  Ps  105-3,  and  Eahab,  Pss  87*  89^0 
Is  51^ ;  Jerusalem  is  Ariel,  Is  29^  Babylon  is  Sheshach,  Jer  252^.  This 
last  word  is  a  cryptogram,  the  three  letters  BBL  (for  Babel)  being 
written  in  corresponding  letters  counted  backwards  from  the  end  of 
the  alphabet  (Sh,  Sh,  Ch). 

Horeb  and  Sinai  are  names  now  and  anciently  applied  to  different 
peaks  of  the  same  range  of  mountains  ;  and  both  names  are  sometimes 
applied  to  the  whole  range. 

Laish  or  Leshem,  Josh  19*^  Judg  18^,  afterwards  Dan,  i  Ki  12% 
near  the  Galilean  Caesarea,  by  some  identified  with  it. 

The  Lake  of  Gennesareth  was  anciently  called  the  Sea  of  Chinnereth 
(Cinnereth,  Cinneroth),  afterwards  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  or  the  Sea  of 
Tiberias,  Mt  4^8  j^  2i\ 

The  modern  Abyssinia  is  called  Ethiopia  (Heb.  Cush)  ;  the  word 
Cush,  however,  has  occasionally  a  wider  meaning,  being  applied  to 
Asiatic  regions.  Gen  2}^  Jer  46'  Eze  38^  Greece  is  in  Hebrew  Javan, 
Is  6619  Zee  9"  Dn  ii^. 

The  Dead  Sea  (a  name  which  does  not  occur  in  Scripture)  is  called 
the  Sea  of  the  Plain  (Arabah,  2  Ki  1425) ;  the  East  Sea,  from  its  position 


186      THE  INTEEPKETATION  OF  SCKIPTUEE 

in  relation  to  Jerusalem,  Eze  47^^  Zee  14^  ;  and  sometimes  the  Salt  Sea, 
Gen  148  Num  343-12.     See  §  172. 

The  Nile  is  called  in  Scripture  Sihor,  Jos  13^,  but  more  commonly 
the  River ;  both  names,  however,  being  applied  also  to  other  streams, 
the  latter,  especially,  to  the  Euphrates. 

The  Mediterranean  Sea  is  called  the  Sea  of  the  Philistines,  who 
resided  on  its  coasts  (Ex  23^^)  ;  or  the  Utmost  or  Hinder,  i.  e.  Western 
Sea,  Dt  1 1^4  342  Joel  220 ;  or,  more  commonly,  the  Great  Sea,  Ex  23^1 
Dt  ii24  Num  346-7,  &c. 

The  Holy  Land  is  called  Canaan  ;  the  Land  of  Israel,  of  Judaea  ; 
Palestine,  or  the  Land  of  the  Immigrants  ;  and  the  Land  of  Promise, 
Ex  15I*  I  Sa  13I9  Is  1429  Heb  ii». 

Sometimes  the  same  name  is  applied  to  a  person  and  to 
a  place. 

Magog,  for  example,  is  the  name  of  a  son  of  Japheth,  and  it  is  also 
the  name  of  the  country  occupied  by  a  people  called  Gog,  probably  the 
Scythians,  or,  as  they  are  now  called,  the  Tartars,  Eze  38  Rev.  ao". 
The  Turks  have  sprung  from  the  same  stock. 

The  names  both  of  persons  and  places  are  sometimes 
spelled  differently  in  the  original.  (Where  the  difference 
is  only  in  the  English  version,  it  has  been  already  noted.) 

Dodanim  Gen  10*,  Rodanim  i  Ch  i'^.  In  Hebrew  the  letters  i  and 
T  (d  and  r)  are  so  nearly  alike  that  one  may  easily  be  mistaken  in 
transcription  for  the  other  ;  see  also  Gen  lo^  and  i  Ch  i^  Num  i^* 
and  a^'.  In  i  Sa  la^^  Bedan  is  for  the  same  reason  explained  as 
a  copyist's  error  for  Barak.  Peniel  in  Gen  32^0  jg  Penuel  in  the  next 
verse.  Job  in  Gen  46^^  is  Jashub  in  Num  262*.  Jether  in  Ex  4^^  is 
Jethro  in  3^.  Hoshea  in  Dt  32'*^  is  Joshua  in  34^.  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  Daniel  is  with  greater  correctness  Nebuchadrezzar  in  Ezekiel  and 
generally  in  Jeremiah.  Uzziah  is  also  called  Azariah,  2  Ki  15""^^ 
&c.  Ahaziah,  son  of  Jehoram,  is  called  Azariah  and  Jehoahaz, 
a  Ki  823  2  Ch  22^  ai^^.  Jehoahaz,  son  of  Josiah,  is  called  Johanan 
and  Shallum,  a  Ki  2380  i  Ch  3^^  Jer  aa^^  Nathanael,  mentioned  in 
the  Gospel  of  John,  is  probably  the  same  with  the  Bartholomew  (son 
of  Tolmai)  of  the  other  Evangelists. 

Attention  to  these  instances  will  enable  the  student  of  Scripture  to 
explain  many  seeming  discrepancies. 

125.  The  meaning"of  a  word,  again,  will  often  be  modified 
by  the  connexion  in  which  it  is  used.     We  need,  therefore, 


KULE  II.     CONTEXT  187 

a  second  rule  of  interpretation  :  Interpret  according  to 
the  context.  This  rule  is  often  of  great  theological  im- 
portance. 

Faith,  for  example,  sometimes  means  the  gospel  (of  which  faith  in 
Christ  is  the  great  requirement),  as  in  Gal  i^^^  '  he  now  preacheth  the 
faith  which  once  he  destroyed.'  So  in  i  Tim  3^  4^  Ac  24^^.  It 
means,  again,  truth  or  faithfulness,  as  in  Ro  3^,  '  shall  their  unbelief 
make  the  faith  (R.V.  faithfulness)  of  God  without  effect?'  So  in 
Tit  2^°,  and  probably  in  Gal  5^^.  It  means,  further,  in  one  passage, 
proof  or  evidence,  Ac  17^^  (Gr.).  It  means  a  conscientious  conviction 
of  duty,  as  in  Ro  14^3  ;  or,  most  comprehensively,  that  exercise  of 
the  mind  and  heart  which  receives  spiritual  and  Divine  truth  (Heb 
11^) ;  or,  more  specifically,  the  repose  of  the  mind  and  heart  in  the 
work  of  Christ  as  the  ground  of  pardon  and  means  of  holiness 
(Ro  3'')' 

Flesh  means  sometimes  what  is  tender  and  teachable,  as  in 
Eze  11^',  *I  will  give  you  a  heart  of  flesh'  ;  where  it  is  opposed  to 
a  heart  of  stone.  It  means,  also,  human  nature,  without  any  reference 
to  its  sinfulness,  Jn  i^*  Ro  1'  9^  ;  but  more  commonly,  human  nature 
as  corrupt  and  sinful,  Ro  8'^  Eph  2'.  Another  meaning  is,  all  that  is 
outward  and  ceremonial  in  religion,  as  distinguished  from  what  is 
inward  and  spiritual,  as  in  Gal  6^^  ^3^  where  it  refers  more  especially 
to  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  ritual  (compare  Phil  3^). 

Salvation  means  in  some  places  outward  safety  and  deliverance,  as 
in  Ex  14^3  Ac  q^^  (orig.),  or  healing,  as  in  Jas  5^^,  where,  in  the 
ease  of  a  sick  Christian,  the  prayer  of  faith  is  said  to  save,  i.  e.  heal, 
the  sick.  Its  more  common  meaning,  however,  is  in  reference  to 
spiritual  blessing,  when  it  sometimes  includes  the  present  and 
immediate  deliverance,  as  in  Eph  2^  Lu  i"^^  ;  or,  more  frequently, 
the  whole  of  the  blessing  which  Christ  has  secured  for  believers, 
beginning  with  forgiveness,  and  ending  in  eternal  glory,  Ro  13^^. 
Sometimes  it  means  simply  the  gospel,  as  in  Heb  2^,  where  it  is  said 
to  be  *  spoken  by  the  Lord,  and  confirmed  unto  us  by  them  that  heard 
Him.' 

In  the  same  way,  blood  is  used  in  Scripture  with  several  meanings : 
God  'hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,'  Ac  17^^,  i.  e.  they 
have  a  common  origin  or  nature.  In  Mt  27^5  '  His  blood  be  on  us, 
and  on  our  children,'  means,  *  The  guilt  of  having  put  Him  to  death 
be  upon  us.'  In  Ro  5^  the  Christian  is  said  to  be  justified  by  the 
blood  of  Christ ;  in  Heb  9^*  the  blood  of  Christ  is  said  to  '  purge 
our  conscience  from  dead  works '  ;  and  in  i  Jn  i''  it  is  declared  to 
have  a  cleansing  influence  upon  the  heart  and  life.     The  robes  of  the 


188      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

redeemed  are  made  white  in  the  blood  of  the  Lamb.  In  these  pas- 
sages, the  blood  of  Christ  means  His  *  obedience  unto  death,'  '  the 
offering  of  Himself  on  the  cross,  the  ground  of  justification,  the 
instrument  and  motive  of  holiness. 

The  general  meaning  of  the  word  grace  is  'favour.'  As  applied  to 
God,  it  means  the  unmerited  favour  exercised  by  Him  towards  men, 
as  in  2  Tim  i',  'According  to  His  own  purpose  and  grace.'  It  means, 
moreover,  all  the  difi"erent  gifts  of  that  grace  :  justification,  as  in 
Ro  5^^  ;  strength  and  holiness,  as  in  2  Cor  12',  'My  grace  is  sufficient 
for  thee';  and  eternal  glory,  i  Pet  i^^.  The  'word  of  His  grace'  is 
the  gospel,  in  Ac  14^  So  in  Heb  13^,  it  means  doctrines  of  the  gospel, 
and  not  meats  or  rites. 

126.  Contextual  explanations. — i.  Such  special  mean- 
ings are  often  explained  by  definitions  or  by  examples  ; 
occasionally  again  by  expressions  which  limit  the  meaning. 

In  Heb  1 1^,  for  instance,  Faith  is  first  described,  and  then  illustrated. 
It  is  said  to  be  a  confident  expectation  of  things  hoped  for  :  a  perfect 
persuasion  of  things  not  seen  :  and  then  examples  are  given  of  both 
parts  of  the  definition.  In  Noah  it  was  perfect  persuasion  of  the 
truth  of  God  in  regard  to  the  Deluge.  In  Abraham  it  was  confident 
expectation  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  made  to  himself,  and  to 
his  seed.  If  the  Divine  word  speak  of  mercies,  faith  hopes  for  them  ; 
if  of  things  purely  spiritual  and  future,  faith  believes  in  them. 

Perhaps  no  passage  illustrates  better  than  this  the  difficulty  of 
making  a  good  translation,  and  the  wisdom  of  God  in  giving  us 
a  Bible  of  examples,  rather  than  of  definitions.  The  word  '  substance ' 
(A.  V. )  is  a  literal  translation  of  the  original ;  and  means,  whatever 
stands  under  and  sustains  all  that  is  attached  to  it,  whether  subjects 
or  qualities.  No  one  word  could  have  more  completely  expressed  the 
idea  of  the  original :  and  yet  it  is  not  clear.  In  Heb  i^  the  same 
word  is  translated  'substance'  (R.  V.),  and  in  2  Cor  9*  ii^'''  Heb  3^* 
'  confidence.'  The  full  idea  is  that  of  underlying  support.  Faith  is 
therefore,  as  to  things  hoped  for,  a  thing  on  which  real  or  substantial 
confidence  may  rest,  an  'assurance'  (R.  V.).  It  is,  moreover,  'the 
evidence  of  things  not  seen.'  The  full  idea  here,  again,  is  such 
evidence  of  things  not  seen  as  silences  doubt  and  refutes  opposition  ; 
or  rather,  it  is  the  conviction  which  such  evidence  produces.  All 
this  extent  of  meaning  is  found  in  the  original  word  :  but  no  one  word 
can  express  it.  The  R.  V.  gives  'proving,'  and  in  the  margin  'test.' 
If  the  Bible  were  made  up  of  definitions,  a  translation  without  a  para- 
phrase would  be  imi)Ossible.  We  may  well  feel  thankful,  therefore, 
that  it  is  a  book  of  examples  chiefly  :    and  that  it   illustrates  its 


HULE  11.    CONTEXT  189 

principles  rather  in  the  lives  of  believers,  than  in  logical  and  abstruse 
terms. 

Perfection,  again,  is  defined  in  several  parts  of  the  Bible.  In 
Ps  37^^  it  is  used  as  synonymous  with  upriglitness  or  sincerity,  a  real 
unfeigned  goodness  :  and  this  is  its  general  meaning  in  the  Old 
Testament,  i  Cli  12^^-^^  In  the  New  Testament  it  means  either  the 
possession  of  clear  and  accurate  knowledge  of  Divine  truth,  or  the 
possession  of  all  the  graces  of  the  Christian  character,  in  a  higher  or 
lower  degree.  The  first  is  the  meaning  in  Heb  5^*  :  where  strong 
meat  is  said  to  belong  'to  them  that  are  of  full  age  (R.  V.  '  full  grown,' 
margin  A.  and  R.  V.  *  peifect ')  :  even  to  those  who  by  reason  of  use 
have  their  senses  exercised  to  discern  both  good  and  evil.'  So  in 
I  Cor  2^  Phil  3^^.  The  second  is  the  meaning  in  Jas  i*,  where  *  perfect' 
is  defined  as  '  entire,  wanting  nothing.'  In  2  Pet  i^^  the  graces 
which  make  up  the  perfect  Christian  are  enumerated. 

In  Eph  3*-^  Mystery  is  defined  by  example,  as  the  truth  that  the 
Gentiles  should  be  partakers  of  the  promise  in  Christ  by  the  gospel. 
The  word  denotes  '  a  secret'  in  general  ;  as  a  hidden  meaning  (Eph  5^^), 
a  truth  beyoyirl  human  understanding  (i  Cor  15^^),  a  truth  hidden  for 
a  time,  but  now  revealed,  as  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles ;  more 
generally,  a  doctrine,  good  or  evil,  into  which  persons  are  initiated 
(I  Cor  4I  2  Th  2^). 

The  course  of  this  world,  Eph.  2^,  means  man's  natural  state  and 
life,  as  opposed  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  :  it  is  the  outgoing  of  the 
spirit  that  worketh  in  the  children  of  disobedience. 

In  Gal  4'  the  expression,  the  elements,  or  rudiments,  of  this  world 
is  used  ;  and  is  explained  in  verses  9,  10,  of  the  same  chapter.  See 
also  *  world '  in  Heb  2^  6^  ('  age '  R.  V.)  i  Cor  10^^  ('  ages '  R.  V.). 

World  in  its  various  meanings  should  be  carefully  discriminated. 
'God  so  loved  the  world'  :  *  Love  not  the  world,'  &c. 

Explanation  by  Analogy  or  Antithesis. — 2.  Sometimes, 
where  there  is  no  formal  definition,  the  meaning  is  made 
clear  by  the  use  of  some  analogous  or  similar  expression ; 
or  by  antithesis. 

In  Gal  3^°"^'^  the  'covenant  with  Abraham'  is  explained  as  the 
promise  which  God  made  to  him. 

In  Ro  6'^3  the  meaning  of  the  word  death  (the  wages  of  sin)  is 
gathered  from  the  opposite:  'the  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life  in  Jesus 
Christ  our  Lord '  (R.  V.). 

In  Col  2^  the  expression,  'rooted  and  built  up  in  Christ,'  is  ex- 
plained as  meaning  '  stablished  in  the  faith.' 

In  Ro  4^  it  is  said,  that  'to  him  that  worketh  not,  faith  is  counted 


190      THE  INTEPtPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTUKE 

for  righteousness  * :  the  expression  *  worketh  '  being  explained  in 
several  places  in  the  same  chapter.  In  verse  a  the  phrase  is  'justified 
by  w^orks.'  From  the  same  verse,  we  learn  that  it  means  the  contrary 
of  'believing  on  Ilira  that  justifieth  the  ungodly'  (verse  5).  So  in 
Jas  2^*  the  faith  that  cannot  save  is  the  faith  that  spends  itself  in 
words,  and  not  in  deeds.  It  is  a  faith  that  is  without  obedience  :  it 
is  a  faith  such  as  devils  feel  (verse  19),  and  it  is  not  such  as  Abraham 
felt  (verse  23).  To  be  'justified  by  works,'  therefore,  expressly 
includes,  in  Paul,  the  rejection  of  Christ  as  the  Saviour  of  the  guilty, 
and  an  adherence  to  the  old  covenant ;  while  the  *  works '  of  which 
James  speaks  imply  faith  in  Christ.  The  same  truth  is  taught  by  our 
Lord  in  Jolin  3^",  where  it  is  said,  'He  that  believeth  on  the  Son 
hath  everlasting  life  :  and  he  that  believeth  not  the  Son  shall  not  see 
life':  where  the  word  'believeth  not'  is,  in  the  original,  *  is  not 
obedient  to '  or  will  not  believe  (see  R.  V.)  :  showing  that  the  sin  is 
not  unbelief  but  disbelief ;  and  that  the  faith  to  which  the  promise 
is  annexed,  is  a  principle  of  unreserved  obedience. 

Parallelism  a  guide  to  meaning. — 3.  Much  light  is 
frequently  cast  upon  words  and  phrases  by  the  parallelisms 
of  Scripture,  in  which  one  part  of  a  sentence  answers  more 
or  less  closely  to  another. 

This  branch  of  the  subject  is  treated  in  Part  II,  '  On  the  Struc- 
ture of  Hebrew  Poetry.' 

127.  Very  often  the  meaning  is  decided  by  the  general 
reasoning,  or  allusions  of  the  context. 

I.  These  sometimes  prove  that  the  words  are  to  be  taken 
in  a  limited  sense. 

In  Ps  7^,  for  example,  David  prays,  'Judge  me,  0  Lord,  according 
to  my  righteousness ' ;  i.e.  according  to  his  innocency,  in  reference  to 
the  charge  of  '  Cush  the  Benjamite.'  He  often  uses  the  same  ex- 
jiression  with  similar  limitations.  The  word  '  righteous '  or  '  more 
righteous'  is  even  applied  to  wicked  men:  as  in  i  Ki  2^^,  and  in 
2  Sa  4^'.  In  the  second  instance,  Ishbosheth  is  said  to  be  righteous, 
merely  to  imply  that  he  had  done  no  injury  to  his  murderers.  The 
same  phrase  is  applied  to  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  because  they  were 
less  guilty  than  Jerusalem,  Eze  16'^'^.  The  counsel  of  Ahithophel  is 
called  good,  and  the  conduct  of  the  unjust  steward  wifte,  not  because 
absolutely  so,  but  as  being  likely  means  of  accomplishing  the  ends 
proposed. 

In  Jn  9^  it  is  said,  *  Neither  hath  tliis  man  sinned,  nor  his  parents.' 


KULE  11.     CONTEXT  191 

The  meaning  is  simply,  that  his  blindness  was  not  the  punishment  of 
any  particular  sin. 

In  Jas  5^*  the  elders  of  the  Church  are  commanded  to  anoint  the 
sick,  and  to  pray  over  him  ;  *  and  the  prayer  of  faith  shall  save  him.' 
The  Church  of  Rome  founds  on  this  one  passage  the  doctrine  of 
extreme  unction,  which  is  held  to  save  the  soul  of  the  dying.  But 
from  verses  15,  16,  it  is  plain  that  by  '  save '  is  meant  '  heal.'  So 
that,  whatever  this  practice  implied,  it  was  to  be  observed,  not  with 
the  view  of  saving  the  soul,  but,  in  the  case  of  one  already  a  Christian, 
with  the  view  of  restoring  his  health. 

2.  The  context,  or  general  arrangement  of  a  passage,  may- 
even  require  that  words  be  understood  in  the  very  opposite 
of  their  natural  sense. 

In  I  Ki  22^^^,  '  Go,  and  prosper '  was  spoken  ironically,  and  meant 
the  reverse.  In  Num  22-^,  'Rise  up,  and  go*  appears  from  verses 
12,  32,  to  imply,  '  If,  after  all  I  liave  told  you,  your  heart  is  set  on 
violating  My  command,  do  it  at  your  own  risk,*  The  use  of  this  form 
of  speech  may  be  seen  in  i  Ki  18-'  Judg  10^*  Mk  7^  i  Cor  4^ 

3.  Parentheses  and  particles. — The  general  reasoning 
of  the  various  passages  of  Scripture  is,  commonly,  sufficiently 
plain  to  indicate  the  meaning  of  the  words  employed.  Great 
attention,  however,  needs  to  be  paid  to  the  use  of  paren- 
tlieses  and  of  particles  ;  the  particles  connecting  different 
branches  of  a  sentence,  or  argument,  together,  and  the 
parentheses  withdrawing  from  the  direct  line  of  argument 
the  words  which  are  included  in  them.  The  latter  interrupt 
the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence  :  the  former 
perfect,  or  complete  it. 

When  the  parenthesis  is  short,  it  creates  no  difficulty, 
and  can  scarcely  be  said  to  interrupt  the  reasoning,  as  in 
Ac  i^^  Phil  3^^.  When  it  is  long,  it  seems  to  embarrass 
the  argument,  and  often  ends  in  the  repetition  of  the  word 
of  the  preceding  clause.  Eph  3^  to  4^  (first  clause)  is  all  in 
parenthesis ;  so  Phil  i^'^ — 2^°  and  perhaps  3^"^*.  In  the 
first  and  last  of  these  cases,  the  word  *  therefore '  resumes 
the  interrupted  argument. 

The    parenthesis    is    often    indicated    in    argumentative 


192      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 
passages   by   the    use   of  the   word    'for,'  as  in   Ro  2^^-"^^ 

2    Cor   62    Eph    2^4-18^ 

The  force  and  distinctiveness  of  particles  may  be  illus- 
trated in  cases  like  the  following:. 

Then  is  often  emphatic  ;  sometimes  as  an  adverb  of  time,  as  in 
Mai  3^-16.  And  again  in  i  Th  4^6.17^  <  The  dead  in  Christ  shall  rise  first. 
Then  we  which  are  alive  and  remain  shall  be  caught  up  together 
with  them  in  the  clouds.'  It  is  not  said  here,  that  the  dead  in 
Christ  rise  before  the  rest  of  the  dead,  but  that  the  dead  rise  before 
the  living  are  changed.  But  it  is  much  oftener  used  as  an  equivalent 
for  there/ore;  as  in  2  Cor  5"  (see  R.  V.).  Therefore  itself  generally 
expresses  an  inference  :  but  it  sometimes  indicates  that  the 
sentence  has  been  interrupted  by  a  parenthesis,  or  is  repeated  :  and 
means  'As  I  before  said,'  or  'to  resume,*  Mt  7^*  (see  verse  21) 
I  Cor  8*  (see  verse  i)  Mk  3^1  (see  verse  21)  John  62*  (see  verse  22) 
Gal  3^  (see  verse  2).  Through  means  sometimes  '  by  means  of,'  as  in 
Jn  153,  'Through  the  word  I  have  spoken  imto  you':  and  sometimes 
'  for  the  sake  of,'  Eo  5^ ;  or  '  in  the  midst  of,'  as  in  Ac  14'^^.  '  Spoken 
by  the  prophet'  (A.  V.)  should  generally  be  'through  the  prophet' 
as  R.  V.  The  prophet  was  the  instrument  of  the  communication  ; 
Mt  i^^  2^3  &c.  Now  is  sometimes  an  adverb  of  time  :  sometimes  it 
means  '  as  the  case  is,'  contrasting  an  actual  with  a  supposable  one, 
Jn  iS's,  where  'then'  means  'in  that  case,' and  asserts  the  conse- 
quence ;  Lu  19*2  jjeb  8^  (verse  4).  Rather  means  '  on  the  contrary,' 
Ro  11"  12^^  Eph  5^^  The  comparison  implied  in  the  modern  use  of 
the  word  is  expressed  in  Scripture  by  '  and  not.'  In  all  such  cases 
a  knowledge  of  the  Greek  or  Hebrew  paiticle  and  its  uses  is  needful 
for  precise  interpretation. 

4.  The  connexion  is  sometimes  obscured  through  the  use 
of  a  covert  dialogue  ;  objections,  responses,  and  replies  not 
being  distinctly  marked. 

See  Ro  3,  where  we  have  a  virtual  dialogue  between  the  Apostle  and 
an  objector.  Is  52^^  53°*,  a  dialogue  between  God,  the  prophet,  and 
the  Jews.     See  also  63^-*  Hab  i. 

Psalms  15,  20,  24,  87,  104,  132,  are  responsive. 

128.  A  third  rule  of  Interpretation,  applicable  where 
the  words,  the  connexion  of  the  sentence,  and  the  context, 
fail  in  removing  all  ambiguity,  or  in  giving  the  full  meaning 
of  the  writer,   is  :    Regard  the  scope  or  design  of  the 


RULE  m.     GENERAL  SCOPE  193 

book  itself,  or  of  some  large  section,  in  which  the  words 
and  expressions  occur.  The  second  rule  touches  this  ;  and, 
indeed,  all  the  rules  of  interpretation  glide  by  degrees  into 
one  another. 

1.  Sometimes  the  scope  of  a  section,  or  of  the  book  itself, 
is  expressly  mentioned. 

In  Ro  3^8,  for  example,  St.  Paul  tells  us  the  conclusion  to  which 
his  reasonings,  up  to  that  point,  had  brought  him  :  namely,  that 
a  man  is  justified  by  faith,  apart  from  deeds  of  law. 

The  principal  conclusions  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  are 
stated,  the  first  doctrinal,  in  2^^-^^,  that  the  Gentiles  were  no  longer 
aliens ;  the  second  practical,  in  4^"',  exhorting  Jews  and  Gentiles  to 
exercise  the  spirit  and  temper  which  become  their  new  relation. 
Subordinate  conclusions  are  expressed  in  3^^  ^^"^'-^  51-'^  6'^-^*  :  where 
the  words  '  thei-efore  '  or  '  wherefore  '  generally  indicate  the  result  of 
each  successive  argument. 

The  design  of  the  Proverbs  is  told  us  in  i^~^;  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke 
in  Lk  i^~^ ;  of  the  Gospel  of  John  in  Jn  20^^ ;  of  the  Old  Testament  itself 
in  Ro  15*  2  Tim  3^8". 

2.  The  design  of  some  parts  of  the  Bible  can  be  gathered 
only  from  the  occasions  on  which  they  were  written. 

The  ninetieth  Psalm  purports  to  have  been  a  prayer  of  Moses,  at 
the  time  when  God  sent  back  the  children  of  Israel  to  wander  in  the 
wilderness.  The  scope  of  Psalms  3,  18,  34,  51,  is  illustrated  by  their 
inscriptions.  The  Psalms  which  are  lieaded  'Songs  of  Degrees,' 
120-134,  were  written  for  the  Jews,  to  be  sung  during  their  annual 
journeys  to  Jerusalem.  Many  of  the  verses  receive  valuable  illustra- 
tion from  this  fact. 

The  Epistles  to  the  Colossians,  the  Ephesians,  and  the  Galatians, 
were  all  written  to  illustrate  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  and 
to  answer  the  misrepresentations  of  the  Judaizing  teachers  of  the 
Church-  Many  expressions  will  be  explained  by  a  reference  to  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  especially  to  the  fifteenth  chapter;  where  we 
have  the  history  of  the  whole  question  which  these  Epistles  discuss. 

3.  The  great  means  of  obtaining  a  knowledge  of  the  scope 
of  the  various  books  of  the  Bible,  or  of  particular  passages, 
is  the  repeated  and  continuous  study  of  the  books  them- 
selves.    When  once  this  knowledge  is  gained,  it  will  throw 

o 


194     THE  INTERPRETATION  OP  SCRIPTURE 

great  light  on  particular  expressions,   and   illustrate  other 
parts  of  the  Bible  in  a  way  both  instructive  and  surprising. 

To  understand  the  precept  of  our  Lord,  Mt  19^^,  *If  tliou  wilt  enter 
into  life,  keep  the  commandments,'  we  look  to  the  scope.  An  inquirer, 
proud  of  his  own  righteousness,  asks  what  he  must  do  to  obtain 
eternal  life,  and  our  Lord  refers  him  to  the  Law,  to  rebuke  and 
humble  him. 

The  subjects  of  the  predictions.  Is  1-39,  are  generally  indicated. 
The  subjects  of  subsequent  chapters  are  less  marked,  and  the  con- 
nexion can  be  traced  only  by  x-epeated  perusal.  When  traced,  it 
throws  light  upon  the  meaning.  Chs.  51-55,  for  example,  form 
one  prophecy;  51^"*  contain  an  earnest  thrice-repeated  appeal  to 
the  people  to  hear  ;  51^-52^^  contain  an  earnest  appeal  to  God  and 
to  Zion ;  52^-53^^  ^re  a  glorious  description  of  the  work  of  the 
'Servant  of  Jehovah,' pointing  onward  to  the  Messiah,  and  forming 
the  centre  of  the  proi:>hecy ;  54  describes  the  results  of  His  work 
on  the  destiny  of  the  Church,  and  55  on  the  destiny  of  the  world. 

4.  Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  immediate 
scope  of  the  passage,  or  the  general  scope  of  the  book,  is  to 
be  regarded. 

In  Lu  15,  for  example,  there  are  several  parables  addressed  to  the 
Pharisees,  who  complained  that  our  Lord  received  sinners  :  and  among 
those  parables  is  that  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  It  is  certain  that  the 
scope  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke  is  to  exhibit  and  recommend  the  gospel 
to  the  Gentiles  :  and  the  question  arises,  who  is  meant  by  the  elder 
son,  and  who  by  the  younger  ?  Some  say,  the  Pharisee  and  the 
sinner ;  others,  the  Jew  and  the  Gentile,  The  first  interpretation  is 
sanctioned  by  the  scope  of  the  context ;  and  the  second,  by  the  general 
scope  of  the  Gospel.  It  will  be  seen  that  both  interpretations  are 
consistent  and  probable. 

It  has  been  doubted  whether  the  '  rest'  (or  the  keeping  of  a  rest  or 
Sabbath)  spoken  of  in  Heb  4  refers  to  the  literal  Sabbath,  to  heaven, 
or  to  the  peace  which  the  gospel  brings,  ending  however  in  eternal 
life :  a  question  that  can  be  best  decided  by  taking  into  account  the 
general  argument  of  the  Epistle. 

In  the  same  way,  if  we  need  further  light  on  the  apparent  contra- 
diction between  St.  Paul  and  St.  James,  we  look  at  the  scope  of  their 
Epistles.  That  to  the  Romans  is  designed  to  prove  that  by  the 
performance  of  the  duties  of  the  Law  no  man  is  justified,  because  his 
obedience  is  imperfect.  The  object  of  the  Epistle  of  James  is  to  prove 
that  no  man  can  be  justified  by  a  faith  which  doesnottend  to  holiness. 


EULE  IV.     COMPARISON  OF  PASSAGES     195 

If  these  designs  be  kept  in  view,  it  will  be  found  that  the  apparent 
contradictions  cease.  The  object  of  the  first  Epistle  of  John  is  defined 
in  ch.  2^  as  similar  to  the  object  of  the  Epistle  of  James. 

The  scope  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  as  compared  with  that  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  explains  an  apparent  contradiction 
between  these  Epistles.  In  the  one  the  observance  of  days  is  allowed, 
Ro  14''.  In  the  other  it  is  forbidden,  Gal  4^°-^^.  The  permission  is 
given  to  Jewish  converts,  who  had  a  tender  conscientious  scruple  about 
setting  aside  the  precepts  of  the  Law  in  which  they  had  been  trained. 
The  prohibition  is  addressed  to  Gentile  converts,  who  were  being  taught 
by  Judaizers  that  they  could  be  saved  only  through  the  practice  of 
the  Jewish  ritual.  Their  observance  of  days  was  owing  to  that  feeling, 
and  therefore  condemned. 

129.  The  fourth  and  most  comprehensive  rule  of  Biblical 
interpretation  is  :  Compare  Scripture  with  Scripture.  It 
is  by  the  observance  of  this  rule  alone  that  we  become  sure 
of  the  true  meaning  of  particular  passages  ;  and,  above  all, 
it  is  by  this  rule  alone  that  ^Ye  ascertain  the  general  teaching 
of  Scripture  on  questions  of  faith  and  practice.  A  Scripture 
truth  is  really  the  consistent  explanation  of  all  that  Scrip- 
ture teaches  in  reference  to  the  question  examined  ;  and 
a  Scripture  duty  is  the  consistent  explanation  of  all  the 
precepts  of  Scripture  on  the  duty.  It  is  in  studying 
the  Scripture  as  in  studying  the  works  of  God.  We  first 
examine  each  fact  or  phenomenon,  and  ascertain  its 
meaning  ;  and  then  classify  it  with  other  similar  facts,  and 
attempt  to  explain  the  whole.  Such  explanation  is  called 
a  general  law. 

The  importance  of  studying  Scripture  in  this  way  is 
strikingly  manifest  from  the  mistakes  of  the  Jews.  'We 
have  heard  out  of  the  Law  '  (said  they)  '  that  the  Christ 
abideth  for  ever,'  Is  9"^  Dan  7^*,  'and  how  sayest  Thou, 
The  Son  of  man  must  be  lifted  up?'  The  everlasting 
duration  of  His  kingdom  was  often  foretold ;  but  that  He 
should  be  lifted  up  and  cut  off,  though  not  for  Himself, 
had  been  foretold  too,  Is  53*""  ^•^^.  A  comparison  of  these 
passages  would  have  removed  the  ground  of  their  objections. 

o  2 


196      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

I.  Verbal  parallels. — Sometimes  we  compare  the  words 
of  Scripture  with  one  another,  with  the  view  of  ascertaining 
their  meaning. 

Diivid,  for  example,  is  called  in  i  Sa  13**,  and  in  Ac  13^^,  *  a  man 
after  God's  own  heart'  :  and  the  question  has  been  asked,  whether 
this  expression  is  meant  to  exhibit  David  as  a  model  of  perfection. 
On  referring  to  r  Sa  2^^,  however,  it  will  be  found  that  the  phrase  is 
again  used,  '  I  will  raise  Me  up  a  faithful  priest,  who  shall  do  accord- 
ing to  that  which  is  in  Mine  heart,'  and  this  suggests  the  primary 
meaning,  namely,  that  David,  especially  in  his  public  official  conduct, 
should  fulfil  the  Divine  will,  and  maintain  inviolate  the  laws  which 
God  had  enjoined.  Dnvid  was,  indeed,  an  eminently  devout  man,  yet 
it  was  in  reference  to  his  kingly  office,  primarily,  that  this  description 
was  given  ;  however  applicable  it  may  also  have  been  to  the  general 
spirit  of  piety  which  David  evinced,  and  to  the  unfeigned  penitence 
which  he  manifested  after  having  been  convicted  of  sin. 

In  reading  Gal  3^^^,  we  find  the  expression  '  As  many  as  have  been 
baptized  into  Christ  have  put  on  Christ':  and  we  turn  to  Ro  13^^, 
and  there  find  that  to  put  on  Christ  is  opposed  to  making  provision 
for  the  flesh  ;  and  then  again  to  Col  3^°,  where  the  same  phrase  of 
*  putting  on '  the  new  man  implies  renewal  in  knowledge  after  the 
image  of  the  Redeemer  (verse  12),  kindness,  humbleness,  meekness, 
and,  above  all,  charity,  the  bond  of  perfectness.  In  Gal  6^"^  the 
Apostle  says,  'From  henceforth,  let  no  man  trouble  me'  (by  such 
calumnies,  as  if  I  were  a  friend  of  the  ceremonial  law),  '  for  I  bear 
in  my  body  the  marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus.'  We  turn  to  2  Cor  4^°, 
where  we  find  a  similar  phrase,  'bearing  about  in  the  body  the  dying 
of  the  Lord  Jesus';  and,  turning  again  to  2  Cor  11^3-27^  ^y^  gather 
that  these  marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus  were  simply  the  scars  of  his 
sufferings  for  Christ,  not  (as  some,  interpreting  the  passage  literally, 
have  supposed)  the  marks  or  stigmata  of  the  cross. 

The  comparison  of  the  words  of  Scripture  is  often  essential 
to  the  full  apprehension  of  Scrij^ture  truth,  especially  in 
reference  to  proper  names. 

In  Ps  106^3,  for  example,  it  is  said,  '  They  made  a  calf  in  Horeb,*  i.  e. 
as  appears  from  Ex  32,  in  the  very  place  where  God  had  taken  them 
into  covenant,  and  immediately  after  they  had  pledged  themselves 
to  renounce  all  idolatry. 

In  Is  29^"*  the  distress  of  Jerusalem  (Ariel)  is  made  to  appear  the 
more  poignant  because  it  was  'the  city  wherie  David  dwelt.' 

A  close  attention  to  Scripture  will  show  that  there  are  at  least 


RULE  IV.     COMPARISON  OF  PASSAGES      197 

three  kinds  of  verbal  parallels.  First,  where  the  same  thing  is  said 
in  the  same  words,  as  Ex  20^"^"  Dt  5^21  pg  14^  gg  ig  2^~*  and  Mic  4^"^. 
Here  one  passage  may  be  used  to  prove  the  accuracy  of  the  other,  or 
the  occasion  or  application  of  the  passage  may  throw  light  on  the 
passage  itself.  Is  6^-^'^  is  referred  to,  for  example,  three  times  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  a  comparison  of  the  occasions  will  illustrate  the 
saying.  Secondly,  where  the  same  facts  are  narrated  in  similar  and 
some  identical  words,  as  in  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy; 
Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles ;  and  in  the  Gospels.  In  this  case 
plain  expressions  illustrate  difficult  ones.  One  passage  explains  or 
modifies  the  other,  as  in  Mt  2^  and  Lu  2^~*.  Thirdly,  where  the  words 
or  idioms  are  used  in  different  connexions,  or  where  the  phrases 
employed,  though  in  themselves  alike,  are  used  in  different  senses,  as 
in  the  following  passages  :  Jn  i^^  and  Mt  n^^,  Jn  5^^  and  8^^,  Ac  g^  and 
22^  Lu  1^3  and  i  Cor  152*. 

Apparently  different  expressions  are  thus  harmonized.  God's  offer, 
for  example,  of  seven  years'  famine,  2  Sa  24^^,  includes  the  three  pre- 
ceding years  during  which  that  calamity  had  continued,  2  Sa  21^.  In 
I  Ch  2ii'*^2  there  is  no  reference  to  the  preceding  famine,  and  the 
offer  is  therefore  of  three  years  only.     So  2  Sa  24^^  i  Ch  21 2-^. 

Rule  for  considering  verbal  parallelisms. — In  com- 
paring Scripture  with  Scripture,  therefore,  ascertain,  first, 
the  sense  which  the  words  to  be  examined  bear  in  other 
parts  of  the  same  writer  ;  then,  in  other  writings  of  the 
same  period  ;  then,  throughout  the  Bible.  The  meaning  of 
words  often  changes ;  and  all  writers  do  not  use  the  same 
word  in  the  same  sense. 

In  the  Epistles  to  tlie  Romans  and  the  Galatians,  for  example, 
'works,'  when  used  alone,  means  the  opposite  of  faith,  namely,  the 
performance  of  legal  duties  as  the  ground  of  salvation.  In  James 
the  expression  always  means  the  obedience  and  holiness  which  flow 
from  faith.  In  the  one  case,  works  are  inconsistent  with  salvation  ; 
in  the  other,  they  are  essential  to  it.  So,  in  .John  1^,  the  term  'word' 
cannot  be  explained  by  2  Tim  4^,  where  the  same  term  is  employed, 
but  in  a  different  sense.  The  '  word '  in  Timothy  means  the  gospel ; 
in  John  it  is  a  personal  appellation. 

2.  Parallelism  of  Ideas.— Sometimes  we  have  to  com- 
pare the  facts  or  doctrines  of  Scripture  in  order  to  gain  a 
complete  view  of  Scripture  truth.  This  is  the  parallelism 
of  ideas,  and  not  of  words  only. 


198      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

If,  for  example,  we  wish  to  know  whether,  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  the 
cup  is  to  be  received  by  all  the  faithful,  or  only  by  the  priest,  we  turn 
to  Mt  26'-'^,  and  we  find  the  command,  '  Drink  ye  all  of  it.*  And,  if  it 
be  asked  whether  '  all  *  means  the  Apostles  only,  or  all  in  its  most  com- 
prehensive sense,  we  turn  to  i  Cor  ii^^,  where  we  find  that  in  each  case 
(six  in  all)  the  eating  of  the  bread  and  the  drinking  of  the  cup  are 
mentioned  together,  and  enjoined  on  all  Christians  indifferently.  The 
charge  given  to  all  is,  'Let  a  man  examine  himself ;  and  so  let  him  eat 
of  that  bread,  and  drink  of  that  cup.' 

If  we  are  investigating  the  meaning  of  Mt  16^^,  'Thou  art  Peter,  and 
upon  this  rock  I  will  build  My  Chui'ch,'  we  turn  to  i  Cor  3^^,  and  find 
that  the  only  foundation  of  the  Church  is  Christ;  also  to  the  words  of 
Peter  himself  in  his  fii-st  Epistle  2*"^.  In  the  sense,  therefore,  of  being 
the  foundation  on  which  the  salvation  of  the  Church  is  to  rest,  the 
passage  is  at  variance  with  other  parts  of  Scripture.  We  turn,  then, 
to  Ac  2*^  and  to  Ac  10**  15"^,  and  find  that  Peter's  preaching  was  the 
means  of  the  first  conversions,  both  among  Jews  and  Gentiles.  His 
labours,  therefore,  commenced  the  building,  and  in  this  sense  he  might 
be  the  foundation  of  the  Church.  Or,  the  statement  may  refer  to 
Peter's  confession,  as  Augustine  and  Luther  held,  or,  more  precisely, 
to  the  truth  which  he  confessed  ;  and  then  the  parallel  passages  are 
Gal  1^6  jn  651  ^  j^  323  ^-i.s^ 

3.  Passages  mutually  interpretative. — The  most  im- 
portant rule  in  reference  to  this  order  of  parallelism  is,  that 
a  passage  in  which  an  idea  is  expressed  briefly  or  obscurely 
is  explained  by  those  in  which  it  is  fully  or  clearly  revealed  ; 
and  that  difficult  and  figurative  expressions  are  explained  by 
such  as  are  proper  and  obvious. 

The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  for  example,  is  explained 
briefly  in  Phil  3^,  and  fully  in  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  the 
Galatians. 

'A  new  creature'  (or  'creation,'  R. V.  marg.)  is  a  figurative  expres- 
sion used  in  Gal  6^^,  and  is  explained  in  ch.  5'^  and  in  i  Cor  7^^. 

The  '  charity'  spoken  of  in  i  Pet  4^  is  'brotherly  love,' and  it  is  said 
to  cover  *  a  multitude  of  sins ' ;  not  because  it  extinguishes  them,  and 
80  justifies  the  sinner,  but  (as  shown  in  Pr  lo^^)  because  it  veils  them 
from  exposixre. 

4.  Many  a  passage  is  to  be  exjiljiined  l^y  a  reference,  not 
to  any  one  or  more  texts,  but  to  the  general  tenor  of 
Scripture.     We  have  examples  of  this  kind  of  reference  in 


KULE  IV.     COMPAKISON  OF  PASSAGES      199 

Gal  5I*,  and  again  in  i  Cor  is^~^\  where  the  Apostle  states 
the  facts  and  doctrines  connected  with  the  death  and  resur- 
rection of  Christ,  and  then  proceeds  to  prove  other  facts 
and  doctrines  from  them. 

The  general  tenor  of  Scripture  is  briefly  called  in  the 
Bible,  Hhe  Scriptures,'  i  Cor  is^-* ;  or  '  all  the  Law,'  as  in 
Gal  5I*  ;  or  '  the  mouth  of  all  the  Prophets,'  Ac  3^^  \ 

Illustrations. — i.  God  is  set  forth  in  Scripture  as  a  Spirit, 
omniscient,  and  holy,  and  supreme.  All  passages,  therefore,  which 
seem  to  represent  Him  as  material,  local,  limited  in  knowledge,  in 
power,  or  in  righteousness,  are  to  be  interpreted  agreeably  to  these 
revealed  truths, 

2.  If,  again,  any  expositor  were  to  explain  the  passages  of  Scripture 
which  speak  of  justification  by  faith  as  if  it  freed  us  from  obligations 
to  holiness,  such  interpretation  must  be  rejected,  because  it  counteracts 
the  main  design  and  spirit  of  the  gospel. 

3.  In  Pr  16^,  it  is  said,  'The  Lord  has  made  all  things  for  Himself : 
yea,  even  the  wicked  for  the  day  of  evil.'  The  idea  that  the  wicked 
were  created  that  they  might  bo  condemned,  which  some  have  founded 
upon  this  passage,  is  inconsistent  with  innumerable  parts  of  Scripture 
(Ps  145^  Eze  i82^  2  Pet  3'').  The  meaning  therefore  is  that  all  evil 
shall  contribute  to  the  glory  of  God,  and  promote  the  accomplishment 
of  His  adorable  designs. 

130.  Importance  of  Parallels. — This  expository  use  of 
parallel  passages  is  often  of  great  moment. 

Thus  God,  in  several  prophetic  and  poetical  passages,  represents 
Himself  as  giving  men  to  drink  of  a  cup  which  He  holds  in  His  hand  : 
they  take  it,  and  fall  prostrate  on  the  ground  in  fearful  intoxication. 
Tlie  figure  is  used  with  much  brevity,  and  without  explanation,  in 
some  of  the  Prophets  ^  In  Is  51I7-23  j^  jg  fully  explained,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  image  becomes  clear.     The  intoxication  is  desolation 

*  This  *  tenor  of  Scripture'  was  often  termed  by  theologians  of  the 
past  '  the  analogy  of  faith,'  from  an  interpretation  of  Ro  12^,  where 
the  word  dvaXoyia  is  used.  It  is,  however,  now  generally  agreed  that 
this  passage  refers  to  the  proportion  of  the  faith  of  those  Avho 
'prophesy.'  They  are  to  speak  so  far  as  they  believe — no  further. 
The  phrase,  therefore,  is  now  seldom  employed  in  the  former  seiise. 

b  Nah  3^1  Hab  9'^  Ps  60^  758  &c. 


200     THE  INTEKPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTUKE 

and  helplessness,  more  than  can  be  borne  ;  and  the  cup  is  the  fury  (or 
righteous  indignation)  of  Jehovah. 

In  Ac  2-^  we  find  it  said  that  *  whosoever  shall  call  on  the  name 
of  the  Lord  shall  be  saved' ;  and  it  may  be  asked,  What  is  meant  by 
calling  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord?  Matthew  tells  us  that  '  not  every 
one  that  saith,  Lord,  Lord,  shall  enter  into  the  kingdom  of  heaven ' : 
so  that  the  passage  is  not  to  be  understood  in  its  literal  and  restricted 
sense.  On  referring  to  Ro  io^^~^*,  and  i  Cor  i^,  we  find  that  this 
lajiguage,  which  is  quoted  from  the  prophet  Joel,  implied  an  admission 
of  the  Messiahship  of  Christ,  and  reliance  on  the  doctrines  which  He 
revealed. 

Again,  sin  is  called  in  Scripture  a  debt ;  atonement,  the  payment  of 
a  debt ;  pardon,  the  forgiveness  of  a  debt.  But  we  must  not  hold 
these  terms  so  rigidly  as  to  maintain  that,  because  Christ  died  for 
man's  sin,  therefore  all  will  be  finally  saved  ;  or  that,  because  He  has 
obeyed  the  Law,  therefore  sinners  are  free  to  live  in  sin.  Men  are 
dead  in  sin,  but  not  so  dead  as  to  be  free  from  the  duty  of  repentance; 
nor  are  they  guiltless  if  they  disregard  the  Divine  call.  These 
principles  are  sufficiently  obvious  when  applied  to  passages  which 
contain  figures  founded  upon  material  objects.  They  are  even  more 
important,  though  less  easy,  when  applied  to  passages  which  contain 
figures  taken  from  human  nature  or  common  life.  More  errors, 
probably,  have  arisen  from  pushing  analogical  expressions  to  an 
extreme  than  from  any  other  single  cause  ;  and  against  this  tendency 
the  sober,  earnest  student  of  the  Bible  needs  to  be  specially  upon  his 
guard. 

Summary. — To  ascertain,  therefore,  the  meaning  of  any 
passage  of  Scripture,  whether  the  words  be  employed  figu- 
ratively or  literally,  we  must  ask  the  following  questions  : 
What  is  the  meaning  of  the  terms  ?  If  they  have  but  one 
meaning,  that  is  the  sense.  If  they  have  several,  we  then 
ask,  Which  of  those  meanings  is  required  by  other  parts  of 
the  sentence  ?  If  two  or  more  meanings  remain,  then, 
What  is  the  meaning  required  by  the  context,  so  as  to 
make  a  consistent  sense  of  the  whole  ?  If,  still,  more  than 
one  meaning  remains.  What  then  is  required  by  the  general 
scope  ?  And,  if  this  question  fail  to  elicit  a  clear  reply, 
What  then  is  required  by  other  passages  of  Scripture  ?  If, 
in  answer  to  all  these  questions,  it  is  found  that  more  than 
one  meaning  may  still  be  given  to  the  passage,  then  both 


HELPS  FROM  THE  ORIGINAL  201 

interpretations  are  in  themselves  admissible  ;  and  we  must 
either  select  the  one  which  best  fulfils  most  of  the  conditions, 
or  look  elsewhere  for  some  further  guide. 

Theology  is  the  whole  meaning  of  Scripture — the  sense 
taught  in  the  whole  of  Scripture,  as  that  sense  is  modified, 
limited,  and  explained  by  Scripture  itself.  It  is  a  con- 
sistently interpreted  representation  of  the  statements  of 
the  Bible,  on  the  various  facts,  doctrines,  and  precepts, 
which  the  book  of  God  reveals.  Thus  is  illustrated  the 
ancient  saying  that  Hhe  good  theologian  is  really  only 
a  good  interpreter' ;  bonus  theologus  est  bonus  tcxtuarius^. 

Helps  to  Interpretation,  from  the  Original 
Scriptures 

131.  Advantage  of  studying  the  Original  Scriptures. 

— Thus  far,  questions  of  interpretation  have  been  discussed 
with  reference  to  the  Bible  as  a  translation.  And  unques- 
tionably, the  care  and  ability  bestowed  on  its  different 
versions,  especially  on  the  'Authorized  '  and  '  Revised,'  with 
the  copious  assistance  furnished  by  critical  commentators, 
will  enable  the  English  reader  to  understand  and  judge  for 
himself  on  all  essential  points.  Still,  there  are  obvious 
advantages  to  be  secured  only  by  students  of  the  original 
Hebrew  and  Greek.  The  exact  connotation  of  particular 
words,  the  niceties  of  idiomatic  expression,  the  degrees  of 
variation  in  synonyms,  and  the  shades  of  difference  in 
parallel  passages,  are  all  liable  to  be  obscured  in  even  the 
best  translations.  A  few  illustrations  are  all  that  can  here 
be  given. 

132.  The  Study  of  Words:    their    Etymology. — We 

may  seek  for  help  from  the  words  themselves,  their  etymo- 

*  See  Theology  an  Inductive  and  a  Progressive  Science,  by  Joseph  Angus, 
D.D.  (Present  Day  Tract,  R.T.S.). 


202      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

logy^  the  analogy  of  speech,  and  the  meaning  of  similar  words 
in  cognate  dialects. 

I.  Etymology  traces  the  progress  of  the  meaning  of  words, 
the  changes  of  form  which  they  undergo,  and  points  out 
the  significance  of  their  several  parts.  It  often  gives  the 
true  meaning,  explains  the  allusions  of  the  context,  and 
accounts  for  the  rendering  of  ancient  versions. 

In  Genesis,  as  R.V.  marg.,  ^firmament*  should  be  translated  ^expanse* 
the  root  meaning  to  beat  or  spread  out. 

Tlie  Hebrew  phrase  for  *  making  (lit.  "  cutting")  a  covenant  '  refers 
to  the  stroke  that  smote  the  victim,  whose  death  confirmed  it. 

The  original  word  for  *  minister,'  in  Heb  S'^  {Xfirovpyos),  means,  in 
classic  Greek,  one  who  performs  a  public  work  at  his  own  cost ;  hence, 
who  serves  in  a  special  office  and  ministry,  as  priests  and  Levites  in  the 
Old  Testament ;  Apostles,  prophets,  and  teachers  in  the  New  ;  in  the 
above-quoted  passage,  our  Lord  Himself.  With  regard  to  angels,  their 
ministry  of  worship  expressed  by  this  word  and  its  cognates,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  their  service  to  man.  See  Heb  i'^-^*  and  comp.  Mt  4*. 
The  word  XnTovpyla  (whence  *  liturgy ')  expresses  the  affectionate  and 
reverential  ministration  of  the  Philippians  to  the  Apostle  Paul, 
Phil  23^ 

The  Hebrew  word  for  *  to  make  atonement '  ("iQ3,  kipper)  means, 
properly,  to  '  cover  over '  sin,  or  expiate  ;  and,  secondarily,  to  pro- 
pitiate, i.  e.  to  remove  the  displeasure  of  another  in  relation  to  it. 
The  corresponding  word  in  the  LXX  and  New  Testament  (jKaaKOfiai 
or  (^i\affKof/.ai,  subst.  iXaafxos)  means,  in  the  New  Testament,  first, 
to  propitiate,  and,  secondarily,  to  atone  for.  In  Heb  a^'^  it  is  ren- 
dered in  A.  V.  'make  reconciliation,'  and  in  R.V.  'propitiation,'  also 
I  Jn  2^  4^^  '  Reconciliation,'  KaraWayf],  with  its  kindred  verb,  is  the 
result  of  expiation  (Ro  5^^  11^^  2  Cor  5^^'^^  and  the  verb  in  Ro  5^° 
I  Cor  7^^ 2 Cor  5i8.i9.'2o^_  j^  j^q  ^n  i^j^q  j^^  y.  reads  'atonement,'  according 
to  the  Old  English  derivation  of  the  word  at-one-ment,  but  as  this 
rendering  produces  confusion  with  that  of  iKaa^ds  (see  the  converse  in 
Heb  2^'^,  noted  above)  the  R.  V.  rendering  is  preferable.  In  other 
passages,  and  from  another  point  of  view,  the  work  of  Christ  is 
described  as  a  redemption  (anoKtiTpojais)  or  ransom,  as  from  captivity 
or  slavery — a  stronger  synonym  of  KvTpcoais,  which  also  occurs  Lu 
j68  2^8  jieb  gVi  Tj^Q  ransom  price  is  Kvrpov,  Mt  20^^  Mk  10**, 
or  avTiXvTpov,  I  Tim  2'.  But  sometimes  the  word  is  '  purchase ' 
{ayopa^Hv),  Gal  3'^  4^  Rev  5^  i4='S  the  price  being  TipL-q,  1  Cor  62^'  723. 
In  Ac  20'^'^   'purchased*  means  simply  'acquired  for  Himself.'     The 


HELPS  FKOM  THE  ORIGINAL  203 

words  (xw^dv,  'to  save,'  and  acuTrjpia,  'salvation,'  express  in  general 
the  state  into  which  those  who  believe  are  introduced  ;  whether  past 
*ye  have  been  saved,'  Eph  2^;  present  and  progressive  'being  saved,' 
Ac  2^"  2  Cor  2^5  ;  or  future  'we  shall  be  saved '  Eo  5^-^°  R.  V. 

All  these  passages  express  in  various  ways  the  one  thought  that 
•  Christ  died  for  us '  {vnep,  '  on  behalf  of). 

The  Greek  word  for  '  to  sacrifice '  (Ovuv)  means,  in  Homer,  to  burn 
wine  or  food  in  the  fire  as  an  offering,  and  in  later  writers,  to  sacrifice, 
properly  so  called.  From  this  double  meaning  we  have  two  sets  of 
Greek  words,  the  one  referring  to  the  slaying  of  victims  (Ovoj,  dvaia), 
and  the  other  to  the  sweet  odours,  or  incense,  which  were  offered  to 
God  (Ovfxiafm).  Hence,  also,  Ovw  is  used  to  translate  two  different 
Hebrew  words,  meaning,  respectively,  to  sacrifice,  and  to  burn  sweet 
incense,  i  Sa  3^*  2  Ch  25"  28^  Jer  i"  44^ 

Nearly  all  Names  in  Hebrew  are  significant,  and  a  knowledge  of 
their  meaning  throws  light  upon  the  context.  The  prophecies  of 
Jacob  concerning  his  sons  refer  in  a  great  degree  to  their  names. 
Gen  49  compared  with  29,  30.     See  also  Ru  i^o  Gen  4^^. 

It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  etymology  does  not  0/ 
itself  &x  the  meaning  of  words  ;  but  only  where  usage  is  either  doubtful 
or  silent ;  and  it  is  always,  from  the  changes  in  connotation  which 
words  undergo,  a  somewhat  uncertain  guide. 

2.  Analogies  of  Words. — Analog)/  fixes  the  meaning  of 
one  form  of  a  word  from  the  known  meaning  of  the  similar 
form  of  another  word,  or  of  one  word  from  the  meaning  of 
some  opposite  or  corresponding  one. 

That  '  folly '  means  sin  in  Gen  34"^  Dt  2i''^^  Jos  7^^  2  Sa  13^^^  may  be 
gathered  from  the  fact  that  'wisdom'  means,  in  various  parts  of 
Scripture,  'uprightness'  or  'piety. 

Mt  62-5-16  dnixovat  rbv  niaOov.  Bp.  Lightfoot  on  Phil  4"^  remarks 
that  '  the  idea  of  a-no  in  this  compound  i^  corresponde7ice,  i.  e.  of  the 
contents  to  the  capacity,  of  the  possession  to  the  desire,  &c.,  so  that  it 
denotes  the  full  complement.'  Thus  diroxr},  the  noun,  means  in  later 
Greek  (Ulpian)  a  receipt  in  full,  so  that  the  phrase  may  be  taken  to 
mean  •  they  have  their  reward  ';  that  is,  all  they  will  ever  get. 

In  Mt  6^^  Lu  1 1'  kiTiovaiou  has  been  variously  rendered  ;  it  does  not 
occur  in  the  LXX,  or  elsewhere.  It  has  been  translated,  '  suitable  for 
our  subsistence  '  (ouam)  :  a  similar  meaning,  again,  has  been  thought 
to  be  fixed  by  an  analogous  expression  ;  -nepiovoiov  means  more  than 
enough,  and  as  km  often  indicates  adaptedness,  Imovaiov  means  just 
enough,  as  Pr  30*  'food  convenient  for  me'  (lit.  the  bread  of  my 
portion).   The  main  difficulty  of  these  interpretations  is  that,  according 


204      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

to  analogy,  the  word  would  be  enovcnov  (the  t  elided) ;  and  the  explana- 
tion now  generally  preferred  is  that  the  word  is  formed  from  the 
fern,  participle  kmovaa,  which,  with  the  article  ^  (modaa  (jjixipa)  the 
oncoming  day,  signifies  to-morrow.  "'Food  for  tho  morrow"  is  equiva- 
lent to  necessary  or  sufficient  food.  That  state  of  mind  is  portrayed 
which,  piously  contented  with  food  sufficing  from  one  day  to  the 
next,  in  praying  to  God  for  sustenance,  does  not  go  beyond  the 
absolute  necessity  of  the  nearest  future.' — Grimm's  New  Testament 
Lexicon,  edited  by  Thayer. 

3.  Words  in  Cognate  Languages — Hebrew. — We  may 

compare  the  words  in  Scripture  with  the  same  words  in 
cognate  languages.  The  value  of  cognate  languages,  though 
sometimes  underrated,  has  been  exaggerated.  By  modern 
lexicographers,  they  are  applied  within  proper  limits,  and 
are  of  use  chiefly  when  ancient  versions  differ,  and  where 
we  have  not,  in  Hebrew,  materials  sufficient  for  defining 
the  meaning  of  terms. 

a.  They  give  the  roots  of  words,  the  derivatives  of  which  alone  are 
found  in  Scripture,  and  thus  aid  to  a  consistent  meaning. 

'n'^>  'eythdn,  for  example,  is  a  somewhat  rare  word,  translated 
'mighty  stream'  (i.e.  overflowing).  Am  52*;  so  Ps  'j^'^^  ;  'strength' 
(constant  flowing).  Ex  14.'^'^;  'strong'  (durable),  Mic  6^  ;  'mighty' 
(prosperous),  Job  12"  ;  so  Num  24^1  Jer  49^^  The  Arabic  root  means 
'to  continue  running';  then,  'to  continue'  generally,  i.e.  'to 
endure ' ;  then,  '  to  be  inexhaustibly  rich ' ;  hence  the  very  various 
meanings  of  these  texts.  In  Pr  13^5  i  {^j^g  ^y^y  of  transgressors '  (or 
'  deceivers  ')  is  'eythan  ;  probably  '  headstrong,'  '  regardless  of  con- 
sequences.'    But  R.  V.  translates  '  rugged.' 

b.  They  fix  meanings  which  might  otherwise  have  been  only  con- 
jectural. 

:b3,  bdldg,  for  example,  occurs  four  times  (in  Hiphil)  :  Job  9'^'^, 
'comfort  myself;  lo^o,  'take  comfort';  PS39",  '  recover  strength '  (R.V. 
marg.,  in  these  passages,  'brighten  up');  Am  5'\  'that  strengthoneth 
the  spoiled'  (R.  V.  marg.,  '  causeth  destruction  to  flash  forth');  the 
versions  are  altogether  uncertain.  Tho  Arabic  root  means  'to  shine 
like  the  dawn  ';  '  to  be,  or  to  render,  clear  and  serene.' 

c.  They  discover  the  primary  meaning  of  roots  whose  secondary 
senses  only  are  found  in  Scripluro,  though  the  primary  throws  light 
on  some  texts. 

bi^j  gddhdl,  for  example,  means  'to  be  great,'  but,   in  Arabic,    'to 


HELPS  FROM  THE  ORIGINAL  205 

twist,'  and  so  'to  make  great  or  strong' ;  hence  a  noun  formed  from 
it  means  'fringes,'  Dt  22^2.  'twisted  thread,'  or  'chain  work,' 
I  Ki  7^'^.     Another  noun,  similarly  formed,  means  'vigour,'  Ex  151^. 

7|n3,  bdrdk,  means,  primarily,  '  to  kneel,'  an  attitude  expressive  of 
intense  desire.  Hence,  '  to  bless'  and  '  to  curse,'  Job  2'  (i^^  2^).  Or 
this  latter  sense  may  arise  from  the  notion  o^  farewell — 'bid  good-bye 
to.'     So  R.  V.  'renounce.' 

d.  They  explain  idiomatic  phrases,  the  true  sense  of  which  cannot 
otherwise  be  determined. 

4.  Greek  Classic  Writers. — In  the  case  of  the  New 
Testament,  we  may  seek  the  meaning  of  its  words  and 
phrases  in  classic  autJiors. 

maris,  which  commonly  means  '  faith,'  is  used  in  the  sense  of  proof, 
'  the  ground  of  assurance,'  Ac  17^^,  so  Aristotle,  Polybius. 

enayyeWofxai  means,  by  itself,  'to  announce,' and  so  'to  promise'; 
followed  by  certain  nouns,  it  means  to  '  profess  '  (i  Tim  2^°).  The 
word  is  regularly  used  for  professing  an  art  or  science,  Diog.  Laert., 
Proem.  5,  12  ;  Xen.  Meyn.  i.  2,  7. 

irapd,  in  composition,  sometimes  means  in  the  Greek  Testament  '  by 
the  way,'  Ro  5^*^ ;  or  '  secretly,'  Gal  2^*  Ju  *;  a  usage  found  in  classic 
authors,  Polyb.,  Herodian,  Plut. 

TO  kni^dXKov  fitpos,  Lu  15^^^  jg  g,  legal  phrase,  indicating  the  share 
which  fell  to  a  man  as  heir;  the  use  of  the  word  here  shows  how  com- 
pletely the  prodigal  son  was  estranged  from  all  fil  ial  feel  ing.  Herodotus 
iv,  115  ;  Died.  xiv.  17. 

The  apparently  incomplete  sentences  in  Lu  13^  19*-  are  good 
Greek  ;  the  custom  being,  frequently,  to  omit  the  apodosis  (or  con- 
clusion) of  a  sentence  after  el  or  lav,  when  the  meaning  is  clear. 

Other  classical  usages  are  illustrated  by  such  instances  as  '  being 
thirty-eight  years  in  his  infirmity,'  i.e.  being  ill  for  thirty-eight 
years,  Jn  5^,  comp.  8"  9^1  ii^'^  ;  'preserved  Noah  (the)  eighth,'  i.e. 
Noah  and  seven  others,  2  Pet  2^. 

Bos,  Eisner,  Kypke,  Grotius,  Wolf,  Wetstein,  Raphel,  have  largely 
illustrated  the  phraseology  of  the  New  Testament  from  classic  sources  ; 
Kypke  and  Raphel  from  particular  authors,  and  the  rest  from  classic 
authorities  generally. 

5.  Greek:  Josephus  and  Philo.— Or  we  may  turn  to 
the  works  of  Josephus  and  Philo,  which  in  this  respect  are 
not  unimportant. 

fitreoopiCfaeai  means,  etymologically,  to  hang  up  in  the  air  ;  but  it  is 


206      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

used  both  by  Philo  and  Josephus  for  <to  be  of  doubtful  mind,'  as  in 
the  New  Testament. 

vnwmd^eiv,  literally,  to  'hit  under  the  eyes'  (Lu  i8^^  i  Corg^'^),  means, 
generally,  '  to  harass,'  Ho  afflict.' 

((pTjH€pta,  Lu  i^,  translated  'course,'  means  the  daily  service  of  the 
Temple,  which  was  discharged  by  bands  of  priests  in  rotation  (Jos. 
Ant.  vii.  14.  7). 

Kpiais  (judgement),  Mt  5^1,  was  the  name  given  to  the  court  of  seven 
magistrates,  who  had  the  power  of  punishing  small  offences  (Jos. 
Ant  iv.  8.  14).     See  Schurer,  New  Testament  Times,  §  23.  11. 

TO.  (jKaivia  (the  renewal),  Jn  10^2,  is  the  term  used  by  Philo  as 
appropriate  to  express  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication  instituted  by  Judas 
Maccabaeus,  b.  c.  164,  after  Antiochus'  sacrilege,  held  on  the  25  Kisleu, 
as  J7  vrjaTiia  is  the  fast  connected  with  the  Day  of  Atonement,  10  Tisri, 
Ac  zf. 

6.  Aramaic  expressions. — Especially  useful  shall  we 
find  a  reference  to  Semitic  languages,  including  the  Hebrew, 
from  which,  indeed,  many  New  Testament  phrases  are 
taken. 

Hebraisms  may  be  seen  in  Heb  i^,  alwv  =  obiy,  oldm,  so  ds  rbv  al&va 
or  Tovs  alwvai  -  'for  ever';  elprjvi},  often  =  dV,  Shalom,  'all  blessing,' 
Mk  534  Lu  7^°  ;  '  peace  to  you  '  being  the  Hebrew  form  of  '  salutation,' 
as  xa'pf'*'  is  in  Greek,  Jas  i^ ;  sometimes  elprjvr]  is  used  in  the  Greek 
sense  for  peace,  Lu  i^^'^,  and  sometimes  in  the  Christian  sense,  Ro  2^° 
Lu  19*2  :  i^oixoXo^ilaOai  (niin,  hodah),  '  to  acknowledge  the  qualities  of 
another';  so  as  '  to  praise,'  Mt  ii^s  ;  nopevfaeai,  to  indicate  a  'mode  of 
life ' :  el,  elliptically  employed  after  verbs  of  swearing,  a  strong  nega- 
tive, Mk 312  Heb  43-5:  *dm7«7;  means  'straits,calamity,'Lu2i23iCor726 : 
'to  taste  death,'  Mt  1628;  'heaven,'  for  God,  Dn  4^3  :  see  Mt  2i26 
Lu  15^1 :  *6(i)(i\rjpaTa  a^pUvai  =  '  to  forgive  sins  ' :  U(iv  and  Xmiv  (Aram., 
">9«  «1^'>  sMri  'esar),  '  to  forbid  and  to  appoint '  (see  J.  Lightfoot,  Ilorcs 
Hebraicce  et  Talmudicce,  on  Mt  16^^):  'to  die  in  sin,'  Jn  82i-24_<  to 
perish  because  of  sin '  (Lev  5^)  :  pioixos,  used  spiritually  after  the 
Hebrew  (n:i,  zbneh),  not  literally,  as  Jas  4*.  Some  of  these  expressions 
marked  (*)  are  found  in  classic  authors,  and  are  therefore  called 
imperfect  Hebraisms.  See  Ac  19^  24*  2^^  Jas  2^  Mt  152  Mk  722,  ('  evil ') 
is  envious. 

For  other  Aramaic  expressions,  see  §  40.  The  Hebraisms  of  the 
New  Testament  are  fully  illustrated  in  the  works  of  Lightfoot,  and 
in  the  supplementary  volumes  of  Schoetgen.  See  also  Winer's  New 
Testament  Grammar,  ed.  Moulton. 


HELPS  :   THE  SEPTUAGINT  207 

Glossaries  and  other  Authorities. — Nor  is  it  unim- 
portant, in  ascertaining  the  meaning  of  words,  to  consult 
ancient  scholiasts  and  glosses,  and  the  writings  of  the  early 
Fathers.  The  tirst  two  give  the  meaning  generally,  without 
supplying  evidence  or  proof  passages,  and  the  second  give 
professed  interpretations  of  Scripture  language. 

Hesychius,  for  example,  explains  the  '  tittles '  of  the  law,  Mt  5^^, 
by  defining  the  *  tittle '  as  the  mark  made  in  beginning  to  write 
a  letter  of  the  alphabet  {dpxv  ypd^ifxaTos)  ;  and  Suidas  explains  fiaTTo- 
\oyeiv  by  'wordiness,'  or  '  much  speaking'  (noXvKoyia),  6'. 

fivffTTjpiov  is  explained  by  Clem.  Rom.  as  a  revealed  secret, 

avdevTiiv  avbpus  I  Tim  2^^^  means,  according  to  early  Greek  usage, 
to  kill  her  husband  ;  but  Theophylact  explains  it,  '  to  usurp  authority 
over '  :  so  the  English  version.  (vrpaireKia,  which  means,  properly, 
'lively  C'nimble-witted  ")  discourse,'  is  explained  by  Chrysostom  in 
his  oration  on  Eph  5*,  and  by  Jerome,  as  something  said  (generally 
foolish  and  sinful)  to  provoke  a  laugh  ;  'foolish  jesting'  gives,  there- 
fore, the  precise  meaning.  That  dvdkrjxpis,  Lu  9^^  refers  to  our  Lord's 
ascension  may  be  gathered  from  Ac  i^,  and  it  is  proved  by  a  similar 
use  of  this  phrase  in  the  Fathers. 

The  chief  Greek  glossaries  are  the  lexicons  of  Hesychius  (400), 
Suidas  (980),  and  Phavorinus  (1523)  ;  the  Etymologicum  Magnum  (tenth 
century),  with  the  works  of  Photius  (850)  and  Zonaras  (1118).  The 
glosses,  or  explanations  of  the  first  four,  so  far  as  the  New  Testament 
is  concerned,  were  edited  by  C.  G.  Ernesti,  1785-6,  and  those  of 
Zonaras  in  1618.  Matthaei  (Mosc.  1774-5,  Lips.  1779)  and  Alberti 
(Lug.  Bat.  1735)  have  also  published  glosses,  selected  from  the  margin 
of  ancient  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament. 

For  a  view  of  the  explanations  of  New  Testament  terms  given  in 
the  Fathers  see  by  far  the  completest  book  on  this  subject,  the 
Thesaurus  EcclesiasHcus  of  Suicer,  2  vols.,  1728  ;  or  indexes  of  good 
editions  of  the  Fathers  themselves.  For  the  teaching  of  the  Fathers 
on  books  or  parts  of  Scripture,  see  the  compendious  collections  published 
under  the  name  of  Catence  :  some  of  their  comments  are  good,  many 
trifling. 

The  Septuagint. — The  chief  help  to  the  study  of  the 
New  Testament,  however,  remains :  the  version  of  the 
LXX  :  words  and  phrases  being  often  taken  from  that 
version,  and  used  in  an  altogether  peculiar  sense. 

SiaOrjKT],   for   example,    means   in   classic   Greek,    '  a  disposition   of 


208      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

property,'  or  *  a  will,'  but  in  the  LXX  it  is  frequently  used  to 
translate  nnn,  berith,  in  the  sense  of  '  covenant '  or  *  agreement 
between  parties,'  which  classic  authors  express  by  (xwOtjktj,  Gen  17^1''. 
It  is  applied  to  the  agreement  between  Abraham  and  Abimelech, 
2iC7-32  .  between  Laban  and  Jacob,  31*^  ;  compare  Dt  7^  17-  29^  Ps  131^^ 
Is  426.     See  further  in  Ch,  I,  §  7. 

d\T]6eia,  '  truth,'  is  used  for,  and  means  *  all  probity  or  holiness,' 
Ps  26^  86'^,  and  also  '  substance,'  as  opposed  to  *  type  or  shadow,' 
Jn  i"  Heb  8\ 

voixos  =  min  {t6rah)j  the  whole  Mosaic  economy,  Dt  4***  Mt  5^'''  7*2 
Jn  i". 

(TvjKpiveiv  means  in  classic  Greek,  '  to  confound,  or  mix ' ;  in  the 
LXX,  it  is  *  to  interpret,  or  explain,'  Gen  40^,  and  hence  perl)aps 
I  Cor  2^^,  'expounding  spiritual  things  by  spiritual '  (neut.),  '  adapting 
the  discourse  to  the  subject.'  Another  interpretation,  which  takes  the 
latter  adj.  as  masculine,  'interpreting  spiritual  things  to  spiritual 
persons,'  is  generally  abandoned.     But  see  R.  V.  and  margin. 

km  TO  avTo  =  Tirr,   yachdav,  '  together,'  Mt  22^'*  Ac  i^^  2  Sa  2^^  10^^. 

■ndaa  aap^  ou  =  '  no  flesh  shall,'  =  bib  bi?,  kol  lo,  Ex  iz^^-"^^  :  sometimes 
the  LXX  use  the  classic  phrase,  ovk  ovdeis,  Ex  lo^^ 

The  LXX  translate  ns'^n,  chattath,  in  the  sense  of  '  sin  offering,'  by 
the  phrases  vepl  dfj^aprias,  Lev  5^  7^'^  ;  virkp  dfj-aprias,  Lev  8^  ;  IXafffios, 
Eze  44'^'',  and  hence  the  use  of  these  phrases  in  the  New  Testament. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  noticed  that  the  Hebrew  word  means 
both  *  an  act  of  sin'  and  *a  sinful  disposition,'  as  does  afxapria.  For 
the  act,  however,  dfxdpTrj/xa  is  occasionally  used,  Mk  3'^^  Eo  3^^  i  Cor 
6^^  See  Trench,  Synonyms,  xvi,  and  Grimm's  Lexicon  (Thayer),  s.  v. 
afiapTia. 

'O  (pxofiei'os,  '  the  coming  one,'  is  the  LXX  translation  of  a  phrase 
of  Messianic  import,  and  hence  applied  frequently  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment to  our  Lord,  Lu  3^^  Heb  lo^^,  not  ^ shall  come,'  but  'is  coming,' 
or  'is  to  come,'  Rev  1**. 

The  New  Testament  also  abounds  in  Hellenistic  constructions : 
nouns  absolute  for  example.  Rev  i*-^  2^°  3^2 .  unusual  governments  ; 
adj.  with  gen.  case  and  no  prep,,  Jn  6*°,  and  the  contrary,  Mt  27^^*  ; 
aTTo  in  the  sense  of  'by'  or  'because,'  ^p  min,  Mt  11^^  18'^  Gal  i^  2  Cor 
3^8  Ac  22^^. 

Causation  is  expressed  in  Hebrew  by  a  special  verbal  form,  the 
'  Hiphil '  conjugation.  Thus,  from  the  verb  'to  be  king'  the  Hiphil 
signifies  'to  make  a  king,'  i  Sai5^^.  But  in  the  LXX  tlie  two  meanings 
(neuter  and  active)  are  often  expressed  by  the  same  word,  as  in  this 
passage,  and  Gen  2^  4"  19^^*  Num  6^5  34I''  Is  61".  Hence  the  New 
Testament  also  frequently  employs  the  neuter  verb  with  active 
meanings,  as  Mt  5*^,  dvariWd,  'rises'  =  '  causes  to  rise' ;  /3/jfxfi,  'rains'  = 


HELPS  FKOM  GRAMMAR  209 

'causes  to  rain';  fxa6T]Teijeiv,  Ho  be  disciples'  (as  275^)  or  'make 
disciples.  28^^.'  See  also  i  Cor  3^.  Sometimes  2  Cor  2^^  has  been 
regarded  as  a  similar  instance,  A.  V.  *  cuuseth  us  to  triumph.'  But  see 
R.  V.  and  compare  Col  2^^. 

133.  Grammatical  peculiarities. — Many  specialities  of 
Greek  idiom,  overlooked  in  the  Authorized  Version,  and 
successfully  reproduced  by  the  Revisers,  have  been  already 
noted.  Others,  however,  there  are  which  it  would  be 
difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to  express  distinctly  in  trans- 
lation. A  few  instances  only  can  be  given,  but  these  will 
be  sufficient  to  show  the  interest  and  importance  of  studying 
the  original. 

(a)  Tenses  (Greek). — The  force  of  the  tenses  is  to  be 
especially  noted,  as  in  the  '  imperfect '  or  continuous  tenses, 
present  and  past.  Thus  i  Jn  3^,  *  Whosoever  is  begotten  of 
God  doeth  no  sin  .  .  .  and  he  cannot  sin.'  The  original 
shows  the  meaning  to  be  '  doth  not — cannot  habitually  live 
in  sin ' ;  character  being  denoted  rather  than  single  acts. 
I  Cor  15-^  Uhe  last  enemy  is  abolished,'  rather,  'is  being 
abolished,'  the  tense  expressing  both  the  process  and 
the  certain  issue.  Instances  of  the  past  imperfect  are 
as  in  Mk  5^^,  *He  expounded  all  things  to  His  disciples,' 
that  is,  it  was  His  custom  to  do  so.  In  such  passages  as 
Mt  25^  Lu  i^^  Eph  5--  Heb  11^'  the  force  of  the  tense  is 
accurately  marked  in  R.  V.  ;  so  in  the  sentences  where  the 
imperfect  describes  a  continuous  action,  the  aorist  a  com- 
pleted one,  Mt  4^^  8^^  13^  17^  25^  Lu  7^3.  Sometimes 
again,  the  distinction,  though  existing,  is  too  slight  to  be 
successfully  shown  in  translation,  while  nevertheless  it 
exists,   I  Cor  10^  Jas  2^^. 

(ft)  Very  noteworthy  also  is  the  use  of  the  Personal  Pro- 
noun as  subject  of  the  verb,  to  express  emphasis  or  contrast. 
This  is  sometimes  shown  in  R.  V.,  as  Mt  i^i,  *it  is  He  that 
shall  save '  (none  other) ;  but  it  is  often  impracticable  to 
retain  the  special  shade  of  meaning  in  translation.     Thus, 

p 


210     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Xeyo)  vfXLv  (as  Mt  ^'^^,  &c.)  is  *  I  say  unto  you,'  but  eyoj  Xcyw 
vfj.7i'  (as  generally  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount)  '  I  say  unto 
you,'  the  emphasis  implying  His  own  authority.  Jn  5^^ 
'  Ye  '  (pronoun  not  expressed) '  search  the  Scriptures,  because 
ye  yourselves  think,'  &c.,  impljdng  a  strong  reproach  of  in- 
consistency ;  I  Cor  1^3  '  We  preach  a  crucified  Christ,'  in 
strong  contrast  with  Jewish  and  Greek  teachers  ;  Mt  28*^ 
'  Do  not  you  fear,'  i.  e.  as  the  soldier-guards  have  feared. 
See  also  Jn  9^*  lo^^  136  Ac  4^0  22^1  i  Cor  15^0  i  Jn  4^0. 
This  form  of  emphasis  is  often  a  useful  help  to  interpre- 
tation ^. 

(c)  The  Dej&nite  Article. — The  peculiarities  of  the  Greek 
tongue  are  nowhere  more  instructive  or  beautiful  than  in 
the  use  of  the  Article.  Many  illustrations  of  this  have 
already  been  given  in  the  chapter  on  Bible  translation, 
§  11 5,  where  it  is  seen  that  the  Revised  English  version  has 
in  almost  numberless  instances  reproduced  this  usage,  with 
great  gain  in  perspicuity  and  precision.  Some  other  points 
remain,  which  can  be  fully  appreciated  only  by  reference 
to  the  original. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Greek  has  only  one 
Article,  the  Definite.  The  Indefinite  Article  is  expressed 
in  the  New  Testament  by  ns,  *  a  certain '  ;  occasionally  by 
eh,  '  one ' ;  more  generally  by  the  omission  of  the  article 
altogether.  In  Mt  13'^  'a  sower '  (A.  V.)  is  in  the  Greek 
6  o-TTetptov,  literally,  *  the  (man)  sowing ' :  the  Article  marks 
out  the  definite  sower  in  the  concrete  picture  presented. 
As  the  picture  is  typical  the  sense  is  not  misrepresented  by 
*a  sower,'  i.  e.  any  sower  ;  but  there  is  gain  of  vividness  in 
following  the  Greek  idiom  Hhe  sower'  (R. V.). 

Special  uses  of  the  Article  beyond  those  indicated   in 

§  1 1 5,  2,  and  embodied  in  the  R.  V.,  are  such  as  the  following. 

I.  With  proper  names,  the  names  of  persons  well  known 

•  Sue  fui'ther,  Handbook  to  the  Grammar  of  the  Ok.  Test.,  §  169. 


HELPS  FROM  GRAMMAR  211 

generally  take  the  Article  ;  but  because  they  are  well  known, 
their  names  also  dispense  with  it.  Hence  'I>^o-ovs  and  6 
'Irjaovs  :  see  Mt  i^-^^  2^^-'^^.  Names  generally,  when  men- 
tioned the  first  time,  omit  the  Article,  and  take  it  when 
the  mention  is  repeated.  But  to  this  rule  there  are 
many  exceptions.  No  absolute  rule  can  therefore  be  given 
on  the  matter.  Xpio-rds  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts  almost 
invariably  has  the  Article,  being  strictly  an  appellative, 
*the  Christ,"  the  Messiah,' Mt  2*  ii-  22^2  j^  fi  la^*  Ac  173. 
But  in  the  Epistles  the  appellation  has  already  become  a 
recognized  proper  name.  Thus,  in  the  writings  of  Paul, 
'the  Christ'  about  90  times;  'Christ'  alone,  120.  The 
name  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  n»/6v/xa  aytov,  requires  the  Article 
when  He  is  spoken  of  personally,  but  when  the  reference 
is  to  His  manifestation  and  gift  to  man,  the  Article  is 
almost  invariably  omitted.  Thus  the  literal  rendering 
of  Jn  f'^  is  '  (the)  Spirit  as  yet  was  not,'  Article  omitted  ; 
the  sense  being  'the  Spirit  was  not  yet  given.'  So  Ac  19- 
'We  did  not  so  much  as  hear  whether  there  be  (a)  Holy 
Spirit,'  i.  e.  'whether  the  Holy  Spirit  was  given.'  Compare 
Jn  16^3  with  Jn  20^^. 

The  name  for  God  may  be  0co5  or  6  0co9.  The  general 
difference  is  that  without  the  Article  the  name  stands  for 
the  general  conception  of  the  Divine  character,  but  with  the 
Article,  God  as  revealed,  '  our  God.'  See  i  Cor  s!''"^^.  Kvpio^, 
Lord,  when  used  of  Christ,  naturally  takes  the  Article,  but 
in  proportion  as  it  tends  to  become  a  proper  name  (and 
after  prepositions)  may  omit  it.  As  the  LXX  equivalent 
of  Jehovah,  Lord,  it  is  regularly  without  the  Articled 

2.  With  abstract  nouns  and  words  made  abstract,  when 
the  abstract  word  simply  denotes  a  quality,  the  Article  is 
omitted.  Where  the  abstraction  is  personified,  or  made 
a  separate  object  of  thought,  the  Article  is  employed.     Thus 

*  See,  for  further  examples,  Handbook  to  the  Grammar  of  the  Gk.  Test., 
§  217. 

P   2 


212      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

I  Cor  13^  'if  I  have  not  love,'  a  feature  of  character  (Article 
omitted) ;  but  verse  4  '  Love  suffereth  long,'  «&c.  (Article  ex- 
pressed), and  so  throughout  the  chapter.  So  Ro  5^^  'sin  was 
in  the  world,'  as  an  attribute  of  character  (Article  omitted), 
illustrating  the  statement  of  verse  12,  that  Sin  had  entered 
into  the  world  (Article  expressed),  a  personified  abstraction. 
See  also  i  Cor  15-'^  death  ;  Jn  7^2.23  circumcision  ;  i  Cor 
11"  nature;  Mt  ii^^  Phil  3^.  Numbers  in  the  abstract  (ro 
€v,  unity,  the  state  of  being  one),  and  the  infinitive  used  as 
a  noun,  to  TriareveLv  =  believing,  belong  to  this  class.  The 
use  of  the  Article  with  i/o/xo?,  law,  is  special.  Without  the 
Article  the  stress  is  on  the  fact  of  a  Divine  law,  rather 
than  on  the  code  which  embodies  it :  Ro  2^--^^-^^  220-28.31  j^^o 
Gal  2^^-^^  2^*^-^^.  In  most  of  these  passages,  so  important  in 
their  bearing  upon  the  Apostle's  argument,  the  R.  V.  has 
'  the  law  '  in  the  text,  and  '  law '  in  the  margin.  Where 
i/6fj.o^  has  the  Article  the  reference  is  to  the  Mosaic  Law, 
except  when  the  meaning  is  limited  by  accompanying  words. 

3.  Usage  with  special  words  and  phrases,  {a)  Nouns 
representing  objects  in  nature  which  exist  singly,  and  entire 
natural  substances,  generally  take  the  Article.  Mt  5^^ 
heaven  and  earth  ;  24^^  the  sun  ;  Mk  13-^  summer  (=  tlie 
hot  season) ;  light ;  salt ;  water.  Generally,  ive  omit  the 
Article  in  these  cases,  whenever,  at  least,  the  use  of  it  would 
indicate  some  particular  thing,  rather  than  the  universal 
substance. 

{b)  Words  indicating  entire  species,  either  of  animals  or 
objects,  generally  take  the  Article.  Mt  6^  men,  as  men  ;  7^ 
dogs,  as  dogs ;  Mt  10^^  serpents  ;  Lu  21^^  any  fiig-tree  ;  Jas  3'* 
(the)  ships.  The  omission  of  the  Article  would  indicate  that 
the  statement  made  is  true  only  of  some,  and  not  of  the 
class  as  a  whole.  The  English  generally  omits  the  Article 
in  these  cases. 

(c)  Whole  classes  of  agents  generally  take  it.  Mt  lo^^  the 
labourer  ;  Mt  18''  the  publican  ;  Mt  25  -  the  shepherd. 


HELPS  FROM  GRAMMAR  213 

(d)  The  phrase  eis  tov  atwva  or  tov<;  ali^vas,  '  for  the  age '  or 
*  ages '  =  eternity,  the  conception  being  in  the  one  case  of 
a  mighty  whole,  in  the  other  of  successive  epochs.  The 
point  of  view  is  different  but  the  meaning  is  the  same — 
intensified  in  the  phrase  cts  tovs  alwvas  rdiv  atwvojv,  '  for  ever 
and  ever,'  Heb  13-^,  &c. 

(e)  With  Adjectives  signifying  all,  every,  many,  other, 
the  use  of  the  Article  should  be  specially  noted.  '  All  the 
house '  is  ttS?  6  oTko?,  '  every  house  '  ttSs  oikos.  See  Eph  3^'^ 
'  every  family ' ;  2  Tim  3^^  '  every  Scripture.'  '  Many '  and 
'  the  many  '  must  also  be  distinguished  ;  the  latter  denoting 
sometimes  the  majority,  sometimes  the  whole  mass  ; 
Ro  5^5.19. 

The  exceptions  to  these  rules  are  numerous,  but  easily 
classified.  The  grammatical  term  anarthrous  means  '  with- 
out the  Article.'  Anarthrous  words  in  Greek  are  occasionally 
such  as  the  following  : — 

(a)  Generally,  where  the  intrinsic  meaning  is  so  clear  that  per- 
spicuity is  not  affected  by  the  omission. 

Certain  principal  objects  of  nature,  Mt  13^  i  Cor  15"  2  Pet  3^°  Jas  i^. 
Superlatives  and  ordinal  numbers.  Compare  Mk  15^^  Mt  14^^  22^*.  So 
to  a  certain  extent  in  English. 

(6)  Nouns  not  in  themselves  definite,  when  made  definite  by  the 
context,  so  that  no  ambiguity  can  arise. 

(c)  Nouns  used  generically,  i.e.  with  prepositions,  Mt  17^  Mk  lo^'' 
Jn  i^  16^  Ro  8*  I  Cor  1419-28.35^  This  idiom  is  very  frequent  and 
cannot  always  be  represented  in  English,  although  analogous  with 
our  phrases  at  home,  at  church,  &c. 

A  very  striking  use  of  the  omission  of  the  Article  is  to 
call  attention  to  the  idea  in  the  anarthrous  word. 

Heb  1^-2  of  old,  God  spake  by  the  prophets,  now  by  One  Who  is  Son. 
h  via; :  so  ^^^.  i  Cor  14*  himself  (alone)— a  church.  Jn  3*'  that  which 
is  born  of  the  flesh  (article)  is  flesh  (no  article).  Ro  11^  grace  (article) 
is  no  longer  grace  (no  article),  7^'. 

The  Article  in  enumerations. —  Here  the  rule  is  that 
when  two  or  more  words  are  connected,  and  are  descriptive 


214     THE  INTEEPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

of  a  single   object,   or  of   objects   regarded    as   single,   the 
Article  is  prefixed  (as  in  English)  to  the  first  only,  as: — 

Mt  12^2  (^rec.)  'the  blind  and  dumb.'  Lu  ii^s  they  that  hear  and 
keep.     Jn  6*0  Ro  2^  Eph  2^0  520  j  j^  2*. 

Similarly  the  Article  is  not  repeated,  when  a  single  class  of  things 
or  qualities  is  described  by  an  enumeration  of  its  parts.  Eph  3'^ 
'what  is  the  breadth  and  length,'  &c.,  describing  the  extent.  Mt  20^^ 
to  mock  (article),  and  scourge,  and  crucify— the  sufferings.  So  Ac  8^ 
I  Cor  1 1^2. 

Nor  when  the  words  used  express  one  idea,  though  a  complex  one. 
Phil  2^'^  'upon  the  sacrifice  and  service  of  your  faith.'  2  Cor  13^^  'the 
God  of  love  and  peace '  (not  and  0/ peace),  Col  2^2  Tit  2^^  2  Pet  1^0. 

Nor  when  two  or  more  persons  make  one  agency,  or  a  single  act  is 
directed  against  two  or  more  objects.  Mt  17^  Peter  (article)  and 
John  and  James  ;  Lu  19^^  Ac  3^^  17^^. 

On  the  contrary,  the  Article  is  repeated  when  distinctness  is  given 
to  each  of  the  things  named.  Mt  23^3.  Tit  3*  the  goodness  and  the 
philanthropy  of  God  our  Saviour  appeared. 

The  Article  is  also  repeated  when  the  words  employed  are  not 
descriptive  of  a  single  object,  or  of  what  is  regarded  as  such.  Lu  12^^ 
(three  different  classes  of  tribunal),  comp.  Mk  15^.  Heb  ii'-^^  Isaac 
blessed  tou  'laKwfi  and  rbv  'Uaav  (two  separate  blessings).  2  Th  i* 
to  those  who  know  not . . .  and  to  those  who  do  not  obey  (two  different 
characters,  the  ignorant  and  the  disobedient). 

Tliese  rules  are  of  special  importance  for  the  interpretation  of  the 
following  passages  : — 

Tit  2^^  the  '  appearing  of  the  glory  of  our  great  God  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ.' 

2  Th  1^2  '  according  to  the  grace  of  our  God  and  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.' 

Eph  5'^  'the  kingdom  of  Christ  and  God.' 

I  Tim  s'^^  '  I  charge  thee  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  Christ  Jesus,  and 
the  elect  angels.* 

Ju  4  'denying  our  only  Master  and  Lord,  Jesus  Christ.' 

These  renderings  are  all  from  the  R.V.  although  doubt  is  thrown 
upon  some  of  them  in  the  margin.  Plainly,  they  come  under  the  rule 
of  enumeration  with  the  omitted  Article. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article  was  first  formally 
examined  in  modern  times  by  Granville  Sharp  ;  afterwards, 
at  greater  length,  and  with  more  accuracy,  by  Dr.  Middleton, 
some  of  whose  conclusions,  however,  have  been  overthrown 


FIGUKATIVE   LANGUAGE  215 

by  more  recent  investigation.  The  above  rules  are  in 
harmony  with  such  of  Middleton's  as  have  stood  the  test, 
and  may  be  compared  with  the  full  discussion  of  the  subject 
in  Winer's  Grammar  of  the  New  Testame7it ;  T.  S.  Green's 
Grammar  of  the  Neiv  Testament  Dialect,  and  similar  works. 


On  the  Interpretation  of  the  Figurative 
Language  of  Scripture 

134.  Thus  far,  the  literal  meaning  of  Scripture  has 
chiefly  been  considered.  But  its  figurative  language  is 
so  varied  and  important  as  to  demand  separate  treatment. 
It  is  from  misunderstanding  this  that  many  errors  in  inter- 
pretation have  arisen,  while  it  presents  at  every  point  almost 
boundless  suggestiveness  and  instruction. 

The  Spiritual  through  the  Natural.  —  Most  of  the 
language  which  men  employ  in  reference  to  spiritual  things 
is  founded  on  analogy  or  resemllance.  This  is  true  of  all 
language  which  speaks  of  the  mind  or  of  its  acts ;  and 
especially  of  the  language  of  early  times.  In  the  infancy 
of  races,  language  is  nearly  all  figure,  and  describes  even 
common  facts  by  the  aid  of  natural  symbols.  The  very 
word  'spirit'  means  in  its  derivation,  'breath.'  The  mind 
is  said  to  see  truth,  because  the  act  of  the  mind  by  which 
it  is  perceived  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  act  of  the  eye. 
To  '  reflect '  is  literally  to  bend  or  throw  back,  and  so  to 
look  round  our  thoughts.  '  Attention  '  is  a  mental  exercise, 
analogous  to  the  stretching  of  the  muscles  of  eye  and  head 
in  the  examination  of  some  outward  object.  It  is  a 
necessity  of  the  human  intellect  that  facts  connected  with 
the  mind,  or  with  spiritual  truth,  must  be  clothed  in 
language  borrowed  from  material  things.  To  words 
exclusively  spiritual  or  abstract  we  can  attach  no  definite 
conception. 


216      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

And  God  is  pleased  to  condescend  to  our  necessity.  He 
leads  us  to  new  knowledge  by  means  of  what  is  already 
known.  He  reveals  Himself  in  terms  previously  familiar. 
If  He  speak  of  Himself,  it  must  be  in  words  originally 
suggested  by  the  operations  of  the  senses.  If  He  speak  of 
heaven,  it  is  in  figures  taken  from  the  scenes  of  the  earth. 

We  say  that  God  'condescends  to  our  necessity.'  It 
might  be  as  truly  said  that  God,  having  stamped  His  own 
image  upon  natural  things,  employs  them  to  describe  and 
illustrate  Himself.  'The  visible  world  is  the  dial-plate  of 
the  invisible.'  Spiritual  thoughts  were  first  embodied  in 
natural  symbols  ;  and  those  symbols  are  now  employed  to 
give  ideas  of  spiritual  truth.  To  the  devout  man,  especially, 
the  seen  and  the  unseen  world  are  so  closely  blended  that 
he  finds  it  difficult  to  separate  them.  The  world  of  nature 
is  to  him  an  emblem,  and  a  witness  of  the  world  of  spirits. 
They  proceed  from  the  same  hand.     In  his  view — 

Earth 
Is  but  the  shadow  of  heaven,  and  things  therein 
Are  each  to  other  like. 

Nor  is  it  only  from  the  nature  of  spiritual  truth,  or  from 
the  marvellous  connexion  which  subsists  between  material 
and  spiritual  things,  that  the  inspired  writers  employ  the 
language  of  figure.  Such  language  is  often  most  appropriate, 
because  of  its  impressiveness  and  beauty.  It  conveys  ideas 
to  the  mind  with  more  vividness  than  prosaic  description. 
It  charms  the  imagination  while  instructing  the  judgement, 
and  it  impresses  the  memory  by  interesting  the  heart. 

1.  Sometimes,  for  example,  common  things  are  associated 
in  Scripture  with  what  is  spiritual. 

God  dwells  in  'light.'  He  sets  up  His  'kingdom.'  Heaven  is  His 
'throne.'  The  Christian's  faith  is  described  in  the  same  order  of 
terms.  He  'handles'  the  word  of  life.  He  'sees'  Him  Who  is 
invisible.     He  'comes'  to  Christ,  and  he  'leans'  upon  Him. 

2.  Sometimes   the    Bible,    borrowing   comparisons   from 


FIGUEATIVE   LANGUAGE  217 

ourselves,  speaks  of  God  as  having  human  affections,  and 
performing  human  actions. 

Hands,  eyes,  and  feet  are  ascribed  to  God  ;  and  the  meanirxg  is 
that  He  has  power  to  execute  all  such  acts  as  those  organs  in  us  are 
instrumental  in  effecting.  He  is  called  '  the  Father ' ;  because  He  is 
the  Creator  and  Supporter  of  man,  and  especially,  because  He  is  the 
Author  of  spiritual  life.  He  'lifts  up  the  light  of  His  countenance' 
when  He  manifests  His  presence  and  love  (Ps  4*''',  and  He  '  hides  His 
face  '  (Ps  10^)  when  these  blessings  are  withheld. 

In  Gen  6^  it  is  said,  '  It  repented  the  Lord  that  He  had  made  man,' 
i.  e.  lie  had  no  longer  pleasure  in  His  work,  so  unpleasing  and 
unprofitable  had  man  become  by  transgression. 

In  Gen  iS^'  He  says,  '  I  will  go . . .  and  see,'  to  imply  that  He  would 
examine  the  doings  of  men  before  condemning  them. 

In  Jer  7'^  He  says,  *I  spake  unto  you,  rising  up  early  and  speaking,' 
to  imply  the  interest  He  felt  in  their  welfare,  and  the  care  He  had 
taken  to  instruct  them. 

In  Dn  4^^  it  is  said,  'He  doeth  according  to  His  will,'  i.e.  not 
capriciously,  but  independently  of  men,  and  so  as  justly  to  require  our 
entire  submission. 

It  may  be  observed  generally,  that  though  there  is  identity  both 
of  nature  and  of  manifestation  between  the  love  and  wisdom,  the 
knowledge  and  holiness,  which  we  ascribe  to  God,  and  those  same 
attributes  in  men,  there  is  yet  a  vast  difference  between  them.  In 
God  is  the  infinite  and  perfect  reality  of  which  the  noblest  human 
attainment  is  but  a  pale  copy. 

Some  remarks  in  reference  to  the  employment  of  this 
analogical  language  are  important. 

I.  Figurative  language  essentially  true. — The  figures 
which  are  used  in  speaking  of  spiritual  truth  are  not  used, 
as  in  common  description,  to  give  an  unnatural  greatness 
or  dignity  to  the  objects  they  describe.  The  things  repre- 
sented have  much  more  of  reality  and  perfection  in  them 
than  the  things  by  which  we  represent  them.  It  is  so  in 
all  such  language.  The  mind  weighs  arguments,  and  that 
action  is  more  noble  than  the  mechanical  habit  from  which 
the  expression  is  taken.  God  sees  much  more  perfectly 
than  the  eye :  and  the  light  in  which  He  dwells  is  very 
feebly  represented  by  the  material  element  to  which  that 


218      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

name  is  applied.  When  it  is  said  that  the  Church  is  the 
bride  of  Christ,  the  earthly  relation  is  but  a  lower  form  of 
the  heavenly,  in  the  same  way  as  earthly  kingdoms  and 
earthly  majesty  are  but  figures  and  faint  shadows  of  the 
true.  The  figurative  language,  then,  which  we  are  com- 
pelled to  employ  when  speaking  of  spiritual  things  is  much 
within  the  truth,  and  never  beyond  it. 

2.  Manifold   meanings  in  figurative  language. — It  is 

a  necessary  result  of  the  employment  of  such  language,  that 
figurative  expressions  are  sometimes  used  in  different  senses. 

If  God  is  said,  for  example,  to  repent,  and  to  turn  from  the  evil 
wliich  He  had  threatened  against  sinners,  and  in  other  places  it  is 
said  that  God  is  'not  a  man,  that  He  should  lie  ;  neither  the  son  of 
man,  that  He  should  repent  *  (Num  23^^)— in  the  first  it  is  meant  that 
God  changes  His  dealings  with  sinners  when  they  change  :  and  in 
the  second,  that  there  is  no  fickleness  or  untruthfulness  in  Him. 

In  Ps  18^^  God  is  said  to  make  *  darkness  His  secret  place,'  and  in 
I  Tim  6^^  He  is  said  to  dwell  in  light.  In  the  first  case,  darkness 
means  inscrutableness,  and  in  the  second,  light  means  purity,  in- 
telligence, or  honour.  In  Ex  33^^  it  is  said  that  God  'spake  unto 
Moses  face  to  face,'  and  in  verse  20  He  declares  that  no  man  can  see 
His  face  and  live.  In  the  first  passage,  the  expression  means  to  have 
intercourse  without  the  intervention  of  another;  in  the  second,  to 
have  a  full  and  familiar  sight  of  the  Divine  glory. 

3.  Figures  drawn  from  historical  facts. — It  may  be 
remarked  further,  that  the  Bible  often  speaks  of  spiritual 
truth  in  terms  suggested  by  the  facts  of  Jewish  history,  or 
by  rites  of  Divine  institution. 

The  idea  of  holiness,  e.  g.,  for  which,  in  its  Christian  sense,  the 
heathen  have  no  word,  was  suggested  to  the  Jews  by  means  of  a  special 
institution.  All  animals  common  to  Palestine  were  divided  into 
clean  and  unclean.  From  the  clean,  one  was  chosen  without  spot  or 
blemish  :  a  peculiar  tribe,  selected  from  the  other  tribes,  was  appointed 
to  present  it,  the  offering  being  first  washed  with  clean  water,  and 
the  priest  himself  undergoing  a  similar  ablution.  Neither  the  priest, 
nor  any  of  the  people,  nor  the  victim,  however,  was  deemed  sufficiently 
holy  to  come  into  the  Divine  presence,  but  the  offering  was  made 
without  the  holy  place.     The  idea  of  the  infinite  purity  of  God  was 


FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE  219 

tlius  suggested  to  the  mind  of  observers ;  aud  holiness,  in  things  created, 
came  to  mean  under  the  Jjavr,  '  separation  for  sacred  uses,'  and  under 
the  gospel,  freedom  from  sin,  and  the  possession,  by  spiritual  intelli- 
gence, of  a  'Divine  nature.' 

The  demerit  of  sin,  and  the  doctrine  of  an  atonement,  were  taught 
in  words  taken  from  equally  significant  rites.  The  victim  was  slain, 
and  its  blood  (which  was  the  life)  was  sprinkled  upon  the  mercy  seat, 
and  towards  the  holy  place  ;  and  while  the  people  prayed  in  the 
outer  court,  they  beheld  the  dark  volume  of  smoke  ascending  from 
the  sacrifice,  which  was  burning  on  their  behalf.  How  plainly  did 
this  suggest  that  God's  justice  was  a  consuming  fire,  and  that  the 
souls  of  the  people  escaped  only  through  vicarious  atonement !  The 
ideas  thus  suggested  were  intended  to  continue  through  all  time,  and 
we  find  them  often  expressed  in  terms  borrowed  from  these  ancient 
institutions. 

Under  the  Law,  again,  the  priests  were  clothed  in  white  linen,  and 
dressed  in  splendid  apparel.  Expressions  taken  from  these  customs 
are  hence  employed  to  indicate  the  purity  and  dignity  of  the 
redeemed. 

The  whole  of  Jewish  history  is  in  fact  typical.  See 
§  140. 

4.  Old  words  with  new  meanings. — It  may  be  remarked, 
again,  that  many  of  the  expressions  of  the  New  Testament 
are  employed  in  senses  entirely  unknown  to  the  common 
writers  of  the  Greek  tongue. 

The  New  Testament  term  for  humility  meant,  in  classic  Greek,  mean- 
spiritedness,  and  though  Plato  has  used  the  word  once  or  twice  to 
indicate  a  humble  spirit,  this  is  confessedly  an  unusual  meaning, 
De  Leg.  iv.  The  Greeks  had  no  virtue  under  that  name,  and  even 
Cicero  remarks  that  meekness  is  merely  a  blemish,  De  Off.  iii,  32. 
Orace  in  the  sense  of  Divine  unmerited  favour:  Justification  as  an 
evangelical  blessing  :  God  as  a  holy,  self-existent,  merciful  Being :  Faith 
as  an  instrument  of  holiness,  and  essential  to  pardon  :  all  these  terms 
are  used  in  Greek,  and  in  all  versions  of  the  New  Testament,  with 
peculiar  meaning.  To  us  all,  they  are  old  words  in  a  new  sense.  All 
language  exhibits  similar  changes:  'miscreant' meant  originally,  in 
the  language  from  which  it  is  taken,  an  unbeliever,  then  a  vicious 
person  ;  'sycophant '  meant  fig-shower  ;  and  '  sincerity,'  without  wax, 
alluding  perhaps  to  the  practice  of  the  potter  in  concealing  the 
flaws  of  his  vessels.  In  Scripture  such  changes  are  unusually 
numerous.      Happily,    however,    there  need  be   no   misapprehension 


220      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

concerning  the  terms  which  are  thus  employed,  as  Scripture  itself  has 
defined  the  ideas  they  convey,  sometimes  by  a  reference  to  the  old 
dispensation,  sometimes  by  a  formal  or  indirect  explanation  of  the 
terms  themselves. 

135.  Figures  as  classified  by  Grammarians.— It  may 
aid  the  reader  in  interpreting  Scripture,  to  know  how  the 
various  figures  which  our  condition  compels  us  to  use  in 
speaking  of  spiritual  truth  are  classed  and  named  by 
grammarians.  A  knowledge  of  the  names  is  not  essential, 
but  a  knowledge  of  the  differences  on  which  the  classifica- 
tion is  founded  may  often  prove  so. 

When  a  word  which  usage  has  appropriated  to  one  thing  is  trans- 
ferred to  another,  there  is  a  Trope  or  figure  :  and  the  expression  is 
tropical  or  figurative.  If,  however,  the  first  signification  of  a  word 
is  no  longer  used,  the  tropical  sense  bL  comes  the  proper  one.  The 
Hebrew  word  '  to  bless,'  for  example,  meant  originally  '  to  bend  the 
knee '  (see  §  132,  3,  c),  but  it  is  not  used  in  Scripture  in  that  sense,  and 
therefore  *to  bless  '  is  said  to  be  the  proper,  and  not  a  figurative  meaning. 

Wheu  there  is  some  resemblance  between  the  two  things  to  which 
a  word  is  applied,  the  figure  is  called  a  Metaphor,  as  '  Judah  is  a  lion's 
whelp,'  Gen  49^  ;  'I  am  the  true  vine,'  Jn  15^, 

When  there  is  no  resemblance,  but  only  a  connexion  between  them, 
the  figure  is  called  Synecdoche  :  as  when  a  cup  is  used  for  what  it 
contains,  i  Cor  ii^'^  :  or  as  when  a  part  is  put  for  the  whole,  *my 
flesh  '  for  '  my  body  *  in  Ps  i6^ 

When  the  connexion  is  not  visible,  or  is  formed  in  the  mind,  as 
when  the  cause  is  put  for  the  effects,  or  the  sign  for  the  thing  signified, 
the  figure  is  called  Metonymy,  as  in  Jn  13^,  '  If  I  wash  thee  not,  thou 
hast  no  part  with  Me,'  where  by  wash  is  meant  purify  or  cleanse. 
Sometimes  the  figure  is  explained  in  Scripture  itself,  as  in  i  Pet  3^1, 
where  baptism  is  explained  as  there  meaning  '  the  appeal '  (see  R.  V. 
marg.)  '  of  a  good  conscience  toward  God.' 

136.  All  the  foregoing  figures  refer  to  sf>2/7Ze  words.  The 
following  refer  to  several  words,  as  they  make  a  continued 
representation  or  narrative. 

Allegory. — Any  statement  of  supposed  facts  which  admits 
of  a  literal  interpretation,  and  yet  requires  or  justly  admits 
a  moral  or  figurative  one,  is  called  an  Allegory.  It  is  to 
narrative  or  story  what   trope  is  to  single  words,   adding 


FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE  221 

to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  terms  employed  a  moral  or 
spiritual  one.  Sometimes  the  allegory  is  imre,  that  is, 
contains  no  direct  reference  to  the  application  of  it,  as  in 
the  history  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  Sometimes  it  is  mixed,  as 
in  Ps  80,  where  it  is  plainly  intimated  (verse  17)  that  the 
Jews  are  the  people  whom  the  vine  is  intended  to  represent. 

Parable. — When  the  allegory  is  written  in  the  style  of 
History,  and  is  confined  to  occurrences  that  may  have  taken 
place,  it  is  called  a  Parable. 

Type. — As  an  Allegory  is  a  double  representation  in 
tvords,  a  Type  is  a  double  representation  in  action  ;  the 
literal  being  intended  and  planned  to  represent  the  spiritual. 

Symbol. — Other  outward  representations  of  spiritual 
truths  are  Symbols.  Generally  speaking,  the  Type  is  pre- 
figurative,  the  Symbol  illustrative  of  what  already  exists. 
Baptism  is  thus  an  outward  and  visible  sign  of  an  inward 
and  spiritual  grace ;  and  the  bread  we  eat  in  the  holy 
Supper,  and  the  wine  we  drink,  are  symbolically  the  body 
and  the  blood  of  Christ.  See  also  i  Ki  ii^o  2  Ki  i3i*-i9 
Jer  27^"^  13^""^  18-"^^.  Some  things,  as  the  Passover,  were 
both  symbols  and  types.  They  commemorated  one  event, 
and  they  prefigured  another.  Language  drawn  from  types 
and  symbols  is  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  ordinary  figures 
of  speech. 

137.  Pigfurative  language  explained  by  the  context. 

— In  order  to  determine  the  sense  of  the  figurative  language 
of  Scripture,  the  rule  of  attention  to  the  context,  already 
given,  must  be  carefully  observed.  That  a  given  expression 
is  figurative  is  sometimes  stated  or  implied,  the  meaning 
being  then  appended.  But  sometimes  it  is  necessary  to 
look  to  the  general  argument  or  allusions  of  the  passage. 

•  To  bear  one's  sin '  is  a  figurative  expression,  meaning  to  suffer  the 
punishment  of  it.  Hence  the  synonymous  expressions  to  be  cut  off, 
and  to  die,  are  connected  with  it,  Ex  28'*3  Lev  19^. 


222      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

In  Ho  4'-,  and  elsewhere  (especially  in  Ezekiel),  a  spirit  of 
lasciviousness  is  said  to  have  drawn  the  Israelites  astray ;  but  then  it 
is  immediately  added,  '  They  sacrifice  upon  the  tops  of  the  mountains, 
and  burn  incense  upon  the  hills,'  to  show  that  it  is  spiritual  unfaith- 
fulness of  which  the  prophet  is  speaking. 

Wlien  Christ  said,  '  He  that  eateth  Me,  even  he  shall  live  by  Me,' 
Jn  6^'^,  the  Jews  misunderstood  His  meaning,  but  He  had  Himself 
already  explained  it  :  for  in  the  same  discourse  He  had  repeated  the 
truth  in  literal  terms,  *  He  that  believeth  on  Me  hath  everlasting  life.' 
This  text  is  understood  literally  by  most  Roman  Catholic  writers, 
though  our  Lord  expressly  gave  it  this  figurative  interpretation  ;  and 
the  ordinance  of  the  Supper,  to  which  they  suppose  it  to  refer,  had 
not  then  been  instituted,  and  was  entirely  unknown  to  His  hearers. 

In  Mt  26-8  Christ  calls  the  wine  His  blood  :  and  again,  in  verse  29 
He  calls  the  same  cup  the  fruit  of  the  vine,  implying  that  His  first 
expression  was  figurative.  The  expression  in  i  Cor  3^^,  '  He  himself 
shall  be  saved,  yet  so  as  througli  fire,'  is  the  passage  in  Scripture 
generally  quoted  in  favour  of  the  doctrine  of  purgatory.  Attention  to 
the  context  will  show  that  the  whole  is  figurative.  The  wood,  hay, 
stubble,  which  man  may  build  on  the  foundation,  are  expressions 
confessedly  figurative.  The  foundation  itself  is  figurative,  and  means 
Christ ;  and  the  expression  '  so  as  through  fire  '  must  be  understood 
in  a  sense  consistent  with  the  general  argument  of  the  passage. 

Similar  figurative  expressions  may  be  seen  in  i  Cor  5^  Mt  iG^-^'-^. 
See  also  Is  51^  Eph  5'^^,  where  the  union  of  Christ  and  His  Church 
(and  not  marriage)  is  spoken  of  as  the  mystery. 

138.  Laws  of  Symbolic  Language. — Besides  such  figura- 
tive expressions  as  are  noted  above,  there  are  in  Scripture 
many  symbols  taken  from  the  natural  world,  and  appro- 
priated to  the  expression  of  spiritual  truth.  Some  of  these 
need  no  special  elucidation ;  they  explain  themselves.  Thus 
it  is  obvious  and  appropriate  to  employ  Light  to  symbolize 
truth,  knowledge,  happiness  ;  and  Darkness  for  the  reverse. 
Hunger  and  thirst,  again,  expressly  denot-e  the  unsatisfied 
desires  of  the  soul.  Innumerable  symbols  are  furnished  by 
the  animal  kingdom.  The  Lion  stands  for  kingliness, 
strength,  ferocity ;  the  Wolf  for  selfish  greed  ;  the  Lamb 
for  simplicity  and  meekness  ;  the  Dove  for  innocence  and 
purity ;  the  Fox  for  craftiness,  and  so  with  the  rest. 

Certain  symbols,  however,  spring  from  special  association 


FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE:   ALLEGORY       223 

and  circumstance.  Some  are  Oriental,  and  point  to  the 
manners  and  customs  of  different  peoples  ;  others  are  derived 
from  history,  some  are  the  product  of  imagination  ;  and 
there  are  symbols  which,  according  to  different  points  of 
view,  have  very  various  and  even  opposite  applications. 
Thus  the  harvest  may  denote  the  reaping  of  what  is  ripe 
for  judgement,  or  the  ingathering  of  what  refreshes  and 
strengthens.  Fire,  again,  may  be  regarded  as  destructive  or 
as  purifying.  The  leaven  may  be  a  diffusive  influence  for 
blessing  or  for  corruption.  It  is  needful,  in  these  and  many 
other  instances,  to  pay  regard  to  the  purpose  and  context  of 
the  passage.  This  needs  much  discrimination,  and  there  is 
no  more  fertile  source  of  error  than  that  which  arises  from 
misapplied  symbols  ^. 

139.  Allegory. — A  Symbol  wrought  out  into  details, 
especially  where  it  partakes  of  a  narrative  character,  passes 
into  Allegory.  A  simple  instance  is  in  Gen  49^^.  The 
symbol  of  Judah  is  a  '  lion "s  whelp,'  and  it  is  thus  allego- 
rized : — 

From  the  prey,  my  son,  thou  art  gone  up  : 
He  stooped  down,  he  couched  as  a  lion, 
And  as  a  lioness  ;   who  shall  rouse  him  up  ? 

More  extended  allegories  are  those  of  the  vineyard  Is  5^"'',  of  the  vine 
out  of  Egypt  Ps  So^'i*^,  of  the  two  eagles  and  the  vine  Eze  17^"^^  of  the 
lioness  and  her  whelps  Eze  19^"^,  and  several  other  prophetic  pictures  in 
the  same  book;  and,  in  a  different  form,  the  very  striking  series  of 
figures  respecting  husbandry  in  Is  28^^29^  ggg  also  the  description  of 
old  age  in  Eccl  i2'^-«,  and  in  the  New  Testament  the  account  of  the 
bread  from  heaven  Jn  6'^~^^,  also  of  the  builders  and  the  building,  i  Cor 
gio-is      fj'i^g  Book  of  Eevelation,  again,  is  a  series  of  allegories. 

The  entire  Book  of  Canticles  ia  regarded  by  the  earlier  expositors 

•  It  may  be  useful  here  to  note  that  in  theological  language  the  word 
Symbol  has  also  another  meaning.  Probably  from  the  general  idea  of 
correspondence  or  agreement  {avu^aXXnv,  to  throw  or  bring  together) 
it  comes  to  denote  the  Creed ;  and  '  Symbology '  or  *  Symbolics  '  is  the 
Science  of  Creeds.  A  want  of  regard  to  this  distinction  has  occasion- 
ally led  to  some  confusion. 


224     THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

generally,  and  by  many  of  the  moderns,  ng  an  extended  allegory, 
shadowing  forth  the  spiritual  affection  between  Christ  and  His  Church, 
Such  expositors  explain  the  book  by  reference  to  other  places,  whero 
the  relation  between  God  and  His  Church  is  similarly  described, 
Ps  45.  See  Eze  16  and  23  throughout,  also  Ho  2,  3,  where,  however, 
we  probably  have  a  real  occurrence  described  with  spiritual  appli- 
cations. 

In  Gal  42'-23  there  is  a  sustained  allegoj-ical  application  of  leading 
facts  in  the  history  of  Abraham  and  of  Israel. 

Interpretation  of  Allegories. — The  great  rule  of  interpre- 
tation  is  to  ascertain  the  scope  of  an  allegory  either  by- 
reference  to  the  context,  or  to  parallel  passages  ;  and  to 
seize  the  main  truth  which  it  is  intended  to  set  forth, 
interpreting  all  accessories  in  harmony  with  the  central 
truth.     See  further  on  this  rule  under  the  head  of  parables. 

Some  expositors  have  unwarrantably  turned  histories  into  allegories, 
disregarding  the  distinction  between  legitimate  illustrations  arising 
out  of  the  narratives,  and  a  mystical  rendering  of  the  whole  as  fable. 
Or  else  the  literal  meaning  is  conceded  and  the  allegorical  superadded. 
According  to  some  early  interpreters  of  Scripture,  every  passage  had 
three  senses,  literal,  ethical,  and  mystical.  Thus  the  journey  of 
Eliezer  to  Paddan-aram  to  seek  a  wife  for  Isaac  contained  not  only  an 
interesting  fact  in  the  patriarchal  history,  with  important  moral 
lessons  founded  on  the  readiness  of  the  maiden  to  leave  a  land  of 
idolaters  to  cast  in  her  lot  with  the  Chosen  People  ;  but  an  allegory  of 
the  Divine  Father  commissioning  His  Spirit  to  go  forth  into  the  world 
to  win  a  Bride  for  His  Son,  thus  forming  an  expressive  parable  of 
Redemption.  There  is,  in  fact,  unlimited  scope  for  fancy,  if  once  the 
principle  be  admitted,  and  the  only  basis  of  the  exposition  is  found  in 
the  mind  of  the  expositor.  The  scheme  can  yield  no  interpretation, 
properly  so  called,  although  possibly  some  valuable  truths  may  be 
illustrated. 

Such  applications,  indeed,  sometimes  vindicate  themselves  by  their 
appositeness.  Thus,  the  history  of  the  Fall  (Gen  3)  represents  in  the 
most  vivid  way  the  sources  of  temptation,  with  the  entrance,  the 
progress,  and  the  power  of  sin.  The  narrative  of  Jonah  again  depicts, 
by  way  of  example,  the  mission  of  God's  Israel  to  the  heathen,  incul- 
cated but  neglected  ;  and  (to  those  who  lived  after  the  Captivity)  the 
consequence  of  unfaithfulness,  in  the  engulfing  of  the  disobedient 
messenger  of  God  by  the  terrible  Babylonian  power,  as  by  some  sea- 
monster  (see  Jersi^^**),  followed  by  release  for  the  sake  of  a  renewed 


FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE:   TYPES  225 

mission.     Such  undoubtedly  was  one  lesson  at  least  of  this  wonderful 
book,  well  called  '  the  most  catholic  book  in  the  Old  Testament.' 

It  cannot  be  too  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  the  interpretation  of  an 
allegory  is  one  thing,  allegorical  interpretation  quite  another  *. 

140.  Scripture  Types. — The  ivorcl  '  type  '  (Gr.  tvito^) 
does  not  occur  in  the  English  Scriptures,  excepting  only 
in  the  margin  (rec.)  of  i  Cor  lo^^.  Literally  it  means  stamp 
or  impress ;  and  it  is  rendered  variously,  according  to  the 
context,  as  'figure,'  'pattern,'  'ensample.'  It  has,  in  fact, 
the  same  ambiguity  as  our  word  '  copy  '  :  the  imitation  made 
or  that  which  is  to  be  imitated.  Hence  '  antitype  '  {avrLTv-rrov), 
lit.  '  answering  to  the  type,'  is  either  the  reality  or  the 
imperfect  shadow.  In  theological  language  it  has  been 
appropriated  to  the  former  meaning  ;  but  in  Heb  9^*  it  has 
the  latter,  while  in  the  only  other  New  Testament  instance, 
T  Pet  3^^,  it  is  ambiguous  :  baptism  is  either  the  reality 
foreshadowed  by  the  Flood,  or  its  cleansing  is  a  symbol  of 
that  salvation  which  purifies  the  heart  and  conscience. 
The  English  word  '  type '  in  its  theological  use  thus  better 
corresponds  with  aKid,  '  shadow,'  as  in  Col  2}'^  Heb  8^,  10^. 
In  its  customary  acceptation  it  expresses  a  symbol  of  that 
which  is  to  come,  whether  a  personage,  incident,  or  institu- 
tion.    The  following  points  must  be  especially  noted : — 

1.  That  which  is  symbolized — the  'antitype' — is  the 
ideal  or  spiritual  reality,  at  once  corresponding  to  the  type 
and  transcending  it. 

2.  The  type  may  have  its  own  place  and  meaning,  inde- 
pendently of  that  which  it  prefigures.  Thus  the  brazen 
serpent  brought  healing  to  the  Israelites,  even  apart  from 
the  greater  deliverance  which  it  was  to  symbolize. 

3.  Hence  it  follows  that  the  type  may  at  the  time  have 
been  unapprehended  in  its  highest  character. 

*  On  I  Sa  13^,  '  Saul  was  a  child  of  one  year  when  he  began  to  reign, 
and  he  reigned  two  years  over  Israel,'  the  Douay  version  thus  com- 
ments :  '  That  is,  he  was  good,  and  like  an  innocent  child,  and  for 
two  years  continued  in  that  innocency.' 


226     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

4.  As  with  regard  to  symbols  generally,  the  essence  of 
a  type  must  be  distinguished  from  its  accessories. 

5.  The  only  secure  authority  for  the  application  of  a  type 
is  to  be  found  in  Scripture.  The  mere  perception  of  analogy 
will  not  suffice.  Expositors  have  often  imagined  corre- 
spondence where  none  in  fact  exists,  and  where,  even  if  it 
did,  there  is  nothing  to  prove  a  special  Divine  intent.  So 
to  Clement  of  Rome  '  the  scarlet  line '  of  Rahab  (Jos  2^^--*) 
typified  the  atonement  of  Christ. 

In  the  words  of  Bishop  Marsh  :  'To  constitute  one  tiling  the  type  of 
another,  as  the  term  is  generally  understood  in  reference  to  Scripture, 
something  more  is  wanted  than  mere  resemblance.  The  former  must 
not  only  resemble  the  latter,  but  must  have  been  designed  to  resemble 
the  latter.  It  must  have  been  so  designed  in  its  original  institution.  It 
must  have  been  designed  as  preparatory  to  the  latter.  The  type,  as 
well  as  the  antitype,  must  have  been  preordained,  and  they  must 
have  been  preordained  as  constituent  parts  of  the  same  general  scheme 
of  Divine  Providence.  It  is  this  previous  design  and  this  preordaintd 
Connexion  which  constitute  the  relation  of  type  and  antitype",' 

Since  the  ])eginning  of  our  race,  there  has  accordingly 
been  a  connected  series  of  representations,  each  embodying 
some  truth,  and  all  tending  to  illustrate  the  office  and  work 
of  our  Lord,  or  the  character  and  history  of  His  people. 

Jewish  history  and  worship  form  one  grand  tyj^e.  The 
Old  Testament  (as  Augustine  long  ago  remarked)  is  the 
New  veiled,  and  the  New  Testament  is  the  Old  unveiled  K 

The  ancient  Jewish  people,  for  example,  sustained  to  God 
the  same  relation  as  is  now  sustained  by  the  Christian 
Church,  and  by  each  Christian.  Their  sufferings  in  Egypt, 
their  deliverance  under  Moses,  their  wanderings  in  the 
desert,  their  entry  into  Canaan,  prefigure  important  facts 
in  the  history  of  all  Christians.  The  Israelites  not  only 
lived  under  the  same  authority  with  us,  and  were  governed 
by  an  economy  of  discipline  like  our  own,  but  the  facts  of 

'  Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible,  p.  374. 

^  *  Novum  Testamentum  in  Vetere  latet,  Vetus  in  Novo  patet.* 


FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE:   TYPES  227 

their  history  were  typical  of  the  history  of   the   Church, 
Ro  223  I  Cor  I  o  Heb  4  i  Pet  2^-10  Rev  15^. 

It  is  observable,  too,  that  the  relation  between  the  Jewish 
people  and  some  of  the  nations  that  surrounded  them  is 
a  type  of  the  relation  between  the  Christian  Church  and  its 
adversaries :  Sodom  and  Ishmael,  Egypt  and  Babylon  have 
all  their  representatives  in  the  history  of  the  true  Israel, 
Gal  4-^  Rev  14^. 

It  may  be  added,  that  while  in  one  aspect  Israel  as  the 
Servant  of  Jehovah  is  the  representative  of  our  Lord, 
individual  Israelites  were  types  of  Him  ;  as  Moses  among 
the  prophets,  David  and  Solomon  among  the  kings ;  and 
hence  expressions  which  were  originally  true  of  the  type 
are  applied  to  Christ  as  the  antitype  or  fulfilment.  Acts  133*. 

And  as  the  people,  so  the  rites  and  worship  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  typical.  The  whole  dispensation  was  the 
shadow  of  good  things  to  come,  not  the  very  image  or  sub- 
stance of  them.     That  substance  was  Christ,  Heb  lo^ 

Rules  of  Interpretation. — In  the  interpretation  of  all 
these  types,  and  of  history  in  its  secondary  or  spiritual 
allusions,  we  use  the  same  rules  as  in  interpreting  parables 
and  allegories  properly  so  called  :  compare  the  history  or 
type  with  the  general  truth,  which  both  the  type  and  the 
antitype  embody  ;  expect  agreement  in  several  particulars, 
but  not  in  all ;  and  let  the  interpretation  of  each  part 
harmonize  with  the  design  of  the  whole,  and  with  the  clear 
revelation  of  Divine  doctrine  given  in  other  parts  of  the 
sacred  volume. 

Cautions.— In  applying  these  rules,  it  is  important  to 
remember  that  the  inspired  writers  never  destroyed  the 
historical  sense  of  Scripture  to  establish  the  spiritual ;  nor 
did  they  find  a  hidden  meaning  in  the  words,  but  only  in 
the  facts  of  each  passage  ;  which  meaning  is  easy,  natural, 
and  Scriptural  ;  and  that  they  confined  themselves  to 
expositions  illustrating  some  truth  of  practical  or  spiritual 

<4   2 


228      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

importance,  Heb  5^^  9^*^  Indeed,  an  examination  of  the 
passages  quoted  from  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New  will 
show  that  they  are  adduced  exclusively  with  reference 
either  to  the  personal  history  and  mediatorial  office  of  our 
Lord,  to  the  spiritual  character  of  His  kingdom,  or  to  the 
future  destiny  of  His  Church, 

141.  Parables,  and  their  interpretation. — A  Parable, 
in  the  general  acceptation  of  the  word  (from  Trapaf^oXy,  '  com- 
parison '),  denotes  a  narrative  constructed  for  the  sake  of 
conveying  important  truth.  Occasionally,  the  word  has 
a  wider  meaning,  partly  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  He- 
brew mdsJidl  is  used  both  for  parable  and  proverb.  So  in  Mt 
j^i*.i5  j^y  ^23  Sparable'  is  used  for  'proverb,'  and  in  Heb 
g9  J  J 19  fQj,  'figure'  or  'type.'  Conversely,  in  Jn  10^  (see 
J525.29J  the  word  '  proverb '  (Trapot/xia)  is  rendered  'parable.' 
There  is,  in  fact,  a  close  connexion  between  the  two.  '  A 
Proverb  is  often  a  concentrated  Parable '  {Ahp.  Trench). 

The  parable  is  distinguished  from  the  allegory,  in  that  where  the 
hitter  persowi^es  attributes  and  qualities  themselves  (as  Faithful,  Great- 
heart,  Giant  Despair),  tlie  personages  of  the  former  illustrate  these  in 
their  words  and  conduct.  It  is  different  again  from  the  fable,  in 
limiting  its  scope  to  the  human  and  the  possible.  Thus,  in  the  Old 
Testament  there  are  two  fables,  that  of  the  trees  choosing  a  king, 
Judg9^''^^,  and  of  the  thistle  and  the  cedar,  2  Ki  14^.  The  parables,  or 
apologues  (as  they  are  sometimes  called),  are  those  of  the  poor  man's 
ewe  lamb,  2  Sa  12^  of  the  two  brothers  that  strove  together,  2  Sa  14^, 
and  of  the  prisoner  that  made  his  escape,  i  Ki  20^^. 

The  constant  employment  of  parables  in  the  ministry 
of  our  Lord  (Mk  4^^)  served  at  once  to  illuminate  His 
teaching  by  contact  with  common  life  and  human  interests, 
to  set  forth  the  nature  of  His  kingdom,  and  to  test  the 
disposition  of  His  hearers.  There  were  those  who  seeing 
saw  not,  and  hearing  did  not  understand.  That  is,  they 
might  be  interested  in  the   story,   but   cared   not  for   the 

»  The  use  of  Old  Testament  Scripture  in  Ro  7^-^  Gal  4-^-31  Heb  7^-' 
is  exceptional. 


FIGURATIVE   LANGUAGE:    PARABLES       229 

spiritual  truths  which  it  was  intended  to  convey.  Or  they 
might  be  convicted  and  ashamed  (Mt  21*^  Lu  20^^),  while 
only  aroused  to  deeper  animosity. 

Classification  of  our  Lord's  Parables  has  been  variously  made. 
Something  with  regard  to  their  special  intent  and  application  may  be 
learned  from  considering  the  main  design  of  the  Gospel  or  Gospels  in 
which  they  respectively  appear.  In  the  Introductions  to  the  Gospels, 
accordingly  (Part  II),  the  parables  peculiar  to  one,  or  common  to 
more,  will  be  found  enumerated. 

Neander  has  classified  the  parables  of  our  Lord  with  reference  to 
the  truths  taught  in  them,  and  their  connexion  with  His  kingdom. 

Parables  on  the  progress  of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  :— 

1.  The  sower,  Mt  is^"-^  Mk  4^-8  Lu  8^-8. 

2.  The  tai-es,  Mt  is^^-^o. 

3.  The  mustard-seed,  Mt  is'^^^  Mk  4'^'^  Lu  i2^^'\ 

4.  The  leaven,  Mt  is^^  Lu  is^^-^^. 

5.  The  net,  Mt.  is*^-"*. 

Moral  requisite!^  for  entering  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  : — 
(i)  Anti-pharisaic  parables,  or  negative  requisites. 

6.  The  lost  sheep,  Mt  i8i2-i3  Lu  is^"*^. 

7.  The  lost  piece  of  money,  Lu  15*"^*^. 

8.  The  prodigal  son,  Lu  is"-^^^ 

9.  The  Pharisee  and  the  publican,  Lu  18^-". 

10.  Strife  for  the  first  places  at  feasts,  Lu  14^"^^ 
(2)  Positive  requisites. 

11.  The  two  sons,  Mt  2i28-so. 

12.  The  hidden  treasure,  Mt  13**. 

13.  The  pearl,  Mt  i3*5-« 

14.  The  tower  and  the  warring  king,  Lu  14'^^-^^ 

15.  The  wedding  garment,  Mt  22^'"^*. 
Call  to  enter  the  Kingdom  of  Christ. 

16.  The  feast,  Mt  22I-1*  Lu  14^"-^*. 
Activity  in  the  Kingdom  of  Christ. 

17.  The  vine,  Jn  15^"^ 

18.  The  wicked  vine-dressers,  Mt  2i33-4i  Mk  la^-^  Lu  ao'-^" 

19.  The  talents,  Mt  as^^-^o  Lu  19^2-2^ 

20.  The  barren  fig-tree,  Lu  13^"^. 

21.  The  labourers,  Mt  20^-'^ 
The  true  spirit  of  the  Kingdom  of  Christ. 

(i)  Forgiveness. 

22.  The  good  Samaritan,  Lu  lo'"^''''. 

23.  The  unforgiving  servant,  Mt  iS^^-**  Lu  7*^" 


230      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

(2)  The  right  use  of  worldly  possessions. 

24.  The  unjust  steward,  Lu  rS^"^^. 

25.  The  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  Lu  le"'"'^ 

(3)  The  Christian  spirit  under  the  name  of  prudence. 

26.  The  ten  virgins,  Mt  25^"^^ 

(4)  Prayer. 

27.  The  importunate  widow,  Lu  i8^~^ 

28.  The  friend  on  his  journey,  Lu  ii^~^^. 

A  more  elaborate  arrangement  is  proposed  by  Bp.  Westcott,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  the  Gospels,  Appendix  F,  which  may  also  be 
consulted.  Here  the  ground  of  classification  is  the  twofold  source 
from  which  the  parables  are  drawn — the  material  woi-ld  and  the 
relations  of  man.  Greswell,  more  simply,  divides  the  parables  into 
the  prophetic  and  the  moral.  But  these  schemes,  useful  as  an  aid  to 
memory,  and  as  exhibiting  the  main  scope  of  the  several  parables, 
must  not  be  taken  as  limiting  their  meaning  within  hard  and  fast 
lines.  They  have  liberal,  limitless  applications,  if  interpreted  with 
both  judgement  and  sympathy. 

The  first  rule  of  interpretation  is  :  Ascertain  what  is 
the  scope,  either  by  reference  to  the  context,  or  to  parallel 
passages  ;  and  seize  the  one  truth  which  the  parable  is 
intended  to  set  forth,  distinguishing  it  from  all  the  other 
truths  Avhich  border  upon  it,  and  let  the  parts  of  the  parable 
that  are  explained  be  explained  in  harmony  with  this  one 
truth. 

In  the  parables,  the  scope  is  generally  told  us  in  the  r.ontext ; 
sometimes  by  our  Lord  Himself  (Mt  22^*),  sometimes  by  the  inspired 
narrator  in  his  own  words  (Lu  18^). 

Sometimes  it  is  set  forth  at  the  commencement  of  the  parable 
(Lu  18^  19^^)  ;  sometimes  at  the  close  (Mt  25^8  ^^  159^  .  sometimes  at 
both,  as  in  Mt  i82i-35  Lu  I2i5-2i, 

Sometimes  we  need  to  turn  to  a  parallel  passage  ;  as,  for  the  full 
interpretation  of  Lu  15*"'',  we  turn  to  Mt  i8^'-~'*. 

When  from  none  of  these  circumstances  the  scope  can  be  gathered, 
we  must  then  have  recourse  to  the  occasion  or  the  subject  of  the 
parable  itself.  The  meaning  of  the  parables  of  the  Barren  Fig-tree 
(Lu  13^"^),  and  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  is  gathered  in  this  way.  The 
progress  of  the  parables,  and  the  study  of  the  circumstances  under 
which  they  were  spoken,  will  clearly  show  the  design  of  our  Lord  in 
uttering  them. 


FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE:   PARABLES       231 

Any  interpretation  of  a  parable  or  allegory  that  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  great  truth,  which  it  is  thus  seen  to  involve, 
must  be  rejected. 

The  parable  of  the  Good  Samaritan,  for  example,  has  been  supposed 
to  refer  to  our  Lord  ;  the  wounded  traveller,  to  our  sinful  race  ;  the 
priest  and  Levite,  to  the  moral  and  ceremonial  law  ;  the  inn,  to  the 
Church,  and  the  two  pence  to  the  two  sacraments  :  an  interpretation 
entirely  inconsistent  with  our  Saviour's  design.  It  is  not  enough 
that  the  truths  which  we  suppose  to  be  contained  in  the  allegories 
and  types  of  Scripture  are  Scriptural  ;  they  must  be  evidently  shown 
to  be  involved  in  the  purpose  for  which  each  type  was  instituted,  and 
each  allegory  spoken. 

This  remark  is  applicalde  to  all  parts  of  the  parables,  and  it  may 
be  reversed.  We  have  the  right  interpretation  when  all  the  main 
circumstances  are  explained.  If  any  important  member  of  the 
narrative  is  rendered  by  our  interpretation  nugatory,  or  is  paralysed, 
the  interpretation  is  false  ;  and  when  we  have  a  true  interpretation 
of  the  whole,  that  interpretation  of  any  part  is  to  be  rejected  which 
does  not  conduce  to  the  consistency  and  force  of  the  whole.  In 
interpreting  the  parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  for  example,  some 
expositors  have  descended  to  details  which  are  quite  inconsistent 
with  the  obvious  scope  and  force  of  the  narrative.  The  alienation  of 
the  prodigal  from  all  home  affections — his  resolution  to  seek  happiness 
where  God  is  not — the  fearful  change  in  his  position,  and  his  con- 
sciousness of  that  change — his  attempt  to  repair  his  broken  fortunes 
—  his  bitter  disappointment  and  want  —  the  resolve  to  return — the 
father's  love  and  welcome — the  festal  rejoicing  which  his  return 
created — the  discontent  and  grudging  spirit  of  the  elder  brother — 
the  father's  noble  remonstrance — all  illustrate  the  great  truth  of  the 
passage,  that  God  welcomes  the  return  of  the  vilest  of  His  children, 
and  all  are  important.  To  denj^,  as  some  have  done,  that  the  prodigal's 
desertion  of  his  home  has  any  reference  to  man's  apostasy  weakens 
the  parable  :  but  to  teach  that  the  ring  is  the  everlasting  love  of  God, 
or  the  seal  of  the  Spirit — that  the  sinner  is  called  the  younger  son, 
because  man  as  a  sinner  is  younger  than  man  as  righteous — that  the 
citizen  to  whom  he  went  was  a  legal  preacher — that  the  swine  were 
self-righteous  persons — that  the  husks  were  works  of  righteousness — 
that  the  fatted  calf  was  Christ— that  the  shoes  were  means  of  upright 
conversation,  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  Scripture — that  the 
music  which  the  elder  brother  heard  was  the  preaching  of  the  gospel 
— is  to  call  off  our  attention  from  the  great  lesson  of  the  parable  to 
doctrines  which  the  disciples  could  not  have  found  in  the  parable 
itself.     By  turning  the  most  delicate  touches  into  important  Scriptural 


232     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

truths,  the  great  design  of  the  whole  is  obscured,  and  wo  learn  tc 
bring  a  meaning  into  the  passage,  and  not  out  of  it  ;  a  habit  which  we 
are  likely  to  employ  with  more  serious  mischief  in  other  places. 

While,  then,  everj^thing  that  is  explained  must  be  ex- 
plained with  reference  to  the  general  intention,  it  is  an 
important  question,  how  far  the  details  of  the  parables 
and  allegories  of  Scripture  have  reference  to  corresponding 
facts  in  the  application  of  them.  From  the  inspired  inter- 
pretation of  parables  given  us  in  Scripture,  we  may  gather 
that  we  are  to  avoid  both  the  extreme  of  supposing  that 
only  the  design  of  the  w^iole  should  be  regarded,  and  the 
extreme  of  insisting  upon  every  clause  as  having  a  double 


In  the  parables  of  the  Sower  and  of  the  Tares,  for  example,  which 
our  Lord  Himself  interpreted,  the  moral  application  descends  to  the 
minutest  particulars  of  the  narrative  ;  the  birds,  and  thorns,  and 
stony  ground  have  all  their  meaning;  and,  as  Tholuck  has  remarked, 
it  may  be  said  generally  that  the  similitude  is  perfect,  in  proportion 
as  it  is  on  all  sides  rich  in  applications.  Even  in  these  parables, 
however,  not  all  the  circumstances  are  explained.  'While  men  slept,' 
in  the  parable  of  the  Tares  (Mt  is^^),  and  the  phrase  '  I  cannot  dig,' 
and  Ho  beg  I  am  ashamed,'  in  the  parable  of  the  Unjust  Steward,  have 
neither  of  them  any  application  in  the  explanation  which  our  Lord 
Himself  gave. 

Second  Rule  of  Interpretation. — Even  of  doctrines 
consistent  with  the  design  of  the  parable  or  type,  no  con- 
clusion must  be  gathered  from  any  part  of  either  of  them 
which  is  inconsistent  with  other  clear  revelations  of  Divine 
truth. 

If  it  be  attempted  to  prove  from  the  fact  that  the  rich  man  in  the 
parable  prayed  to  Abraham,  that  therefore  we  are  to  pray  to  glorified 
saints,  we  reject  the  interpretation  as  inconsistent  with  the  express 
statements  of  Scripture ;  or  if,  from  the  parable  of  the  Faithful  Servants, 
or  the  Prodigal  Son,  it  be  gathered  (as  by  the  Pelagians)  that  God 
pardons  us  without  sacrifice  or  intercession,  on  the  ground  simply  of 
our  repentance  or  our  prayers,  we  reject  the  interpretation  as  incon- 
sistent with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Bible  (Jn  8-*  Heb  lo).  Nor  can 
we  gather  from  Lu  15"  that  the  Pharisees  were  just  men  who  needed 


PARABLE  AND  PROPHECY       233 

no  repentance,  nor  from  verse  29  that  the  elder  brother  had  never 
transgressed  his  fatlier's  command  ;  nor  from  Lu  16*  that  dishonesty 
is  in  any  good  sense  true  wisdom.  It  may  not  again  be  inferred  from 
the  parable  of  the  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard  (Mt  ao'^"^^)  that  those 
who  turn  to  God  at  the  close  of  life  shall  have  an  equal  blessedness 
with  those  who  were  early  called  by  His  grace.  On  this  the  parable 
says  nothing.  Our  Lord  evidently  speaks  of  His  kingdom  generally, 
in  which  the  Jews  had  the  prior  call,  while  the  Gentiles  were  to  be 
gathered  in  as  at  *  the  eleventh  hour.' 

Third  Rule  of  Interpretation. — It  is  important  that 
parables  should  not  be  made  the  first  or  sole  source  of 
Scripture  doctrine.  Doctrines  otherwise  proved  may  be 
further  illustrated  or  confirmed  by  them,  but  we  are  not 
to  gather  doctrine  exclusively  or  primarily  from  their  repre- 
sentations. 

From  the  parable  of  the  Unjust  Steward  some  of  the  early  Scrip- 
ture expositors  gathered,  without  reason,  the  history  of  the  apostasy  of 
Satan.  He  was  said  to  be  the  chief  among  the  servants  of  God,  and 
being  driven  from  his  place  of  trust,  he  drew  after  him  the  other 
angels,  whom  he  tempted  with  the  promise  of  lighter  tasks  and  easier 
service.  Nor  can  we  conclude,  from  the  parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins, 
that  because  five  were  wise  and  five  foolish,  half  of  those  who  make 
a  profession  of  religion  will  finally  be  saved  and  half  finally  perish. 
In  the  parable  of  the  Lost  Sheep,  one  in  a  hundred  only  wont  astray  ; 
in  that  of  the  Lost  Piece  of  Silver,  one  in  ten  was  lost :  neither  circum- 
stance can  be  made  the  foundation  of  a  doctrine. 

Both  these  rules  are  a  modification,  as  it  will  be  seen,  of  the  rule 
which  bids  us  interpret  according  to  the  general  teaching  of  Scripture, 
and  to  look  to  passages  that  are  clear  for  the  meaning  of  those  that 
are  abstruse. 


Prophecy  and  its  Interpretation 

142.  In  an  important  sense  the  whole  of  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation  was  prophetic.  'For  all  the 
prophets  and  the  law  prophesied  until  John^'  The  word 
that  discloses  God  in  the  midst  of  Israel,  guiding,  chastising, 
forgiving ;  the  word  that  urges  to  the  fear  and  service  of 
'  Mt  iii3 


234      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Jehovah,  is  a  prophetic  word,  whether  it  take  the  form  of 
Law,  History,  Psalm,  or  Wisdom  Literature.  Hence  the 
title  *  Former  Prophets,'  given,  as  already  noticed,  to  the 
historical  books  ;  they  are  a  speaking  forth  of  the  mind  and 
will  of  God  in  the  history  of  His  chosen  people.  Possibly 
it  was  within  the  '  Schools  of  the  Prophets  '  that  the  earliest 
sacred  literature  appeared,  and  there  also  that  the  later 
books  were  compiled.  One  function  of  the  prophetic  gift 
was  to  produce  that  record  of  the  history  of  Redemption 
which  lies  embedded  in  the  Old  Testament  as  its  Divine 
message  to  the  world. 

143.  But  we  are  here  concerned  with  Prophecy  in  its 
narrower  sense  and  in  its  highest  development.  There 
appeared  throughout  the  history  of  Israel  a  succession  of 
teachers  and  preachers  of  righteousness,  religious  re- 
formers, who  spake  because  the  '  Word  of  the  Lord  *  came 
to  them.  Bound  together  by  no  ties  of  a  common  order, 
as  were  the  priesthood,  separated  by  long  gaps  of  time, 
they  yet  followed  one  another  in  a  Divine  order,  and  at  the 
divinely  appointed  time.  '  In  many  parts  and  in  many 
manners'  God  spake  in  the  Prophets,  until  the  time  came 
for  the  perfect  revelation  in  the  Son,  and  the  final  message 
of  the  Cross.  As  Luke  has  it  ^  :  God  '  spake  by  the  mouth 
of  His  holy  prophets,  which  have  been  since  the  world 
began.'  Abraham,  Moses,  Samuel,  Elijah,  and  Elisha  stand 
in  this  succession.  With  Joel  and  Amos  begins  the  series  of 
prophets  who  have  left  written  records  of  their  preaching ; 
and  with  varied  gift  and  varied  message  they  appear  till 
Malachi  closes  the  Old  Testament  with  mingled  warning 
and  promise.  '  No  such  names  are  to  be  found  in  the 
history  of  any  other  nation,  or  in  the  history  of  all  the 
other  religions  combined,  heroes  of  battles  the  most  sublime 
the  world  has  ever  seen  '  ^. 

*  Lu  i"'"  Ac  3^^.  *•  C.  A.  Briggs,  Messianic  Prophecy,  p.  27. 


PROPHECY:   ITS  NATURE  235 

Definitions. — The  Greek  word  prophet  [TrpocfirjTr]';)  means 
one  who  spealcs  forth  a  message.  It  represents  in  Scripture 
a  Hebrew  word  nabh'i  (^^?^),  which  also  means  speaker,  or 
rather,  spokesman,  one  who  speaks  for  another.  The  prophet 
was,  essentially,  a  speaker  for  God. 

In  common  acceptation  the  element  pro-  {irpo)  in  this  word  has  taken 
on  its  otlier  meaning  of  before :  to  prophesy  is  interpreted  as  to  predict. 
It  has  already  been  seen  (§  72)  that  prediction  is  an  important  aspect 
of  the  prophet's  message.  But  it  is  no  part  of  the  meaning  of  the 
word,  either  in  Greek  or  Hebrew.  The  prophet  is  not  characteristic- 
ally one  who  foretells  the  future  :  he  forthtells  the  Divine  word.  His 
task  is  to  interpret  the  present,  under  guidance  of  the  Spirit  of  God 
which  possesses  him.     He  hears  and  speaks  :  that  is  all  his  function. 

144.  Nature  of  the  Prophetic  Gift. — It  follows  from 
this  that  the  prophetic  gift  is  twofold  :  Inspiration  (com- 
prising both  insight  and  foresight),  and  Utterance.  The 
key,  therefore,  to  the  interpretation  of  prophecy  is  to 
regard  the  prophet  primarily  as  a  preacher  of  righteous- 
ness. '  The  prophets  are  before  all  things  impassioned  seers 
of  spiritual  truth  and  preachers  of  religion '\'  The  books 
of  the  Prophets  are  collections  of  sermons,  preached  as 
opportunity  offered.  Especially  at  some  crisis  in  the  nation's 
history,  when  men  were  readier  to  discern  and  to  obey,  the 
prophet  stood  forth  as  the  spokesman  of  God  to  his  country- 
men. Incidentally  he  was  often  a  religious  reformer,  defying 
kings  and  princes,  shaping  the  destinies  of  the  nation  by 
a  statesmanship  in  which  he  dared  to  make  the  fear  of  God 
the  supreme  factor.  But  always  the  ethical  interest  was 
first.  To  him  law  and  policy,  whether  for  individual  or 
state,  were  summed  up  in  the  one  word  Righteousness,  the 
ultimate  requirement  of  'the  Holy  One  of  Israel.' 

145.  Prophecy  as  Historical.  —  Hence  the  prophets 
were  men  of  their  time.  It  is  true  that  they  were  also  above 
their  time  in  natural    endowment  and  moral   enthusiasm, 

*  Sanday,  Inspiration,  p.  144. 


236      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

and  were,  indeed,  for  all  time,  in  virtue  of  the  Eternal 
Spirit  Who  S2:)oke  through  them.  But  a  preacher  speaks 
first  to  his  own  generation  ;  his  text  and  its  application 
have  their  proper  setting  in  contemporary  life,  however 
pertinent  they  may  prove  to  a  remote  posterity.  This  is 
obviously  the  case  as  regards  the  prophets  who  appear  in 
the  historical  books,  Samuel,  Elijah  and  Elisha,  Nathan 
and  Gad.  To  a  large  extent  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah 
are  interwoven  with  the  history :  so  are  some  of  those  of 
Isaiah.  Often  the  connexion  is  more  difficult  to  trace,  but 
the  conviction  that  it  exists  will  yield  the  first  and  most 
fruitful  principle  of  Interpretation  of  Prophecy  ». 

From  this  feature  of  prophecy  it  follows  that  it  is  of  vital  importance 
to  understand  the  history  and  circumstances  of  the  writer.  The 
student  of  prophecy  must  ascertain  the  exact  position  of  the  prophet 
in  relation  both  (i)  to  his  age,  and  (2)  to  his  predictions,  (i)  Each 
prophet  was  a  messenger  to  his  own  times.  From  the  circumstances 
of  his  country  he  borrowed  his  imagery,  and  to  the  moral  and  physical 
condition  of  his  country  as  existing  or  as  foreseen  he  adapted  his 
message.  If  he  describes  immediate  good,  the  future  is  the  completion 
of  the  good  he  describes.  Even  when  that  future  is  distant  it  is  ever 
linked  with  the  present  by  phrases  level  to  the  capacity,  and  adapted 
to  the  wants  of  the  age.  (2)  Further,  his  standpoint  in  relation  to  his 
own  predictions  must  be  noted.  Let  the  student  take  his  place,  if 
possible,  by  the  prophet's  side,  and  look  with  him  on  the  past  and  on 
tlie  future.  A  more  vivid  illustration  and  a  deeper  comprehension 
will  thus  be  gained. 

To  understand  Isaiah,  for  example,  read  repeatedly  2  Ki  14-21, 
2  Ch  16-22.  Mark  also  the  connexion  and.  if  possible,  the  centre  of 
each  prediction.  In  studying  the  last  six  chapters  of  Zechariah 
first  of  all  consider  the  important  question  whether  they  proceeded 
from  that  prophet,  or  if  not,  to  what  generation  they  belonged.  See 
Introductions  to  the  Prophetical  Books  in  Part  II. 

*  The  lack  of  consecutive  order  in  the  writings  of  the  greater 
prophets,  as  these  have  come  down  to  us,  much  obscures  the  connexion 
of  some  of  their  sermons  with  the  occasion  of  them  in  contemporaneous 
history.  One  of  the  chief  debts  we  owe  to  modern  study  of  the  Old 
Testament  is  the  re-editing  of  the  prophetical  books  in  their  historical 
sequence  and  setting.  Dr.  George  Adam  Smith's  Isaiah  and  The  Book  qf 
the  Twelve  Prophets  are  notable  examplett. 


PROPHECY  AS  PREDICTION  237 

146.  Prophecy  as  typical   and    predictive. — If   it   is 

needful  for  the  interpretation  of  any  prophecy  to  recover 
its  historical  setting,  it  is  no  less  needful  to  recognize  that 
its  meaning  is  not  thus  exhausted.  It  has  been  pointed 
out  that  the  most  characteristic  element  of  Old  Testament 
prophecy  is  the  Messianic  hope  (§  73).  This  is  true,  indeed, 
of  law  and  history  as  well  as  of  prophetical  writings.  It 
all  looks  forward.  Such  partial  fulfilments  as  may  be 
traced  in  Jewish  history  leave  unexplained  and  unexhausted 
types  and  predictions  on  which  the  prophet  lavishes  all 
the  wealth  of  an  inspired  imagination.  Much  that  stands 
written  was  dark  until  Christ  came  ;  much  still  waits  its 
interpretation  in  the  future  glories  of  His  kingdom.  It  is 
this  excess  of  prophecy  over  historical  fulfilment,  both  in 
regard  to  fact  and  to  language,  that  constitutes  its  double 
sense  or  its  twofold  application.  '  The  Old  Testament  is  one 
vast  prophecy.  .  .  .  The  application  of  prophetic  words  in 
each  case  has  regard  to  tlie  ideal  indicated  by  them,  and 
is  not  limited  by  the  historical  fact  with  which  they  are 
connected.  But  the  histoiy  is  not  set  aside.  The  history 
forces  the  reader  to  look  beyond  '■\'  It  is  on  this  principle 
that  the  New  Testament  writers  make  such  free  and  varied 
use  of  Old  Testament  scripture  in  reference  to  Christ  (see 
§  lo2sq.,  'Quotations  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New').  'The 
words  had  a  perfect  meaning  when  they  were  first  used. 
This  meaning  is  at  once  the  germ  and  the  vehicle  of  the 
later  and  fuller  meaning.  As  we  determine  the  relations, 
intellectual,  social,  spiritual,  between  the  time  of  the  pro. 
phecy  and  our  own  time,  we  have  the  key  to  its  present 
interpretation.     In  Christ  we  have  the  ideal  fulfilments^.' 

Primary  and  ultimate  reference  in   Prophecy. — The 

bearing  of  this  general  principle  on  the  interpretation  of 
prophecy  is  twofold,     (i)  Its  direct  and  primary  reference 

*  Bishop  Westcott,  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  p.  69.  ^  Ibid. 


238      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

finds  expression  in  language  suitable  to  its  wider  application. 
On  the  other  hand,  {2)  its  ultimate  meaning  is  conveyed 
under  the  limitations  of  language  adapted  to  its  primary 
reference. 

Illustration  may  be  given  of  both  points.     See  also  §  157. 

(i)  *  Prophecy  continually  applies  to  one  object  by  anticipation  and 
partially,  and  to  another  completely  ;  the  earlier  object  being  the 
representative  of  the  later.  In  the  promises  to  Abraham  (Gen  15,  &c.), 
in  the  prediction  of  Jacob  concerning  Judah  (Gen  49),  of  Balaam 
(Num  24"),  of  Nathan  (2  Sa  7^^"^'),  and  of  David  in  some  of  the 
Psalms,  in  many  parts  of  Isaiah  and  other  prophets,  there  is  this 
double  reference.  As  the  history  of  the  Jews  foreshadows  the  history 
of  the  Chi-istian  Chui'ch,  so  does  prophecy  the  experience  of  both. 
Not  all  parts  of  prophecy  are  thus  applicable,  nor,  judging  from 
examples  given  in  the  New  Testament,  are  any  parts  thus  applicable 
to  be  applied  indiscriminately.  In  fact,  the  double  application  is 
restricted  to  similar  events  under  two  different  and  remote  economies, 
and  is  never  extended  to  two  different  events  under  the  same  economy. 
Prophecies  on  the  restoration  from  Babylon  (Jer  31  Is  52),  on  the 
setting  up  of  the  tabernacle  of  David  (Am  9),  and  on  his  kingdom 
(2  Sa  7),  had  all,  to  a  certain  extent,  an  immediate  fulfilment,  and  are 
yet  applied  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  gospel  dispensation. 

(2)  •  And  now  we  see  why  the  language  of  the  prophets,  as  applied  to 
those  nearer  events  whicli  occupy,  so  to  speak,  the  foreground  in 
their  vision,  must  be  hyperbolical.  Beginning  with  those  near  events, 
beginning  amidst  all  familiar  objects  and  images,  Israel,  Jerusalem, 
the  Law,  the  Temple,  Babylon,  Egypt,  Edom,  or  Tyre,  defeat  and 
victory,  captivity  and  deliverance,  famine  and  plenty,  desolation 
and  prosperity,  other  and  higher  hopes  possess  their  minds  almost 
immediately,  distinct  in  their  greatness,  xmdiscerned  in  their  parti- 
cular forms.  Thus  into  the  human  framework  there  is  infused  a 
Divine  spirit,  far  too  vast  for  that  Avhich  contains  it.  The  names  are 
the  same,  but  the  meaning  is  different ;  and  thus  there  arises 
a  necessary  inequality  between  the  prophecy  and  its  historical  fulfil- 
ment, which,  if  we  do  not  understand  how  it  has  arisen,  must  be 
a  source  of  extreme  perplexity.  And  some,  finding  that  the  historical 
fulfilment  has  as  yet  borne  no  proportion  to  the  greatness  of  the 
prophecy,  look  for  another  fulfilment  with  the  same  forms  as  the 
former,  which  shall  accomplish  what  is  yet  wanting.  Thus,  because 
the  restoration  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  no  way  answered  to  the 
greatness  of  the  prophetic  picture  which  announced  it,  there  are  some 
who  look  for  anoth«r  historical  restoration,    which   shall  place  the 


PKOPHECY:   ITS  APPLICATIONS  239 

Jewish  nation  in  Canaan  under  all  those  forms  of  happiness  described 
by  the  prophets  ;  that  is,  in  the  enjoyment  of  plenty,  of  peace,  and  of 
dominion.  But  the  greatness  of  the  prophecy  never  really  belonged 
to  the  historical  forms  with  which  it  was  connected,  and  can  find  its 
answer  only  in  that  which  indeed  was  the  original  subject  which 
called  it  forth,  the  triumph  of  perfect  good,  or,  in  other  words  the 
glory  of  Christ  and  of  His  kingdom.' — Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  Sermons 
on  the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy,  1844  (Note  6), 

Inexhaustible  Meanings. — It  follows  from  this  double 
sense  that,  as  in  the  first  fulfilment  there  is  a  limit  to  the 
blessing  foretold,  so,  in  the  second,  there  is  a  fullness  of 
meaning  which  it  seems  impossible  to  exhaust.  To  David, 
for  example,  the  promise  was  partly  conditional,  partly 
absolute.  As  conditional,  it  cannot  be  applied  to  Christ, 
and  as  absolute,  it  cannot  be  apjjlied  in  its  fullest  literal 
meaning  to  David.  '  I  will  stablish  the  throne  of  his 
kingdom  for  ever.  If  he  commit  iniquity,  I  will  chasten 
him  with  the  rod  of  men  .  .  .  but  My  mercy  shall  not 
depart  away  from  him,  as  I  took  it  from  Saul,'  2  Sa  -yi^^i^ 
The  condition  is  twice  repeated  (i  Ki  2*  9*),  and  the 
jjromise  that  David's  seed  should  occupy  the  throne  for 
ever  had  of  course,  in  a  literal  sense,  but  a  limited  fulfil- 
ment. '  For  ever '  may  mean  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom,  or 
till  the  end  of  the  polity  ;  the  phrase  implying  perpetuity 
of  duration  throughout  the  period  or  system  of  things  to 
which  reference  is  understood  to  be  made.  In  fact,  David's 
family  occupied  the  throne  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom, 
holding  it  through  twenty  descendants  for  upwards  of  400 
years  ;  while,  in  the  brief  duration  of  the  northern  kingdom 
(254  years),  there  were  nineteen  kings,  of  nine  different 
families.  There  was,  therefore,  a  literal  fulfilment  of  the 
promise,  but  clearly  a  fulfilment  less  glorious  than  when 
applied  to  the  Messiah.  In  truth,  prophecy  borrowed  from 
previous  types  is  as  unequal  to  describe  His  kingdom  as  is 
narrative,  founded  on  ritual  institutions,  to  describe  His 
office.     We  call  Him  Prophet  and  Priest,  our  Sacrifice  and 


240      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Intercessor  ;  but  no  one  of  the  institutions  whence  these 
names  are  taken,  nor  all  combined,  can  speak  His  glory  or 
tell  His  worth. 

Imagery  and  Symbol.— Seeing  that  the  future  was  thus 
represented  in  visions,  and  under  a  typical  dispensation,  it 
can  excite  no  surprise  that  the  whole  is  often  described  in 
figurative  and  allegorical  or  symbolical  terms.  As  every- 
thing earthly  supplies  images  for  describing  things  spiritual, 
so  does  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  economy.  Language 
borrowed  from  nature  and  from  the  Law  is  therefore 
appropriate  alike.  Tlie  unity  and  vastness  of  God's  plans 
are  illustrated  by  it  all. 

Under  the  gospel,  for  example,  Messiah  is  to  be  King,  and  hence  (he 
prophets  represent  Ilim  as  possessed  of  all  the  characteristics  of  the 
most  distinguished  jjrinces  of  the  Jewish  theocracy,  and  more  than 
once  apply  to  Him  the  title  of  David,  who  was,  in  many  respects,  the 
ideal  of  kingly  authority.  Ho  3^  Jer  30^  Ac  13'^*.  They  describe  His 
character  as  Prophet  or  Priest  in  the  same  strain,  multiplying  images 
in  each  case  adapted  to  give  the  most  exalted  ideas  of  His  office,  Ps  no 
Zee  6  Heb  7.  In  the  same  way,  they  speak  of  His  kingdom,  either  of 
grace  or  glory,  as  the  liighest  perfection  of  the  Jewish  economy.  It 
is  called  Jerusalem,  or  Zion,  Is  da^'^-'^  eo""'"-*^  Gal  426-28  jj^j  ^r^ti^  g^^ 
also  Is  6o'''-''  6623.  rp^  Joel,  the  outpouring  of  the  Spirit  appears  as 
a  general  extension  of  the  three  forms  of  Divine  revelation  which 
occur  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  idea  that  all  nations  should  worship 
the  true  God  is  expressed  by  the  declaration  that  they  will  join  in  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Zee  14^^.  The  gloiy  of  the  Messiah's  days  is 
represented  by  the  prosperous  times  of  David  and  Solomon,  Zee  3'° 
(compare  i  Ki  4'-''') ;  the  prevalence  of  peace,  by  tlie  union  of  Judah 
and  Israel,  Ho  i^^  Is  ii^^  In  thesame  way,  the  enemies  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah  are  not  only  called  by  the  names  given  to  the  enemies 
of  the  ancient  theocracy,  viz.  the  nations  of  the  Gentiles,  but  they 
often  bear  the  name  of  some  one  people  who,  at  the  time,  were 
peculiarly  inimical  or  powerful.  In  Is  25  they  are  called  by  the  name 
of  Moab,  in  Is  63  and  Am  9^^  by  the  name  of  Edom,  and  in  Eze  38  by 
the  name  of  Magog.  There  are,  of  course,  specific  prophecies  concern- 
ing most  of  these  nations  and  cities,  but  their  names  are  also  used 
generically,  or  figuratively,  in  these  and  other  passages.  Hence  is 
foretold  the  restoration,  in  the  latter  days,  of  Moab  and  Elam,  Jer  48*'' 


PROPHECY:   ITS  GENERAL  SCHEME         241 

49".     Hence,  also,  the  'blessing  to  the  earth'  is  to  proceed  in  'that 
day  *  from  Israel,  Assyria,  and  Egypt,  Is  ig^^"^^. 

The  Scheme  of  Prophecy. — Nor  need  this  peculiarity 
of  prophetic  language  excite  surprise.  It  is  found  pervading 
the  whole  ancient  dispensation.  That  dispensation  began 
with  the  promise  to  Abraham.  His  descendants  were  to  be 
as  the  stars,  and  in  him  and  his  seed  all  nations  were  to  be 
blessed.  The  first  part  of  this  prediction  was  fulfilled  in 
his  literal  seed,  as  Moses  implies,  Ex  32^^  Dt  i^^-^^.  Paul 
also  applies  it  to  his  spiritual  seed,  even  to  all  who  believe, 
Ro  4^^  Gal  3^-^  The  blessing  upon  all  nations,  the  second 
part  of  the  promise,  is  also  upon  all  as  believers,  and  is 
received  through  Christ,  Who  is  the  seed  according  to  the 
flesh.  Gal  3i6.19.29, 

The  next  remarkable  fact  in  the  history  of  the  Jews  is 
their  deliverance  from  Egypt ;  and  in  connexion  with  that 
deliverance  the  most  remarkable  expressions  are  used  to 
indicate  the  favour  which  God  bore  them.  All  of  these 
expressions,  however,  are  in  the  New  Testament  applied 
to  the  Church.  God  is  said  to  have  chosen  them,  Dt  10^^ 
Eze  20^  Eph  I*.  He  delivered  and  saved  them.  Ex  3^  1420 
Gal  i^  I  Th  iio  2  Tim  i^  ;  He  created  and  called  them. 
Is  43^  44^  I  Cor  i^  Col  3^^.  Both  are  sons,  helpless,  and 
dear,  Eze  i6^~^  Is  44^  Dt  32^  Gal  3-^  i  Pet  i^  ;  both  are 
brethren,  Dt  i^^  Col  i^  ;  a  house,  a  family,  Num  12'^  Heb  3^ ; 
a  nation,  Dt  4"*  i  Pet  2^  ;  both  fellow-citizens,  with  aliens 
around  them.  Ex  20^°  Eph  2^^  ;  and  both  heirs  of  their 
appropriate  inheritance,  Num  26^^  Heb  9^^  Compare  in 
the  same  way  the  application  of  the  following  words  under 
the  two  dispensations  :  '  Servants  ' ;  'husband  '  and  *  wife,' 
*  mother  *  and  '  children  ' ;  '  adultery ' ;  '  sanctuary  '  or 
'temple';  'priests';  'saints'  or  'holy';  'near'  or  'nigh,' 
and  '  afar  off ' ;  '  congregation  '  or  '  church ' ;  '  vine,'  '  vine- 
yard ' ;  '  shepherd,' '  flock ' ;  '  inheritance '  or  'heritage' ;  the 
privileges   and   duties   which  these  terms    imply ;    and    it 

B 


242     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

will  be  found  that  nearly  all  the  characteristic  names  of 
Israel  are  applied  to  the  body  of  believers.  In  the  first 
case,  the  blessings  and  relations,  so  far  as  the  people  were 
concerned,  are  earthly  and  temporal ;  in  the  second,  spiritual 
and  eternal :  individual  spiritual  blessings  being  enjoyed  in 
both. 

The  Apostles  reason  throughout  their  writings  on  the 
same  principle.  We  who  believe,  and  are  united  to  Christ, 
are  children  of  Abraham  and  heirs  of  his  promise.  Gal  3-^ 
Ro  4^^-^^ ;  the  Israel  of  God,  Gal  6^"^,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Israel  according  to  the  flesh,  i  Cor  10^^  ;  the  true  cir- 
cumcision, Phil  3'^,  who  therefore  appropriate  ancient 
promises  (Gen  22^*^-^'^  applied  to  all  believers;  Heb  6^^*'^'^ 
Dt  31^  Jos  l^  quoted  Heb  13^  ;  Ho  i^^  2^^  quoted 
Ro  92*-2«). 

The  Levitical  Law. — After  the  exodus  comes  the 
institution  of  the  ritual  law — its  sacrifices,  priesthood, 
mercy -seat,  tabernacle  and  temple,  and  worship.  All  these, 
it  need  hardly  be  remarked,  are  represented  in  the  Prophets 
as  being  restored  in  the  latter  days,  and  in  the  Gospels  each 
expression  is  applied  to  our  Lord  or  to  His  Church.  He  is 
priest  and  propitiatory  (lAao-rrJpiov,  Ro  3^^°),  tabernacle  (a-Krjvy, 
Jn  i^*),  and  temple  {vao^,  Jn  2^^) ;  as  also,  since  His  as- 
cension, is  His  Church,  i  Cor  3^".  Her  members  offer 
spiritual  offerings.  They  form  a  royal  priesthood,  a  holy 
nation. 

A  Prophetic  Chain. — The  next  prophetic  era  begins  with 
Samuel.  His  chief  office  was  to  prepare  for  the  establish- 
ment of  kingly  authority.  He  was  commissioned,  moreover, 
to  give  to  David  an  assurance  that  his  seed  should  sit  upon 
his  throne  for  ever,  i.  e.  literally,  till  the  end  of  the  kingdom, 
or,  spiritually,  in  the  person  of  his  greater  Son,  till  all 
things  should  be  put  under  His  feet.  Of  this  enlarged 
meaning  Samuel  says  nothing,  nor  does  Nathan  ;  but  David, 


PKOPHECY  :   ITS  CHARACTER  243 

himself  a  prophet,  clearly  understands  it,  applies  it  in  part 
to  himself,  i  Ki  2*,  but  passes  on  the  fullness  of  the  promise 
to  his  Lord,  Ps  2,  72,  no.  All  these  psalms  are  applied,  in 
the  New  Testament,  to  the  kingdom  which  Christ  com- 
menced when  He  appeared  on  earth,  Heb  i®,  or  rose  from 
the  dead,  Ro  i*. 

This  prophetic  era  is  closed  with  the  predictions  of  Amos, 
Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  the  later  prophets.  The  great  theme  of 
their  predictions  is  the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
re-establishment  of  that  dispensation  which  seemed  hasten- 
ing, without  hope  of  remedy,  to  decay ;  and  under  a  twofold 
form  this  theme  is  presented.  The  prophets  who  preceded 
the  Captivity,  and  those  who  lived  in  it,  foretell  a  restoration, 
and  borrow  from  it  phrases  to  describe  the  establishment  of 
a  neiv  kingdom.  Haggai  and  Zechariah  foretell  the  rebuild- 
ing of  a  temple,  and  under  that  figure  speak  of  the  Church. 
After  the  Temple  was  finished,  Jewish  worship  became  selfish 
and  insincere.  Malachi  therefore  foretells  the  coming  of 
one  who  shall  purify  the  sons  of  Levi,  and  secure  from  all 
a  spiritual  offering. 

In  a  word,  the  prophets  describe  the  Church  in  terms 
borrowed  from  successive  stages  in  the  history  of  the 
ancient  economy.  Whether,  because  Old  Testament  pro- 
ij^hecy  is  expressed  in  terms  founded  on  that  economy,  it 
has  therefore  no  further  or  more  literal  fulfilment,  is  another 
question.  In  the  meantime,  mark  the  fact  from  which  that 
question  arises.  The  fact  is  itself  of  great  importance  in 
explaining  both  the  gospel  and  the  Law. 

147.  Prophecy  as  Hebrew  Poetry. — It  must  further 
be  remembered  that  the  language  of  prophecy  is,  in  the 
main,  the  language  of  poetry. 

Much  that  is  contained  in  preceding  sections  regard- 
ing symbol  and  allegory  has  its  chief  exemplification  in 
prophetical  Scripture.     Visions  vouchsafed  on  special  occa- 

B    2 


244     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

sions  have  their  obvious  meaning :  as  of  the  live  coal 
placed  upon  Isaiah*s  lips,  Is.  6  ;  of  the  almond-tree  and 
boiling  cauldron  seen  by  Jeremiah,  ch.  i^^"^*,  and  the  series 
of  visions  recorded  in  the  first  part  of  Zechariah,  ch.  i-6. 
All  these  will  bear  attentive  study.  The  symbolical  actions 
enjoined  upon  the  prophets  were  often  performed  in  vision 
only.  See  Jer  I3^~i^  25^^  27'--2  Eze  3^-^  ^^'^.  Others  no 
doubt  were  literally  carried  out,  as  a  sign  to  the  people, 
Eze  4^~^  and  5^"*,  Zee  6^^.  Such  acted  prophecies  carried 
with  them  their  own  interj^retation. 

The  student  must  therefore  familiarize  himself  with  the 
language  of  prophecy — its  figures  and  symbols.  In  these, 
prophecy  is  more  rich  than  common  history.  Its  poetic 
style  makes  its  usage  in  this  respect  both  necessary  and 
appropriate.  The  meaning  of  these  figures  is  pretty  nearly 
fixed  :  and  though  perhaps  not  clear  to  those  who  first  used 
them,  to  us,  with  the  completed  Bible  in  our  hands,  they 
ought  to  be  familiar. 

Compare,  for  example,  the  following  passages : — 

Descriptions  of  aflflictions  and  distress,  Ps  42'  Is  13^^  29^  34*  Jer  423-26 
Eze  32'^-8  3820  Joel  z^^-^o.si  j^j^  ss-^. 

Interpositions  of  Divine  prctvidence  and  grace  in  delivei-y  from 
dangers,  Ps  iS^-^?  Nah  i^-^  Hab  s^-n  Zee  14^ 

The  joy  of  deliverance.  Is  35^""^  55^^'^^  60^^  65'^^  Joel  4^*. 

A  notable  instance  in  which  this  symbolic  and  imaginative 
aspect  of  prophetic  diction  needs  to  be  taken  into  full  ac- 
count is  our  Lord's  discourse  to  the  disciples  in  Mt  24 
Mk  13  Lu  21.  The  facts  which  He  predicts,  the  truths 
He  declares,  must  be  distinguished  from  the  symbolic 
language  in  which  they  are  conveyed.  To  expect  literal 
and  detailed  fulfilment  of  such  signs  of  His  coming  as  are 
depicted  in  Mk  13-*"^^  would  be  to  confound  poetry  with 
prose,  vision  with  sober  history.  A  comparison  of  the 
passage  with    the   judgements   declared  by  Isaiah    against 


PKOPHECY:    ITS  CHARACTER  245 

Babylon  and   Edom,   and  by  Micah   against   Samaria   and 
Jerusalem,  will  make  this  clear  *. 

148.  Specialities  of  Prophetic  Language. — In  regard 
to  the  language  of  prophecy,  especially  in  its  bearing  upon 
the  future,  the  following  points  should  also  be  noted : — 

1.  The  prophets  often  speak  of  things  that  belong  to  the 
future  as  if  present  to  their  view. 

Thus  in  Is  9'  it  is  said,  '  Unto  us  a  child  is  born,  unto  us  a  son  is 
given.' 

2.  They  speak  of  things  future  as  past. 

In  Is  53,  for  example,  nearly  the  whole  of  the  transactions  of  the 
life  of  the  '  Servant  of  Jehovah  '  are  represented  as  finished. 

3.  When  the  precise  time  of  individual  events  was  not 
revealed,  the  prophets  describe  them  as  continuous.  They 
saw  the  future  rather  in  space  than  in  time  ;  the  whole, 
therefore,  appears  foreshortened  ;  and  perspective,  rather 
than  actual  distance,  is  regarded.  They  seem  often  to  speak 
of  future  things  as  a  common  observer  would  describe  the 
stars,  grouping  them  as  they  appear,  and  not  according  to 
their  true  positions. 

In  Jer  50*^  •''''•,  for  example,  the  first  conquest  and  the  complete  de- 
struction of  Babylon  are  connected,  without  any  notice  of  the  interval 
between  them  ;  in  fact,  nearly  a  thousand  years  elapsed  between  the 
first  shock  to  the  empire  in  the  attack  of  the  Persians,  and  the  final 
overthrow  of  the  city. 

In  Is  10,  II,  the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  yoke  of  the 
Assyrians  is  connected  with  the  deliverance  which  was  to  be  effected 
by  the  Messiah. 

In  the  same  way,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Hosea,  Ezekiel,  and  Jeremiah,  all 
connected  these  two  events,  without  intimating,  however,  that  the 
Messiah  was  to  take  part  in  both. 

In  the  description  which  is  given  of  the  humiliation  and  glory  of 
the  Messiah,  there  is  seldom  any  notice  taken  of  the  time  which  is  to 
elapse  before  His  kingdom  is  established.  Both  are  often  connected, 
as  in  Zee  9^-10  Joel  2^*  *ii- 

*  Is  133-"  34*-5  Mic  i'*. 


246      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

149.  Great    Principle    of    Interpretation.  —  It    is   a 

golden  rule,  that  as  prophecy  is  not  of  '  private '  (or  capri- 
cious) 'interpretation/  2  Pet  120.21^  ^^ch  of  the  predictions 
of  Scripture  must  be  compared  with  others  on  the  same 
topic,  and  with  history,  both  profane  and  inspired.  Parallel 
predictions  will  often  throw  light  upon  one  another,  and 
recorded  fulfilments  will  explain  predictions  or  parts  of 
predictions  still  unfulfilled.  History  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment will  thus  often  fix  the  meaning  of  individual  passages, 
and  these  will  illuminate  and  explain  their  respective  con- 
nexions. 

Compare  in  this  way  the  parallel  predictions  on  Babylon, 
Tyre,  Egypt,  Ammon,  Nineveh,  Edom,  and  Moab. 

Fulfilments  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  may  be  seen  in  the 
sections  on  the  Quotations  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  §  152  sq. 

150.  New  Testament  Applications. — These  principles 
of  prophetic  interpretation  are  sanctioned  by  the  New  Testa- 
ment. We  there  have  the  meaning  of  the  Old  divinely 
declared  ;  and  while  the  sense  of  particular  passages  is 
fixed,  principles  of  interpretation  are  suggested  applicable 
to  all. 

Instead  of  pointing  out  these  principles  at  length,  we 
may  again  notice  one  which  is  suggested  in  almost  every 
chapter  of  the  later  Revelation ". 

The  great  end  and  theme  of  prophecy  is  Christ  ;  either 
in  His  person  and  office,  or  in  the  establishment  of  Hi& 
kingdom.  Under  this  twofold  division  most  of  the  Old 
Testament  predictions  may  be  ranged  :  some  of  them  are 
already  fulfilled,  others  are  in  course  of  fulfilment,  and 
others,  again,  are  to  be  fulfilled  at  some  future  day. 

In  Paradise,  prophecy  gave  the  first  promise  of  a  Redeemer.  In 
Abraham,  it  connected  the  covenants  of  Canaan  and  of  the  gospel. 

*  For  an  illuminating  exposition  of  the  principles  on  which  Old 
Testament  Scripture  is  applied  in  a  book  of  the  New  Testament,  see 
Westcott,  Hebrews^  pp.  469-495- 


PROPHECY  AND  ITS  INTERPEETATION     247 

In  the  Law,  it  spoke  of  the  second  prophet,  and  foreshadowed  in  types 
the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  To  David,  it  revealed  the  kingdom  of 
his  greater  Son.  In  the  days  of  the  later  prophets,  it  presignified  the 
changes  of  the  Judaic  economy  ;  uttered  judgements  upon  the  chief 
pagan  kingdoms,  and  completed  the  announcement  of  the  Messiah. 
After  the  Captivity,  it  gave  clearer  information  still  of  the  advent  of 
the  gospel.  In  the  days  of  our  Lord,  it  spoke  in  parables  and  direct 
predictions  ;  and  at  last,  in  dark  symbolical  language,  foretold  the 
history  and  final  glory  of  His  reign.  '  The  testimony  of  Jesus '  is  indeed 
'  the  spirit  of  prophecy,'  Jn  5'^  Ac  3^^^*  10*'  Ro  i^  32^22  Rev  19'° 

This  fact  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  It  proves  the 
general  scope  of  ancient  predictions,  and  limits  them.  It 
teaches  us  to  seek  Christ  everywhere,  under  both  dispensa- 
tions, and  it  makes  plain  the  general  meaning  of  these 
predictions  themselves. 

151.  Varying  Interpretations  of  Expositors. — A  cer- 
tain difference  of  view  between  expounders  of  prophecy 
may,  in  conclusion,  be  briefly  referred  to.  Many  are  content 
to  rest  in  these  general  interpretations  without  seeking  for 
literal  and  particular  fulfilments.  Giving  great  weight  to 
the  facts  that  the  Jews  were  types,  that  the  distinction 
between  Jew  and  Gentile  is  formally  abolished,  and  that 
our  dispensation  is  spiritual ;  thinking,  moreover,  that  the 
descriptions  in  prophecy,  if  taken  literally,  would  lead  to 
a  belief  in  the  restoration  of  Judaism,  and  in  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  system  adapted  to  the  infancy  rather  than  the 
maturity  of  the  Church  ;  finding  that  these  descriptions,  so 
far  as  the  re-establishment  of  the  Jews  is  concerned,  are  not 
repeated  in  the  New  Testament,  and  that  many  prophecies 
which  seem  to  apply  to  them  as  a  nation  are  referred  in 
the  New  Testament  to  the  Church,  or  to  the  conversion  of 
the  Jews,  Ac  2^'^~2i  j^q  ii26  .  ^j^^y  conclude  that  a  spiritual 
interpretation  of  the  Avhole  series  is  most  consistent  with 
the  tenor  of  Scripture. 

Another  class  of  biblical  students  go  further.  Much  of 
this  reasoning  they  admit  to  be  true ;  deeming  it,  however, 


248      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

not  all  the  truth.  Finding  that  predictions  even  of  spiritual 
blessing  have  had  for  the  most  part  a  literal  accomplishment ; 
that  the  Jews  are  spoken  of  under  both  dispensations  as  still 
beloved  for  their  fathers'  sakes  ;  that  many  prophecies  (those, 
for  example,  which  speak  of  Israel  and  Judah  in  terms 
either  inapplicable  to  the  first  return,  or  written  after  it, 
Is  11^^  Ho  3^  Zee  14)  remain  unfulfilled  ;  that  the  language 
of  these  prophecies,  though  often  applicable  in  a  general 
sense  to  the  Christian  Church,  cannot  be  confined  to  it 
without  doing  violence  to  the  commonest  rules  of  speech  ; 
that  in  the  New  Testament  prophecies  having  undoubtedly 
an  early  fulfilment  in  Jewish  history,  or  in  the  Christian 
Church  (as  Is  13^-^^  25^  Hag  2%  seem  referred  to  as  having 
fulfilments  still  future  (Mt  24^^  i  Cor  155*  Heb  1226) ;  they 
maintain  that,  besides  a  first  accomplishment  of  many 
predictions  in  the  history  of  the  Jews,  and  the  spiritual 
accomplishment  of  others  under  the  gospel,  many  remain 
to  be  fulfilled  in  a  literal  and  more  extended  sense.  They 
hold  therefore,  throughout,  the  principle  of  literal  interpre- 
tation, whether  the  predictions  refer  to  the  restoration  of 
the  Jews — to  the  second,  i.  e.  the  pre-millenial  advent  of 
Christ,  or  to  the  establishment  of  His  reign. 

Between  these  two  methods  of  interpretation  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  in  the  foregoing  discussion  must  decide. 
It  may  at  least  be  safely  asserted  that,  concerning  the  precise 
times  foretold  in  the  Scripture,  it  is  clearly  not  God's  in- 
tention to  give  us  exact  knowledge.  These  are  put  in  His 
own  power.  The  prophecy  sustains  our  hope,  and  elevates 
our  feelings.  It  assures  us  of  the  final  issue,  and  lays  down 
certain  prognostics  highly  useful  for  a  moral  and  spiritual 
discernment  of  the  Divine  purpose,  without  the  indulgence 
of  an  unhallowed  curiosity.  Even  in  prophecies  which  have 
been  fulfilled,  the  dates  are  often  difficult  of  adjustment ; 
a  fact  that  should  suggest  humility  and  modesty  in  inter- 
preting prophecies  whpse  fulfiln>ent  is  yet  to  cpnj^, 


QUOTATIONS  OF  OLD  TESTAMENT  IN  NEW   249 


Quotations  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New 

152.  Value  of  the  Study. — The  quotations  made  in 
the  New  Testament  from  the  Old  form  a  subject  of  much 
interest.  They  explain  ancient  types,  history,  and  predic- 
tions. They  exemplify  sound  principles  of  interpretation, 
and  show  in  various  ways  the  connexion  between  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments. 

These  quotations  may  be  studied  for  a  double  purpose — 
either  to  ascertain  the  verbal  variations  between  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  New,  and  the  lessons  taught  thereby,  or  to 
determine  the  spiritual  truths  and  principles  of  interpreta- 
tion which  these  quotations  involve.  To  this  twofold 
division  we  shall  adhere  in  the  following  remarks. 

Number  of  quotations. — These  quotations  are  very  nu- 
merous, having  been  reckoned  to  amount  to  263  ;  references 
less  direct  being  in  number  376,  or  together,  639.  These 
numbers  are  slightly  varied  by  some  expositors,  the  less 
obvious  references  being  either  added  or  omitted.  But 
according  to  the  above  estimate,  there  are  in — 


Quota- 

Refer- 

Quota- 

Refer- 

Quota- 

Refer- 

tions. 

ences. 

Gal       . 

tions. 

ences. 

Jas       . 

tions. 

ences. 

Mt     . 

37 

43 

9 

5 

5 

10 

Mk    . 

17 

10 

Eph     . 

4 

3 

I  Pet    . 

ro 

9 

Lu     . 

19 

3f 

Phil     . 

2 

2  Pet   . 

I 

9 

Jn      . 

15 

19 

Col       . 

— 

2 

I  .Jn     . 

— 

4 

Ac     . 

31 

21 

aTh     . 

— 

2 

Ju   .     . 

— 

4 

Ko     . 

52 

15 

I  Tim  . 

I 

4 

Rev      . 

I 

115 

I  Cor 

18 

17 

2  Tim  . 

I 

2  Cor 

9 

6 

Heb      . 

33 

44 

Quotations  from  the  Pentateuch  amount  to  90,  and  refer- 
ences to  it  to  upwards  of  100  ;  from  the  Psalms  71,  references 
30 ;  from  Isaiah  56,  references  48  ;  from  the  Minor  Pro- 
phets about  30 ^ 

*  Jn  some  editions,  both  of  the  Greek  and  English  New  Testament, 


250      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

The  formulas  of  quotations  are  most  generally  ^  that  it 
might  be  fulfilled ' ;  *  it  is  (or  has  been)  written  ^'  -,  '  the 
Scripture  saith,'  with  similar  expressions.  The  first  of 
these  forms  is  most  frequently  used  by  Matthew,  also  by 
John  and  Paul ;  the  second  is  employed  in  the  Gospels, 
Acts,  and  Paul's  Epistles  ;  never  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  This  second  also  is  the  principal  form  of  citation 
in  the  Old  Testament,  by  the  later  writers  from  the  earlier. 

Quotations  analysed. — Quotations  have  been  classified 
as  prophetic,  demonstrative,  explanatory,  or  illustrative : 
prophetic,  including  those  that  refer  to  Christ  and  the  gospel, 
(i)  immediately,  as  Mt  4^^-^^,  or  (2)  typically ;  i.  e.  they  in- 
dicate primarily  some  typical  event  or  person,  and  then 
some  other  event  or  person  under  the  gospel,  as  Jn  19^'^ : 
demonstrative,  proving  some  statement,  as  Jn  6^^  :  explanatory, 
explaining  some  statement  or  fact,  as  Heb  12-";  and  illus- 
trative, when  expressions  are  taken  from  the  Old  Testament 
with  a  new  meaning,  as  Ro  10^^.  Some,  of  course,  are  both 
demonstrative  and  explanatory,  i.  e.  they  explain,  and  prove 
by  examples,  some  general  truth,  as  Gal  3^^.  Prophetic 
quotations  referring  to  our  Lord,  or  His  Church,  amount 
to  about  120.  These  have  already  been  discussed  in  the 
section  on  the  Interpretation  of  Prophecy,  §  146. 

153.  Sources  of  quotations.     The    Septuagint. — The 

quotations  are  generally  made  from  the  LXX ;  sometimes 
from  the  Hebrew,  varying  more  or  less  from  the  LXX  ; 
and  still  more  frequently  they  express  the  general  sense 
without  verbal  exactness.  Sometimes  they  are  strict  and 
verbal ;  sometimes  widely  paraphrastic  or  greatly  abbreviated. 
They    are    usually   quotations   from    memory  ;    as   shown, 

the  citations  are  usefully  designated  by  a  difference  of  type.  See 
especially  the  Greek  Testament  edited  by  Westcott  and  Hort. 

*  Tiypa-mai.  Luther's  German  Bible  happily  expresses  the  force  of 
the  perfect  tense  by  the  phraae  steket  geschrieben,  it  '  stands  written.' 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  QUOTATIONS    251 

among  other  indications,  by  the  varying  uses  of  the  Divine 
names,  '  God  '  and  '  Lord '  (Jehovah). 

For  paraphrastic  or  abbreviated  quotations,  see  Mt  13^'  (Ps  78^) 
Mt  222*  (Dt  255)  Ro  92'^  (Ho  223j  Ro  io«-8  (Dt  30^2.13)  j  c^r  i^i  (Jer  92*), 
&c.  The  omission  by  the  tempter  (Mt  4^  Lu  4^°)  of  the  words  'in  all 
thy  ways,'  Ps  91^^,  is  perhaps  significant. 

Quotations  are  sometimes  combined,  Mk  i"^-^  (Mai  3^  Is  40')  Ro  11" 
(Is  29^*^  Dt  29*)  2  Cor  615-^8  (Lev  26^^  Is  52^^  Jer  31^).  See  especially 
Ro  3IO-18. 

Language  of  the  Quotations. 

Looking  to  the  phraseology  of  these  quotations,  it  may 
be  observed : 

1.  To  a  certain  extent  they  may  be  applied  to  correct  the 
text  of  the  Septuagint.  This  rule,  however,  is  not  of  ex- 
tensive application,  from  the  fact  that  the  citations  are  not 
in  general  verbal,  and  that  sometimes  they  are  independent 
renderings  from  the  Hebrew. 

2.  Occasionally  the  quotations  in  the  New  Testament  are 
useful  in  the  criticism  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old. 

In  Hab  i^,  for  example,  for  'among  the  heathen,'  read 
'ye  despisers,'  as  in  Ac  13*'  ;  the  LXX  translators  having 
evidently  read  not  D 'is?  Baggoywi,  but  D^P^  Bozlm.  So  Is  29^^ 
and  Mt  is^-^  (not  ^7n,  shall  he,  but  ^nn^  vanity) ;  Gen  47^1 
and  Heb  ii^^  (the  Hebrew  words  for  sto#and  heel  differing 
only  in  the  vowel-points :  see  §  25)  ;  Am  9^^-^^  and  Ac  15^' 
{Edom  and  man  being  the  same  word  differently  pointed) ;  Ps 
16^0  ('holy  ones'  in  the  K'thihh,  although  the  Massorites  give 
the  singular)  and  Ac  2-"  ;  Ho  13^*  and  i  Cor  i^^^  {I  will  he 
and  }V7iere?  being  almost  alike  in  Hebrew,  excepting  in  the 
vowels).  In  Ho  14^  the  word  for  calves  differs  only  in  a  single 
letter  from  fruit  (Heb  i^^^).  Or  perhaps  '  calves '  may  be 
a  metonym  for  '  sacrifice.' 

After  all  these  corrections  have  been  made,  however,  a 
large  number  of  passages  remain  which  do  not  agree  with 
the  exact  words  either  of  the  LXX,  or   of  the   Hebrew. 


252      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

About  one-half  of  the  quotations,  in  fact,  give  rather  the 
sense  than  the  words.  See  Ro  15^2  (jg  jjioj  j  Qqj.  iSi 
(Jer  9^4)  I  Cor  2^  (Is  64^).  Sometimes,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  whole  argument  is  made  to  turn  on  the  very  terms 
employed,  as  in  Heb  3^"^^  (Ps  95^"~^0  ^^^  3^^  (Gen  22^^)  i  Cor 
15*5  (Gen  2^). 

154.  Use  of  the  Hebrew  original. — In  particular  pas- 
sages the  New  Testament  writers  translate  directly  from 
the  Hebrew. 

Matthew,  for  example,  while  generally  using  the  LXX, 
in  passages  which  refer  to  the  Messiah  pays  special  attention 
to  the  original,  which  he  closely  follows. 


Variations- 
While  most  of  the  variations  between  the  New  Testa- 
ment and  the  Old  are  explained  on  the  principle  that  it  is 
rather  the  sense  than  the  words  that  are  quoted,  there  is 
sometimes  an  obvious  purpose  in  the  variation. 

To  fit  a  quotation  to  the  context,  the  number,  or  the  person,  or  the 
tense,  or  the  voice,  is  changed,  Lu  4^2  ^Dt  ^u^  jj^  8^°  (Is  6^)  Jn  19^^ 
(Ex  12*6). 

To  suit  the  argument,  or  to  suggest  an  additional  lesson,  the  mean- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  is  narrowed  in  the  quotation,  the  larger  meaning 
including  the  less  :  thus, — 

In  Ac  3,^'^  Peter,  in  quoting  Gen  22^^,  uses  'kindreds'  instead  of 
'nations,'  suggesting  to  his  Jewish  hearers  that  the  Gentiles  were 
tlieir  brethren. 

In  Heb  i*"  we  have  angels  instead  of  'gods,'  as  in  Ps  97"^.  The 
original  means  '  mighty  ones,'  and  is  applied  to  God,  false  gods,  angels, 
and  generally  to  those  high  in  authority.  The  Apostle  takes  the 
narrower  meaning,  and  omits  the  i*est. 

In  Ro  ii'^^  the  Avord  'Deliverer'  is  used  instead  of  'Redeemer,' 
Is  59'^*^.  After  Christ  had  appeared,  the  latter  term  would  have  been 
ambiguous  in  this  passage. 

So  in  I  Cor  3^^*,  quoted  from  Ps  94",  for  'men'  tlie  Apostle  reads 
*  wise,'  and  in  Mt  4^*^  our  Lord  says  '  worship,'  instead  of  '  fear,'  t)t  6". 
§0  Ro  14^^  ' confess  '  for  'swear,'  Is  45''. 


OLD  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS  253 

In  Joel  2"^  *  servants  and  handmaidens  *  appear  as  a  class  ;  in  Ac  2^' 
(also  LXX)  character  is  signified,  '  My  servants/  &c. 

In  John,  also,  and  the  Pauline  Epistles,  there  are  indications  of  the 
writers'  familiarity  with  the  Hebrew.  The  quotations  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  are  almost  wholly  from  the  LXX,  and  generally 
verbatim. 

In  Mt  9^'  and  12"^  the  quotation  from  Ho  6'  is  according  to  the 
Hebrew,  '  and  not  sacrifice.'     The  LXX  have  '  rather  than  sacrifice.' 

See  also  Mt  26^^  and  Zee  13"^  'the  sliepherd '  (LXX  'shepherds'); 
Ro  ii7  (Gal  3")  and  Hab  2*  'by  (his)  faith'  (LXX  'by  my  faith')  ; 
Ro  I  s^^  *  ye  Gentiles '  (Dt  32*=*  LXX  '  ye  heavens ')  ;  i  Cor  1 5"  and  Is  25* 
'  He  will  swallow  up  death  in  victory,'  or  '  for  ever '  (LXX  *  death 
prevailing  hath  swallowed  (men)  up ')  ;  i  Pet  4**  and  Pr  lo^^  '  love 
covereth  all  sins'  (LXX  *  friendship  covereth  all  who  love  not  strife'). 
It  will  be  seen  that,  in  the  last  two  cases,  unless  the  LXX  had  a 
different  Hebi'ew  text,  they  entirely  missed  the  meaning. 

In  Mk  i'^  and  Lu  7'^'^  the  quotation  from  Mai  3^,  'before  Me' 
(Hebrew  and  LXX),  becomes  'before  Thy  face.'  In  Jn  19^''  (Zee  12^°) 
we  have  'upon  Him,'  instead  of  the  Hebrew  and  LXX  'upon  Me.' 
In  Ro  3^*  (Ps  10'^)  the  singular  is  turned  into  plural  ;  in  Ac  7***  (Is  66^2) 
the  affirmative  into  interrogative.  In  Mic  5^  Bethlehem  is  described 
as  'little  to  be  among  the  thousands  of  Judah,'  in  Mt  2^  as  'not  the 
least.'  In  Ac  7*^  the  exile  '  beyond  Damascus,'  predicted  in  Am  5^'^, 
is  extended  to  '  beyond  Babylon.' 

Synonymous  expressions  are  frequently  employed.  Ac 
2^^  (Ps  16'^)  Hebrew,  '  my  glory  ' ;  LXX  and  New  Testament 
'  my  tongue.'  Ro  15^^  (Is  11^^)  '  shall  stand  for  an  ensign'; 
LXX  and  New  Testament,  '  shall  arise  to  rule.'  Ho  14^ 
(Heb  13^^)  has  been  noticed  above. 

Sometimes,  again,  parts  of  a  prediction  are  omitted,  be- 
cause not  required  by  the  argument,  or  because  likely  to 
raise  a  question  which  the  inspired  writer  did  not  at  the 
time  intend  to  discuss. 

In  quoting  Zee  9^,  for  example,  Mt  21"  omits  '  bringing  galyation,' 
as  that  fact  was  not  at  the  time  apparent. 

Sometimes,  again,  the  New  Testament  quotation  is  more  clearly 
expressed  than  the  LXX,  and  sometimes  it  brings  out  the  idea  more 
fully  even  than  the  original  itself. 

Compare,  in  illustration,  the  LXX  version  of  Job  5^^  with  the 
Apostle's  quotation,  i  Cor  3'* ;  and  similarly,  the  Hebrew,  LXX,  and 
English  version  of  Is  29^*,  with  i  Cor  i^*. 


254     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

While,  therefore,  the  general  principle  seems  to  be  that 
the  inspired  writers  preserve  rather  the  thoughts  than  the 
words  of  the  original,  we  must  not  hastily  conclude  that 
verbal  variations  are  without  meaning  or  inaccurate. 

Qiiotations  in  the  Apocalypse. — The  quotations  in  the 
Book  of  Revelation,  which  are  generally  indirect,  are  of  great 
interest.  They  connect  the  predictions  of  the  two  economies, 
and  throw  light  upon  the  meaning  of  the  symbolical  lan- 
guage of  the  sacred  volume. 

Important  Variations.  Sometimes  the  LXX  and  New 
Testament  appear  materially  to  differ  from  the  Hebrew, 
while  substantially  expressing  the  same  thought.  Thus, 
the  phrase  in  Ps  51"^, '  when  Thou  judgest,'  becomes  in  Ro  3"* 
'  when  Thou  comest  into  judgement '  (R.  V.  and  LXX).  That 
is,  God's  judgements,  rightly  estimated,  are  proved  to  be  just 
—  one  truth  in  two  different  aspects. 

Again,  in  Is  53^  it  is  said  of  the  suffering  Servant  of 
Jehovah,  'By  oppression  and  judgement  He  was  taken  away  ' 
(as  R.  V.) ;  in  the  LXX  and  Ac  8^^,  '  In  His  humiliation 
His  judgement  was  taken  away.'  The  Hebrew  speaks  of 
iniquitous  'judgement'  inflicted;  the  translation,  of  just 
judgement  denied.  But  both  present  only  different  aspects 
of  the  same  fact. 

In  Heb  10^  (and  LXX)  words  from  Ps  40^  read,  'A  body 
hast  Thou  prepared  me ' ;  the  Hebrew  original  has  '  Mine 
ears  hast  Thou  opened.'  Unnecessary  conjectures*  have 
been  offered  to  explain  the  discrepancy ;  but  the  truth 
expressed  in  both  readings  is  the  same  —  the  worth  of 
obedience  in  comparison  with  ritual.  '  The  body  is  the 
instrument  for  fulfilling  the  Divine  command,  just  as  the 

*  As  that  the  word  for  'opened'  (lit.  'digged')  refers  to  the  pierc- 
ing of  the  ear  as  a  symbol  of  life-long  servitude  (Ex  21^)  :  or  that 
a  copyist  of  the  Hebrew,  or  else  of  the  Greek,  mistook  a  word.  See 
any  critical  commentary. 


OLD  TESTAMENT  QUOTATIONS  255 

ear  is  the  instrument  for  receiving  it '  (Westcott).  The  LXX 
thus  gives  a  free  translation  of  the  Hebrew. 

In  Ps  68^^  (Hebrew  and  LXX)  the  Conqueror,  entering 
the  sanctuary,  is  apostrophized  ;  '  Thou  hast  received  gifts 
for  men.'  The  Apostle  Paul,  in  applying  these  words  to 
Christ  at  His  ascension,  writes  :  '  He  gave  gifts  unto  men,* 
Eph  4^.  The  tribute  laid  at  the  Saviour's  feet  was,  in 
another  view,  the  salvation  of  men.  So,  to  receive  and 
to  give  were  one. 

155.  Untraced  quotations. — Some  quotations  have  not 
been  traced  to  their  sources : — 

Mt  22S  from  'the  prophets,'  'He  shall  be  called  a  Nazarene,'  not 
*a  Nazarite,'  as  the  Rlieims  version — a  different  word;  and  see  Mt 
iiis.ia — jjQp  4^  Branch'  (netser  Is  ii^),  which  would  be  inapplicable. 
The  reference  appears  to  be  general — to  those  passages  which  speak  of 
our  Lord's  humiliation. 

Jn  ^^^,  also  a  general  reference  to  Old  Testament  imagery.  Is  44'  55^ 

Eph  5^*,  probably  based  upon  Is  6o\  with  the  Apostle's  commentary. 

Jas  4^  The  thought  is  the  same  as  that  in  Ex  20^  *I  Jehovah  thy 
God  am  a  jealous  God,'  but  there  is  no  direct  quotation.  The  difficulty 
is  not  escaped  by  a  rendering  such  as  that  of  the  R.V. 

Bearing  of  Quotations  upon  Doctrine. 

156.  Truths  common  to  "both  Testaments. — The  chief 

instruction,  however,  to  be  gathered  from  New  Testament 
quotations  relates  to  the  truths  taught  by  them.  They 
illustrate  the  doctrines  and  ethics  of  the  ancient  Scriptures, 
and  of  both  dispensations ;  they  supply  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  Scripture  ;  and  they  suggest  important  rules  of 
biblical  interpretation. 

I.  Life  by  faith,  salvation  through  Christ,  and  the  duty 
of  holiness  are  all  taught  to  the  Jewish  and  Gentile  Church 
from  the  ancient  Scriptures. 

Salvation  by  faith,  and  through  Christ,  proved  by  quotations  and 
references  in  Ro  i^'  Gal  3«^"i6  Ro  41^-11  i  Pet  a^ "^  Jn  8««.     Faith,  from 


256     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

its  relation  to  something  which  is  righteousness,  is  counted  as  righteous- 
ness, Ro  ^^-*.  Men  are  condemned  through  unbelief,  Heb  s''"^".  See 
also  Heb  S^-^o. 

Election  of  grace,  and  the  promise  as  wide  as  the  Fall,  Ro  ii'  lo*'. 

Holiness  essential,  consists  in  love,  and  is  enforced  by  Divine 
example,  a  Cor  6^6  Mt  23"-39  i  Pet  ii«  Mt  23-'. 

Grace  given  to  the  humble,  and  iu  largest  measure  to  those  who  use 
it  best,  Jas  4". 

Present  temporal  blessing  connected  with  obedience  even  under  the 
gospel,  Eph  6-»  I  Pet  3^0  ". 

Special  doctrines. — The  passages  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  which  we  have  referred  as  implying  the  Divinity  of  the 
Messiah  and  the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit  are  quoted 
in  the  New  Testament  with  the  same  view.  Mark  especially 
the  following: — 

The  stone  of  stumbling  on  which  Israel  fell  is  said  in  Isaiah  to  be 
Jehovah  Himself,  Is  S^^  1*  Ro  93233  iqIi^  g^  j^  Is  45'^^-^^  the  speaker 
is  called  Jehovah,  and  to  Him  every  knee  is  to  bow.  His  language  is 
quoted  by  Paul,  Ro  14^*,  to  prove  that  all  must  submit  to  Christ. 

The  vision  described  in  la  6^-'^°  is  spoken  of  by  John  as  a  sight  of 
Christ's  glory,  Jn  12*1  ;  and  the  '  voice  of  the  Lord '  which  spake  to 
the  prophet  is  called  by  Paul  the  Holy  Ghost,  Ac  28-'*. 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  i6-«io  passages  which  refer  to  One 
Who  is  spoken  of  as  the  Ruler  of  the  world,  the  unchangeable  Creator, 
Ps  97^  45^'^  102^^-'^,  are  applied  to  the  Son  of  God. 

That  the  ancient  Church  had  at  least  some  glimpses  of  immortality, 
the  resurrection,  and  a  future  judgement,  may  be  gathered  from 
Mt  22"  Heb  n6i3.i4  I  Cqj.  j^55  (^gge  J^  14. ib)  ^^d  the  various  passages 
in  which  the  great  day  of  the  Lord  is  named,  i  Th  5^^  Rev  6^''  (Joel  a^^ 
Mai  4»  Pa  17I5  Job  19^8  ai^o  Dn  12'^  Ho  13I*). 

157.  Old  Testament  f or eshado wings. — The  principles 
involved  in  Old  Testament  history  may  be  applied  to  the 
experience  of  the  Church  under  the  gospel :  whether  that 
history  illustrate  human  character  or  God's  dispensations, 
Ro  g^'^  Gal  422-31  Ro  8^6  (Ps  44-2)  i  Cor  loi-^i  Heb  s'^-^o 
jq26-3o^  or  whether  the  significance  lies  in  special  facts 
and  incidents  parallel  or  mutually  illustrative  in  the  two 
dispensations. 

This  resemblance,  moreover,  is  often  shown  to  have  been 


BEAKING  OF  QUOTATIONS  UPON  DOCTRINE  257 

predetermined.  An  interesting  series  of  quotations  applies 
leading  incidents  of  Israelite  history  to  the  events  which 
the  New  Testament  records  ;  not  simply  by  way  of  illustra- 
tion: there  is  a  divinely  arranged  accordance  between  the  two. 
See  I  Cor  lo^,  '  These  things  were  our  examples  *  {tvttol). 
Compare  §  140.  The  formula  'That  it  might  be  fulfilled' 
does  not  mean  precisely  that  events  were  framed  with  a 
view  to  the  accomplishment  of  certain  prophecies,  but  that 
they  occurred  according  to  a  Divine  purpose,  shadowed 
forth  in  earlier  days.  Thus  the  declaration  of  Jehovah 
that  Israel  His  child  was  called  from  Egypt,  Ho  ii^,  is 
applied  to  the  infant  Saviour,  Mt  2}^ ;  that  is,  in  both 
cases,  Egypt  was  the  cradle  of  the  Church.  The  poetic 
representation  by  Jeremiah  of  the  mother-spirit  of  Rachel 
wailing  above  her  tomb  over  the  desolation  wrought  by  the 
exile  of  her  descendants  from  their  land  prefigures  the 
lamentation  of  the  mothers  in  Bethlehem  over  their  infants 
slain,  Jer  31  ^^  Mt  2^^.  So  again,  the  departure  from 
Babylon  foreshadowed  the  separation  of  Christians  from  the 
world.  Compare  2  Cor  6^''-'^^  with  Is  52^^ -^2.  The  com- 
parative study  of  the  Old  Testament  history  throughout, 
together  with  the  prophecies  cited  by  Evangelists  and 
Apostles,  is  fraught  with  instruction. 

Passages  in  the  prophets  which  contain  general  promises, 
or  are  descriptive  of  classes,  are,  of  course,  repeatedly 
fulfilled.  They  are,  in  fact,  general  principles.  See  the 
quotations  of  Is  29^^  in  Mt  15^*^  Ac  13^^  ;  and  Heb  13^ 
from  Jos  i^. 

Double  falfilmeuts.  —  Predictions,  properly  so  called, 
may  thus  have  a  double  fulfilment ;  a  fact  of  which 
various  explanations  have  been  given.     Compare  §  146. 

Sometimes,  for  example,  (i)  the  persons  or  things  are 
types,  one  of  the  other ;  (2)  sometimes  they  are,  in  certain 
aspects,  identical ;  and  (3)  sometimes  the  events  referred 
to  are  so  closely  blended  as  to  be  scarcely  distinguishable, 

8 


258      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

1.  The  promise  to  Abraham,  for  example,  that  he  sliould  be  the 
father  of  a  numerous  seed,  is  applied  literally  by  Moses,  Dt  i^°  ;  by 
Paul  it  is  applied  to  those  who  are  partakers  of  his  faith,  Ro  4'^ 
To  this  class  belong  such  passages  as  Ex  12*^  (the  Paschal  lamb, 
Jn  ip''^),  and  the  promise  concerning  Solomon,  a  Sa  7'*,  with  the 
corresponding  psalms,  as  132^'. 

2.  In  another  epistle,  Paul  says  expressly  that  the  seed  in  whom  the 
nations  are  to  be  blessed  is  Christ,  and  then,  that  all  who  are  Christ's 
are  the  seed  and  heirs  of  the  promise,  Gal  3^6.29^  r^Q  j^j^[g  second  class 
belong  such  passages  as  Ps  8-~',  applicable  first  to  man  as  the  chief  of 
God's  creatures,  and  thence  to  our  Lord,  Who  is  in  this  respect 
identified  with  us,  or  (it  may  be  said)  our  antitype  :  Ps  gi^^-^^, 
applicable  first  to  all  who  'say  of  the  Lord,  He  is  my  refuge' 
(verse  2^,  and  peculiarly,  therefore,  to  Christ ;  and  various  psalms 
which,  originally  descriptive  of  the  afflictions  of  individual  believers, 
have  their  fullest  accomplishment  in  our  Lord,  Pss  eg'-^^-^s  1098  41' 

J  1822.25.26^ 

3.  Such  are  the  predictions  in  Is  40^'""^  where  the  coming  of  our 
Lord  in  the  flesh,  and  the  final  extension  of  His  truth,  are  blended  ; 
in  Mai  3^"^  where  we  have  the  same  double  reference,  and  in 
Joel  2-^"^"^  Compare  the  New  Testament  quotations.  Of  the  same 
character  are  the  predictions  of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  in 
Mt  24,  25,  where  are  represented  also  some  of  the  awful  transactions 
of  the  last  judgement. 

If  it  be  said  thnt  this  double  fulfilment  (whatever  the 
explanation)  weakens  the  evidence  of  prophecy,  it  should 
be  remembered  in  reply,  that  the  facts  on  w^hich  it  is 
founded — the  typical  nature,  for  example,  of  the  earlier 
economy,  with  the  complete  identity  of  Christ's  interests 
and  those  of  His  Church — themselves  supply  both  evidence 
and  consolation  ;  while  many  of  the  psalms '■\  and  predic- 
tions of  our  Lord  taken  from  the  Prophets,  cannot  be 
satisfactorily  interpreted  apart  from  Him. 

On  the  subject  of  this  chapter,  Surenhusius,  The  Book  of  Reconciliation, 
1 7 13,  is  still  the  standard  treatise  ;  Randolph,  Prophecies  and  other  Old 
Testament  Texts  cited  in  the  New  Testament,  1782,  is  also  valuable.     Home's 

*  Psalms  2,  22  45,  no  ;  and  probably  40.  16,  and  72.  Psalms  22,  40  ; 
embody  the  experience  of  the  suffering  Messiah  ;  2,  45.  72,  and  no 
describe  His  victories  and  glory. 


SCRIPTURE   DIFFICULTIES  259 

Introduction,  Dr.  Davidson's  Hermeneutics,  Gough's  New  Testament  Quota^ 
tionSj  1855,  and  Turpic's  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  1868,  all  contain 
complete  lists  of  the  parallel  passages  in  Hebrew,  Greek  (LXX  and 
New  Testament),  and  English,  with  comments. 


Scripture  Difficulties 

*  In  divinity  many  things  must  be  left  abrupt  and  concluded  with 
this  : — "0  the  depth  !"  .  .  .  For  the  inditer  of  Scripture  did  know 
four  things  which  no  man  attains  to  know, — the  mysteries  of  the 
kingdom  of  glory,  the  perfection  of  the  laws  of  nature,  the  secrets  of 
the  heart  of  man,  and  the  future  succession  of  all  ages.' — Bacon, 

158.  Difficulties  to  "be  expected. — The  Bible  was  written 
'  for  our  learning,'  and  by  *  inspiration  of  God,'  and  yet  it  is 
confessed  that  its  general  clearness  is  obscured  by  'things 
hard  to  be  understood.'  Christians  are  often  harassed  by 
objections  deduced  from  them,  and  unbelievers  make  them 
an  excuse  for  rejecting  the  authority  of  revelation.  What, 
it  may  be  asked,  is  their  origin,  their  solution,  their  use, 
and  how  far  are  they  consistent  with  the  character  and  aim 
of  the  Bible  as  an  inspired  book  ? 

The  Bible  consists,  it  may  be  answered,  of  many  separate 
books.  Their  origin  is  manifold.  The  languages  in  which 
they  were  composed  are  disused  ;  they  are  distinct  from 
each  other,  and  different  from  our  own.  The  expressions, 
images,  and  thoughts  that  the  Bible  contains  belong  to 
different  ages,  countries,  and  persons ;  the  manners  and 
customs  it  describes  have  passed  away  ;  its  topics  are  the 
most  various  and  comprehensive,  including  the  history,  in 
part,  of  all  nations  and  of  all  times ;  and  it  contains  dis- 
closures and  precepts  which  refer  to  both  worlds,  expressed 
necessarily  in  terms  taken  from  one  only  ;  and  the  whole 
revelation  is  included  in  a  brief  volume.  Let  those  and 
kindred  facts  be  remembered,  and  it  will  be  seen  at  once 
that,  to  give  within  so  narrow  a  range,  and  even  to  give  at 
all,  to  mortal,  finite  minds,  a  revelation  that  shall  be  free 

s  2 


260      THE  INTEKPEETATION  OF  SCKIPTURE 

from  difficulty  is  impossible.  Difficulties  there  must  be, 
such  as  need  a  larger  amount  of  inquiry  than  any  one  man 
can  give,  and  such  as  will  leave,  after  the  utmost  inquiry, 
much  to  be  hereafter  explained. 

Unreal  and  imaginary  difficulties. — Many,  however, 
are  unreal ;  and  it  is  important  to  make  sure,  at  the  outset 
of  inquiry,  that  the  difficulty  really  exists.  Perplexities  and 
doubts  may,  in  numberless  cases,  be  removed  by  a  better 
knowledge  of  the  text  of  Scripture,  by  the  correction  of 
inaccurate  translation,  by  an  acquaintance  with  the  manners 
and  customs  of  the  age  and  country  in  which  a  book  was 
written,  and  by  a  wider  application  of  historical  facts.  Such 
difficulties  are  met,  to  a  great  extent,  in  the  sections  of  the 
present  work  devoted  to  these  special  subjects  ^.  Some 
difficulties,  however,  not  thus  foreclosed  may  still  arise  in 
connexion  with  particular  passages,  as  well  as  with  the 
spiritual  and  moral  teaching  of  Scripture. 

159.  Difficult  phrases  and  passages. — Thus  there  are 
phrases  and  passages  of  which  the  meaning  is  obscure. 
This  obscurity,  in  many  cases,  is  due  to  our  ignorance  of 
some  special  illustrative  fact,  or  of  the  exact  meaning  of 
words ;  and  many  a  misundei'stood  text  has  been  cleared 
up  by  larger  knowledge  and  deeper  study. 

Such,  however,  as  the  following  still  remain. 

Jn  i^®,  *  grace  for  {avri,  "instead  of")  grace,'  has  created  difficulty. 
'For  the  benefits  of  the  Law  we  have  the  blessings  of  the  gospel,' 
Chrys.,  Beza,  Erasmus  :  '  additional  grace  for  grace  properly  used,' 
Le  Clerc  :  *  grace  on  account  of  the  grace  of  Chi*ist,'  Grot. :  *  grace 
upon  grace,'  i.  e.  abundance,  so  most  moderns  :  '  each  blessing  appro- 
priated becomes  the  foundation  of  a  greater  blessing.  To  have  realized 
and  used  one  measure  of  grace,  was  to  have  gained  a  larger  measure 
as  if  in  exchange  for  it '  (Westcott). 

»  On  the  text,  see  Ch.  IV  throughout ;  on  translation,  Ch.  VII, 
especially  the  sections  on  the  R.  V.  ;  on  history,  chronology,  and  the 
notions  and  usages  prevalent  in  Scripture  lands  and  times,  the  different 
parts  of  Ch.  IX. 


SCRIPTURE   DIFFICULTIES  261 

Heb  12^'^,  *  though  he  sought  it  can^fully  with  tears.'  Sought  what? 
Repentance  (his  own  or  his  father's)  ? — grammatically  the  nearer  ante- 
cedent ;  or  the  blessing  of  his  father  ?— the  remoter  antecedent.  The 
latter  interpretation  best  agrees  with  the  history,  Gen  27^*. 

1  Cor  n^*',  '  For  this  cause  ought  the  woman  to  have  power  (properly 
*'  authority")  on  her  head,  because  of  the  angels.'  '  To  have  power  on,' 
that  is,  probably,  to  have  a  veil-covering  (the  sign  of  man's  authority), 
although  the  word  never  has  this  meaning  elsewhere.  So  Bishop 
Ellicott  renders  :  '  For  this  cause  ought  the  woman  to  bear  [the  sign 
of]  authority  [resting]  on  her  head.'  With  this  the  R.  V.  nearly 
concurs.  *  Because  of  the  angels,'  i.  e.  either  evil  angels,  who  will  be 
gratified  by  indecency,  or  good  angels  who  observe  her  conduct,  Eccl  5^; 
or,  the  teachers  of  the  churches,  Rev  2,  3 ;  or,  spies  sent  by  the  pagans. 
The  second  explanation  is  now  generally  adopted. 

In  poetic  and  figurative  language,  the  difficulty  is  often 
increased. 

Is  52^,  'They  shall  see,  eye  to  eye,  when  the  Lord  returneth  to 
Zion.'  This  is  often  quoted  as  denoting  unity  in  conviction  and 
belief.  The  meaning  seems  to  be  that  the  watchers  on  the  walls  for 
the  far-off  deliverance  will  now  behold  Jehovah  returning  to  Zion, 
*  as  near  as  one  man  is  to  another  when  he  looks  into  the  other  s  eye 
with  his  own  '  (Delitzsch).     Comp.  Num  14*. 

Ps  104*,  '  Who  maketh  His  angels  spirits.  His  ministers  a  flame  of 
fire.'  Rather,  'Who  maketh  winds  His  messengers  (angels),  flames 
of  fire  (lightnings)  His  ministers.'  That  is,  the  forces  of  nature  are 
themselves  the  ministers  and  angels  of  Jehovah.     Comp.  Heb  i''. 

Hag  2^,  '  The  desire  of  all  nations  shall  come.'  Often  quoted  as  a 
prophecy  of  the  Messiah's  advent,  an  interpretation  aided  by  the  use 
of  a  capital  letter  in  'Desire.'  But  the  word  'desire'  is  feminine, 
collective.  So  in  R.V.,  'The  desirable  things  of  all  nations  shall 
come '  to  adorn  the  Temple  of  Jehovah.  Comp.  Is  6o*^-9-".  [As  other 
illustrations  of  needless  exposition  by  capital  letters,  see  A.  V.,  Zee  3* 
Jer  23'',  but  not  33^^.] 

Hab  2^,  'That  he  may  run  that  readeth  it.'  The  reference  is 
probably  not,  as  often  quoted,  to  the  distinctness  of  the  writing  :  '  that 
he  who  runs  may  read,'  but  to  its  warning  to  hasten  from  the 
threatening  danger,  '  that  he  who  reads  may  run.' 

2  Pet  i^^,  'a  more  sure  word  of  prophecy' — than  what?  'Surer 
than  fables,'  verse  16,  Chandler  ;  others,  than  the  Transfiguration, 
Sherlock  ;  but  better,  '  the  word  of  prophecy  confirmed '  (R,  V.  '  [made] 
more  sure '),  either  by  the  Transfiguration,  or  rather  by  New  Testament 
fulfilments.  Prophecy  was  as  a  lamp  in  a  dark  place,  the  fulfilment 
i.n  Christ  is  as  thje  d^wn. 


262      THE  INTEKPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Of  the  difficulties  of  authorship  and  scope  the  Book  of  Job  and  the 
Song  of  Songs  may  be  taken  as  illustrations.  See  the  Introductions  to 
these  books  in  Part  II. 

160.  Difficult  allusions. — When  the  meaning  of  words 
has  been  fixed,  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  understand  the 
custom  to  which  they  refer  and  the  reasons  for  it. 

Eccl  ii\  'Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters  :  for  thou  shalt  find  it 
after  many  days  ';  '  Give  bread  to  those  in  affliction,'  Gill.  '  Sow  thy 
corn  without  hope  of  harvest,'  that  is,  *  be  disinterested  in  your 
liberality,'  Jebb  ;  'Be  liberal  while  you  can,'  Boothroyd.  Rather, 
'exercise  a  large  faith  in  God;  act  in  your  gifts  and  efforts  as  the 
husbandman,  who  casts  his  rice  upon  the  waters,  and  waits  for  the 
crop ;  the  rice  grounds  being  inundated  from  seed-time  till  nearly 
harvest,'  Dr.  Clarke. 

Various  customs  are  mentioned  in  the  following  passages  in  Isaiah, 
and  create  difficulty ;  all  of  them,  however,  are  capable  of  explana- 
tion :    Is  3^6  4gl6.23  5ol-6  51^3  522  576-9  6^3.4^ 

Difficulties  in  chronology  and  history  are  various. 

In  Gen  4^"  the  early  building  of  a  city  by  Cain  has  created  difficulty, 
and  it  has  been  asked — 'who  inhabited  it?'  A  little  calculation,  how- 
ever, will  show  that  even  500  years  after  the  Creation,  the  descendants 
of  our  first  parents  must  have  amounted  to  many  hundred  thousand 
in  all. 

Difficulties  in  chronology  and  in  numbers  generally  have  often 
arisen,  as  we  have  seen,  from  false  readings,  the  similarity  between 
different  numeral  letters,  and  from  the  use  of  different  modes  of 
reckoning. 

So  among  profane  authors.  Cyrus  reigned  thirty  years  (Cicero, 
de  Div.),  i.  e.  from  his  joining  Cyaxares  ;  nine  years  (Ptol.  Canon),  i.  e. 
from  his  taking  Babylon  ;  seven  years  (Xen.  Cyropcedia),  i.  e.  from  his 
becoming  sole  monarch.  This  last  is  perhaps  Ezra's  reckoning,  Ezr  i^ 
(Shuckford). 

Historical  difficulties  are  of  two  kinds :  such  as  arise  on 
comparison  of  different  parts  of  Scripture,  and  such  as  arise 
from  the  comparison  of  Scripture  with  profane  records. 

161.  Apparent  discrepancies. — Comparing  parallel  and 
apparently  contradictory  narratives  of  Scripture,  the  fol- 
lowing solutions  are  important : — 


SCRIPTURE   DIFFICULTIES  263 

1.  Apparently  contradictory  narratives  may  record  dif- 
ferent facts. 

In  Mt  i^"^^  we  have  our  Lord's  genealogy  through  Joseph  in  the  royal 
line  ;  in  Lu  323-38  perhaps  through  Mary  in  the  natural  descent.  See 
Introduction  to  Gospels,  Part  II. 

The  call  of  the  first  Apostles  in  Mt  4^^-22  ^nd  Lu  5!"!^  are  different 
accounts  of  the  same  transaction  ;  and  are  both  different  in  place 
and  subsequent  in  time  to  the  call  to  discipleship,  Jn  i35-*2^ 

The  Lord's  Prayer,  again,  was  perhaps  given  on  two  different  occa- 
sions: to  the  multitude  upon  the  mountain,  Mt  6^~^^,  and  to  the 
disciples  alone,  Lu  ii-~*. 

From  Jn  19^*  it  appears  that  our  Lord  was  before  Pilate's  tribunal 
'about  the  sixth  hour.'  In  Mt  27*"^  Mk  15^^  Lu  23**  we  read  that  '  about 
the  sixth  hour'  He  was  hanging  on  the  Cross,  when  the  darkness 
came  on.  The  probable  explanation  is  that  John  calculated  the  hours 
of  the  day  differently  from  the  other  Evangelists,  counting  (according 
to  a  Roman  method)  from  midnight  and  noon,  while  they  reckoned 
from  sunrise  and  sunset.  The  sixth  hour  with  him,  therefore,  was 
6  a.m.  ;  with  them  it  was  noon.     Compare  Jn  i^^  4^-^'^  (Westcott). 

2.  In  giving  the  same  narrative,  different  historians  relate 
different  circumstances,  some  giving  more,  some  fewer  than 
the  rest :  the  fuller  account  includes  the  shorter,  and  the 
shorter  does  not  contradict  the  fuller. 

Compare  Lu  2^^  with  Mt  2-^--^,  where  they  agree  :  in  all  the  preceding 
verses  they  differ,  though  without  contradiction. 

Compare,  on  the  two  demoniacs,  Mk  5'"-^  Mt  8'-^--*  Lu  8-^~*°  ;  and 
on  the  blind  men  healed  at  the  gate  of  Jericho,  Mt  20^*^^*  Mk  lo*^^'^ 
Lu  i8^''~^'.  Several  explanations  of  the  occurrence  have  been  given, 
any  one  of  which  would  solve  the  difficulty.  To  decide  between  them 
is  unnecessary,  perhaps  impossible. 

3.  The  same  remai'k  applies  to  the  narrative  of  what  was 
said  on  some  particular  occasion,  one  historian  giving  the 
very  words  and  another  the  sense,  or  each  a  different  part 
of  what  was  said,  or  varying  the  order  for  a  particular 
reason. 

The  two  different  accounts  of  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  (Mt  5-7 
Lu  6^''"''^).  The  simplest  explanation  is  that  it  was  delivered  on 
'a  level  place'  (Luke,  R.  V.)  in  this  mountain  range. 

The   connexion  of  the  Last  Supper  with  the    Passover   feast   has 


264      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

created  a  difficulty.  According  to  the  first  three  Evangelists,  'the 
Synoptics,'  the  Supper  appears  to  have  been  eaten  at  the  regular  time 
of  the  Passover ;  but  John  seems  as  plainly  to  intimate  that  the 
Paschal  feast  had  not  as  yet  been  celebrated  at  the  time  of  our  Lord's 
trial  on  the  following  morning,  Jn  13-^  18^8  ig}*-^^.  Various  explanations 
have  been  proposed,  of  which  the  chief  are  (i)  that  Jesus  and  His 
disciples  anticipated  the  feast  by  a  day  (see  Lu  22^^-^"),  or  (2)  that  the 
Jewish  celebration  had  really  taken  place  on  that  night,  the  passages 
quoted  from  John  referring  to  other  and  subsequent  observances 
connected  with  the  festival.  The  weight  of  evidence  appears  in 
favour  of  th«  former  solution  ;  so  that  Christ,  the  True  Passover,  was 
sacrificed  at  the  very  time  Avhen  the  Paschal  lamb  was  slain.  For  this 
view,  see  Westcott,  Comm.  in  loc. ;  for  the  latter,  Dr.  Edersheim,  Life  0/ 
Jesus  the  Messiah. 

See  also,  as  instances  of  verbal  divergence  similarly  explicable,  the 
words  of  the  Supper,  Mt  26-6-27  j^^  14^2-25  ^^  aa^^-^o,  and  the  titles  on 
the  Cross,  Mt  zf  Mk  1526  Lu  23^^  Jn  19^^ 

4.  Things  said  to  be  done  by  one  man  are  elsewhere  said 
to  be  done  by  another,  who,  however,  acted  on  his  behalf''', 
and  sometimes  the  plural  is  used  when  the  remark  is 
applicable  to  one  only  ^     Here  there  is  no  contradiction. 

5.  Narratives  of  what  was  spoken  or  done  may  create 
difficulty  from  the  fact  that  general  expressions  are  to  be 
limited  by  particular  ones,  obscure  expressions  to  be  ex- 
plained by  those  that  are  plain. 

Mt  iqIo  Mk  68  Lu  9^ 

6.  The  narratives  of  Scripture  are  compiled  on  different 
principles  and  for  different  purposes.  Some  are  written 
chronologically,  on  the  whole  or  in  particular  passages ; 
others  give  incidents  in  groups.  The  principle  of  arrangement 
must  be  studied,  and  the  whole  harmonized  in  accordance 
with  it. 

The  order  of  Mark  and  Luke  is  generally  chronological.  Matthew 
gives  facts  and  parables  in  groups.  Sometimes,  however,  MattheAv 
jgives  the  true  order,  and  indicates  the  fact  by  the  terms  employed. 


•  Mt  S"'*"'  Lu  7--'^  Mk  10 '5  and  Mt  20-0. 
.^  li^t  26**  ,an4  Jn  12* ;   Mt  p^^''  and  Lu  23 


)^^— *? 


SCRIPTUEE   DIFFICULTIES  205 

III  the  history  of  the  Temptation,  for  example  (4'"^°),  he  affirms  the 
order  :  'then,'  '  again' ;  Lu  4  gives  a  different  order,  but  the  order  is 
not  affirmed. 

In  Gen  i^^,  the  creation  of  man  is  mentioned  briefly.  The  second 
account,  2"~-i,  narrates  the  fact  at  greater  length. 

The  order  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  with  the  betrayal  of  Judas,  is  given 
by  John,  Matthew,  and  Mark ;  between  Mt  26^5  and  26^^  Jn  1320-3-,  must 
be  inserted,  and  Luke's  order  will  be,  Lu  22^^^^'  ^^-^o. 

So  the  true  order  of  Is  ^S'^-^-  may  be  gathered  from  2  Ki  20'-*. 

In  some  cases  passages  appear  to  have  been  displaced  from  their 
true  connexion,  as  i  Sa  i6^*~23      ggg  introduction  to  i  Sa,  Part  II. 

7.  Sometimes  there  is  an  apparent  discrepancy  between 
an  original  narrative  and  the  reference  made  to  it  elsewhere. 

Ac  7^^',  'which  Abraham  bought' — but  Jacob  bought  it,  Gen  33^^ 
Jos  24^2 ;  and  Jacob,  moreover,  was  buried  in  Hebron,  not  in  Sychem, 
Gen  50^"^.  Eead,  probably, '  our  father,'  i.  e.  Jacob,  and  omit '  Abraham.' 
Or,  the  memory  of  Stephen  may  have  confused  the  facts. 

8.  Sometimes  the  reference  contains  more  than  the  ori- 
ginal narrative,  and  the  difficulty  is  removed  by  remembering 
that  the  earlier  inspired  historians  do  not  relate  all  that 
happened. 

Joseph  fettered,  Ps  105'^ ;  the  saying  of  our  Lord,  Ac  20'-^ ;  an 
appearance  of  Christ  to  James,  i  Cor  15" ;  the  marriage  of  Salmon  and 
Rahab,  Mt  i'^  (not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament).  So  Ju  ^-^^  and 
Rev  2^*. 

162.  Alleged    contradictions   to    Secular   History. — 

Comparing  the  narratives  of  Scripture  with  secular  history, 
we  find  difficulties,  many  of  which,  however,  have  long  since 
yielded  to  fuller  knowledge. 

Daniel  mentions  four  kings  of  Babylon  and  Persia — Nebuchadnezzar, 
Belshazzar,  Darius  the  Mede,  and  Cyrus.  The  first  is  well  known ; 
the  second  is  identified  as  the  son  of  Nabonidus  (the  Labynetus  of 
Greek  historians)  son  of  Nitocris  (Herodotus,  i.  185-188),  who  may 
have  been  a  daughter  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Hence  Belshazzar  is  spoken 
of  in  Daniel  (5^^)  as  Nebuchadnezzar's  son  *.  '  Darius  the  Mede '  has  been 
variously  regarded  as  Astyages  the  last  Median  king,  or  Cyaxares  II 

*  See  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  Historical  Record?,  by  Theopbilus 
G.  pinches,  LL.D.,  ^902. 


26G      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

his  son  (after  the  absorption  of  Media  into  the  Persian  Empire*). 
A  modern  theory,  on  which  see  §  192,  p.  316,  identifies  him  with 
Gobryas  (Gubaru),  the  general  of  Cyrus,  left  in  Babylon  as  his  viceroy. 
Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  Cambyses  (or  Ahasuerus,  Ezr  4^) ;  he  by 
Smerdis  (or  Artaxerxes,  Ezr  4*^),  and  he  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  Ezr  6\ 
whose  successor  was  his  son  Xerxes  (the  Ahasuerus  of  the  Book  of 
Esther),  succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  the  Artaxerxes 
of  Nehemiah.  Another  Artaxerxes,  and  two  other  kings  of  the  name 
of  Darius,  filled  the  throne  before  the  empire  was  subdued  by 
Alexander,  B.C.  331.  The  identity  of  the  names  creates  several  diffi- 
culties, but  careful  study  reconciles  most. 

In  Lu  2^  it  is  said  that  a  taxing  was  first  made  when  Cyrenius  was 
governor  of  Syria.  Probably  as  R.  V.  '  this  was  the  first  taxing 
(enrolment)  made  when  Cyrenius,'  &c.  Publius  Sulpitius  Quirinius 
(here  called  Cyrenius)  was  governor  of  Syria  a.  d.  6,  when  a  registration 
or  enrolment  (Acts  5^'^)  was  ordered  on  the  deposition  of  Archelaus. 
Our  Lord  was  then  about  ten  years  of  age.  The  Evangelist  was,  of 
course,  perfectly  familiar  with  this  enrolment,  as  he  himself  recorded 
Gamaliel's  speech.  He  must  therefore  have  referred,  in  his  Gospel,  to 
an  earlier  event  of  the  kind;  and  explanations  have  been  offered, 
sometimes  by  proposing  a  different  translation  ;  as  *  this  eni'olment 
took  place  hefore  Cyrenius  was  governor';  or  'this  enrolment  took  effect 
when  Cyrenius  was  governor,'  having  been  postponed  until  then. 
But  such  explanations  are  now  shown  to  be  needless,  by  evidence 
recently  discovered  that  Quirinius  was  twice  in  authority  in  Syria;  the 
former  occasion  having  been  at  the  time  stated  by  the  Evangelist. 

See  other  instances  in  Paley's  Evidences,  Part  II,  ch.  vi.  Religious 
Tract  Society,  p.  260.  The  works  of  Lardner  give  the  completest  view 
of  the  accordance  of  sacred  and  profane  records. 

163.  Seeming  contradictions  in  Scripture  statements. 

There  are  apparent  contradictions  in  language  which  sets 
forth  the  truths  and  precepts  of  Scripture.  Between 
a  literal  and  a  figurative  expression  there  is  sometimes  an 
apparent  contradiction,  which  is  removed  by  fair  explanation. 
I.  Sometimes  the  words  of  one  passage  must  be  explained 
figuratively. 

*Ye  will  not  come,'  Jn  5*°;  'no  man  can  come  except  the  Father 
draw  him,'  Jn  6**.  The  first  implies,  when  compared  with  other 
passages,  that  to  have  eternal  life,  every  one  who  hears  the  gospel  is 

»  See  Prideaux,  Connection,  Book  II. 


SCRIPTURE   DIFFICULTIES  267 

bound  to  believe  it ;  that  men  are  so  depraved  that  they  will  not 
believe,  and  that  therefore  they  are  condemned.  The  second  affirms 
that  men  cannot  come.  What,  then,  does  this  mean  ?  Is  it  want  of 
power,  which  is  the  proper  sense  of  '  cannot,'  or  is  it  want  of  will, 
which  is  the  figurative  sense?  Both  senses  are  found  in  Scripture. 
*  Ahijtih  could  not  see,  by  reason  of  age.'  So  Jon  i''.  'Joseph's 
brethren  could  not  speak  peaceably  to  him.'  *  How  can  ye,  being  evil, 
speak  good  things?'  where  the  dominion  of  a  strong  propensity 
is  implied.  It  is  to  this  latter  our  Lox'd  refers ;  nothing  less  than 
special  Divine  agency  will  subdue  this  propensity ;  and,  being  in 
the  will,  it  is  our  sin. 

So  in  all  the  passages  which  speak  of  God  in  expressions  accommo- 
dated to  the  weakness  of  human  conceptions. 

Compare  also  Mt  1 1^*  with  Jn  i^^. 

2.  Sometimes  general  assertions  in  one  text  are  to  be 
restricted  by  others. 

In  Lu  i6^^  Mk  lo"''^  divorce  is  forbidden  absolutely,  but  in  Mt  5'^ 
19^  it  is  allowed,  though  for  adulteiy  only,  while  in  i  Cor  7^^  the 
believing  party  is  said  to  be  free  to  leave  the  unbelieving  husband 
or  wife  who  is  determined  to  separate. 

Kestrict  and  explain  in  the  same  way  Gen  13^"  ^^^''-'^^  Ac  7'. 

3.  Sometimes  the  same  terms  are  used  in  different  senses 
in  different  texts,  and  it  is  difficult  to  know  how  to  restrict 
them  in  each. 

In  Mt  i82^-22  forgiveness  is  enjoined  absolutely;  in  Lu  17'-*  on 
repentance ;  either  the  condition  of  repentance  is  presupposed  in 
Matthew,  or  the  phrase  in  Luke  means,  as  often  as  one  seeks  forgive- 
ness give  it. 

A  man  is  justified  by  faith  without  the  deeds  of  the  Law,  Ro  3^^ ; 
*by  works  a  man  is  justified,  and  not  by  faith  only,'  Jas  2^*.  Paul 
speaks  of  the  justification  of  the  ungodly  in  relation  to  their  acceptance 
by  God,  James  of  the  justification  of  the  godly  in  relation  to  their 
approval  by  God — Fuller.  Or  Paul  of  justification  in  the  sight  of  God, 
James  in  the  sight  of  man— Hoadley  and  Taylor.  Or  Paul  speaks 
of  faith  with  its  effects,  James  of  mere  assent — Grot.,  Macknight 
According  to  James,  faith  without  works  is  dead  ;  according  to  Paul's 
teaching,  it  would  be  no  faith  at  all. 

So  in  I  Cor  lo^^  Gal  i^o  Pr  26*5. 

Ex  20^  Eze  iS^*^',  'visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the 
children ' ;  *  the  son  shall  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  the  father.'  Either 
God's  plan  towards  the  close  of  the  Jewish  dispensation  was  changed: 


268      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTUEE 

at  fii-st  the  fathers  were  spared,  but  at  last  fathers  and  sons,  and  not 
sons  only,  were  to  suffer — Fuller.  Or  the  first  description  applies 
only  to  those  ^  who  hate  Rim.''  If  Judah,  therefore,  in  the  days  of 
Ezekiel  had  been  righteous,  they  would  not  have  gone  into  captivity 
for  the  sins  of  Manasseh.  .  In  both  passages  men  are  spoken  of, 
not  as  individuals,  but  as  members  of  society,  and  both  refer  only 
to  this  life. 

4.  Sometimes  the  same  action  is  ascribed  to  different 
agents,  and  sometimes  different  and  apparently  inconsistent 
descriptions  are  given  of  the  same  object ;  in  which  case 
either  the  action  is  described  in  terms  which  are  used  in 
different  senses,  or  there  is  a  sense  in  which  the  terms  are 
true  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  ascertain  which  is  the 
correct  solution. 

Christ  intercedes,  Ko  S^*  Heb  7=5,  as  does  the  Spirit,  Ro  S^^"^  the 
one  in  heaven  and  tlie  other  in  our  hearts.  Christ  is  called  the 
Comforter  (or  Advocate),  i  Jn  2^,  as  is  the  Spirit,  Jn  16'^.  The  one 
is  within,  and  the  other  above. 

The  teaching  of  Scripture  on  the  coming  of  our  Lord 
involves  nearly  all  the  difficulties  of  interpretation  to  which 
we  have  referred. 


Difficulties  in  the  Ecvelation  itself, 

164.  After  all  these  difficulties  of  interpretation  have 
been  solved,  there  are  others  which  apply  to  the  things 
revealed  or  commanded  in  Scripture  ;  and  it  is  in  objec- 
tions founded  upon  those  difficulties  that  men  most  indulge. 

Many  passages  have  been  placed  under  this  head  which 
properly  involve  questions  of  interpretation  only. 

Lev  27^^-2^  has  been  quoted  as  authorizing  human  sacrifices,  as  has 
Jephthah's  treatment  of  his  daughter,  Judg  ii^* ;  but  human  sacrifices 
were  expressly  forbidden,  Dt  12"°-^^  Lev  20-  Ps  io6'"-^^.  All  who  even 
touched  a  dead  body  were  unclean  ;  and,  moreover,  no  devoted  thing 
could  be  sacrificed.  Jephthah  may  have  devoted  his  daughter  to 
perpetual  virginity  ;  and,  at  all  events,  the  act  is  not  commended. 

Eypressions  in  the 014  Tesjtawent  s/ec>m  to  imply  vipdijctive  feeling: 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE  KEVELATION        269 

but  some  of  the  expressions  are  figurative,  Ps  lo^^ ;  some  are  pre- 
dictions only,  the  tenses  being  indicative  future,  not  imperative  ; 
and  others  are  the  denunciations  of  Divine  justice  against  trans- 
gressors, Dt  28. 

Some  actions  alleged  to  be  done  by  prophets  are  said  to  be  ridiculous 
or  immoral :  but  they  were  either  symbolical,  or  were  represented 
in  vision  only,  or  were  merely  related  by  the  prophet.  Is  20^  '  naked,' 
i.  e.  without  his  upper  garment,  Lowth  ;  or  in  vision,  Rosenm.  Jer  13*-^ 
a  vision  (Lowth),  Eze  4. 

Precepts  and  statements  are  interpreted  without  the  necessary 
restriction  or  explanation  :  Jn  6^^"^^,  eating  Christ's  flesh  ;  Mt  12^^, 
'  idle  words  '  pernicious,  calumnious  ;  Mt  ig'^^,  •'  rich  man '  ;  Mk  10^*, 
'  one  who  trusts  in  riches ' ;  Mt  5^°,  cut  off  a  right  hand ;  5^9,  '  whosoever 
shall  smite  thee  on  the  right  cheek,  turn  to  him  the  other  also,'  both 
spoken  comparatively — rather  do  this  than  commit  a  sin. 

Illustrations. — Of  difficulties  in  the  sense  of  Scripture 
the  following  may  be  taken  as  a  sample  : — 

i.  There  are  alleged  contrarieties  between  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  New,  and  between  the  teaching  of  our  Lord 
and  the  teaching  of  His  Apostles. 

ii.  There  is  said  to  be  much  that  is  impossible  in  the 
history  of  creation,  and  in  the  attempt  to  trace  all  mankind 
to  a  common  origin. 

iii.  Some  of  the  miracles— the  history  of  the  Fall,  of 
Balaam,  the  demoniacal  possessions  in  the  New  Testament, 
for  example— are  said  to  be  incredible. 

iv.  Much  was  wrong  in  the  applauded  characters  of  Old 
Testament  saints. 

V.  Extraordinary  commands  were  given  to  them,  as  to 
Abraham,  and  to  the  Israelites. 

vi.  The  punishment  of  idolatry  with  death  seems  to 
sanction  persecution,  and  many  of  the  institutions  of  the 
Law  are  unaccountable. 

vii.  Passages  from  the  Old  Testament  are  quoted  in  the 
New  in  altogether  unnatural  senses. 

viii.  Some  of  the  moral  and  spiritual  doctrines  of  the 
gospel  as  a  remedial  system  are  mysterious. 


270     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

165.  Preliminary  questions  to  be  settled.  — In  ad- 
dressing ourselves  to  the  examination  of  difficulties  like 
these,  certain  preliminary  questions  should  be  fully  met. 
And,  first  of  all,  Are  such  difficulties,  supposing  them 
unsolved,  sufficient  to  neutralize  the  evidence  for  the  in- 
spiration and  Divine  authority  of  Scripture  ? 

Now  it  is  quite  clear  that,  apart  from  any  such  details, 
the  Bible  reveals,  in  passages  innumerable  and  unmistakable, 
the  essential  principles  of  truth  and  duty. 

We  have  but  to  open  the  New  Testament  in  ahnost  any  of  its  pages 
to  draw  forth  a  sclieme  of  holiness.  The  spirituality  of  the  Divine 
nature,  and  of  all  acceptable  worship  (Jn  4^*) ;  repentance  and  remis- 
sion of  sins  in  Christ's  name  (Lu  24'''^)  ;  salvation  through  no  other 
(Ac  4^2^  .  the  duty  of  all  men  everywhere  to  repent  and  believe 
(Ac  17°^  Mk  i^^) ;  eternal  life  through  the  Son  ;  eternal  death  as  the 
consequence  of  unbelief  (Jn  3^*^)  ;  the  necessity  of  holiness  (Mt  7-^) ; 
the  assurance  of  the  help  of  the  Spirit  to  control  our  corruption  and  to 
aid  our  infirmities.  In  eveiy  age,  moreover,  the  great  end  of  the 
Bible  as  a  religiously  instructive  book,  the  repository  of  saving  truth, 
has  been  answered.  Contrast  the  creed  of  the  meanest  Jew,  in  relation 
to  God  and  law,  with  the  errors  and  uncertainty  of  the  wisest  of  the 
Fieathen,  the  first  Tusculan  Disputation  of  Cicero  with  the  commonest 
Christian  treatise  on  immortality  and  the  resurrection,  and  the  differ- 
ence will  at  once  appear.  The  heathen  philosopher  falters  at  every 
s^ep,  and  drends  the  very  conclusions  to  which  his  reasonings  lead 
him  ;  while  the  opinion  of  the  Christian  is  already  formed  ;  his  only 
difficulty  being  to  impress  his  own  heart  and  the  hearts  of  others  with 
the  truth.  By  the  leading  and  undoubted  precepts  of  Scripture  the 
guiltiest  may  be  '  throughly  furnished  for  every  good  work,'  and  by  its 
doctrines  all  men  may  be  made  *  wise  unto  salvation.' 

But,  it  is  asked  again,  do  not  these  difficulties  affect  the 
authority  of  the  Bible,  and  at  least  impair  the  evidence  of 
its  inspiration  ?  Could  a  revelation  be  of  universal  authority 
which  contains  so  much  that  is  unintelligible  ;  and  is  it 
really  a  revelation  where  so  much  is  concealed  ? 

In  answering  this  question,  it  might  be  said  that  w^hat- 
ever  we  know  of  the  works  of  God  in  nature  is  liable  to  the 
same  objection.    Bishop  Butler  has  shown  most  conclusively 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE  EEVELATION        271 

that  natural  religion,  revealed  religion,  and  the  providence 
of  God,  together  with  every  known  law  of  human  duty,  are 
all  exposed  to  the  same  difficulties.  There  is  in  all  an 
obscurity  of  meaning  and  deficiency  of  evidence,  a  mys- 
teriousness  of  arrangement  and  treatment  that  bespeak  our 
state  to  be  one  of  incessant  discipline.  In  truth  these 
objections  apply  much  less  forcibly  to  Scripture  than  to 
our  daily  practice  ;  and  the  reasoning  which  seeks  to  set 
aside  the  Bible  would,  if  true,  rob  God  of  all  His  authority, 
and  man  of  all  motives  to  virtue. 

DifB.culties  a  support  to  Paith. — But  we  go  further. 
The  very  difficulties  of  Scripture,  philological  and  historical, 
afford  cogent  internal  proof  of  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  Bible. 

The  solution  of  these  difficulties  has  been  gi-a dual,  and  that  for  the  best 
reasons.  Each  age  has  its  own  temptations  to  infidelity,  and  each  has 
its  peculiar  evidence.  Let  any  one  read  the  Credibility  of  Lardner, 
a  work  which  could  not  have  been  written  in  the  age  of  the  Apostles, 
for  the  facts  on  which  it  is  founded  were  later  than  their  times  ;  or 
the  Ilorce  Paulince  of  Paley,  or  the  Horce  AposLoUcce  and  //one  Ecangelicce  of 
Bilks,  on  the  apparent  discrepancies  and  real  agi-eemeut  between  the 
statements  of  p  ofane  and  sacred  history,  between  tbe  Epistles  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  or  between  the  different  Gospels,  and  he  will  at 
once  perceive  that  the  difficulties  of  Scripture  create  an  internal 
evidence  even  more  decisive  than  the  external  :  it  is,  throughout,  the 
apparent  discrepancy  between  the  writers  themselves  and  profane 
records,  and  their  obvious  independence  of  one  another  and  of  every- 
thing but  truth,  that  forms  the  argument.  We  can  dispense  with 
notAing,  not  even  with  difficulties.  Every  element  (the  apparent  dis- 
crepancy among  the  rest)  is  essential  to  the  force  of  the  whole. 

And  if  it  be  said  that  these  difficulties  are  too  numerous, 
or  that  the  solution  of  them  has  been  too  slow,  it  may  be 
answered  that  this  gradual  solution  supplies  to  each  age 
fi-esh  evidence,  and  excites  continued  interest  in  Soripture, 
while  the  fact  proves  that  the  evidence  of  the  Bible,  like 
its  doctrine,  is  for  all  time. 


272      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

166.  Doctrinal  Difficulties.  —  These  remarks  apply 
especially  to  philological  and  historical  difficulties.  We 
now  proceed  to  investigate  the  doctrinal — the  great  mysteries 
of  godliness  and  iniquity,  *  the  hard  things '  connected  with 
salvation,  and  the  veiled  or  dimly  disclosed  future.  How 
obvious  are  such  remarks  as  these  :  men  are  fallen  ;  our 
nature  is  depraved  ;  our  intellect  is  darkened.  A  revelation, 
just  such  as  our  moral  taste  approved,  could  not  fail  to  have 
marks  of  an  origin  much  lower  than  heaven.  We  are  finite : 
what  more  natural  than  that  an  omniscient  Being,  when 
He  speaks  on  matters  which  refer  to  eternal  interests,  should 
speak  occasionally  what  we  but  partially  comprehend  ? 
Certainly  the  absence  of  difficulty  in  a  communication  from 
what  professed  to  be  infinite  Wisdom  would  have  had  thrown 
upon  it  by  that  circumstance  a  strong,  if  not  an  unanswer- 
able suspicion.     See  Objection  viii,  p.  2G9. 

Let  it  be  added  that  these  difficulties  have  dignified  every  kind  of 
human  learning,  by  rendering  all  eligible  to  the  service  of  religion. 
Historically,  the  study  of  classical  literature  in  modern  times  began 
with  the  study  of  the  Bible  ;  and  ever  since,  sound  religion  and  true 
learning  have  been  linked  in  inseparable  bonds.  All  knowledge  is 
thus  sanctified  ;  and,  however  individual  Christians  may  have  exposed 
themselves  to  the  charge  of  being  enemies  of  meatal  improvement,  it 
becomes  impossible  to  include  the  Christian  religion  itself  in  this 
rebuke. 

No  doubt  it  may  be  affirmed,  in  reply  to  these  reasonings,  that  the 
existence  of  Scripture  difficulties  is  attended  with  one  inconvenience : 
they  are  liable  to  excite  distrust  in  the  minds  even  of  Christians,  that 
is,  they  try  our  faith.  But  is  not  this  again  an  evidence  in  their 
favour?  What  are  all  the  dispensations  of  God  but  our  discipline? 
What  is  life  but  a  walking  by  faith  ?  that  is,  by  habitual  reliance  on 
Him  Whose  ways  we  cannot  understand,  and  in  circumstances  that 
require  such  a  trust.  Perhaps  inspiration  might  have  removed  all 
difficulties  from  Scripture,  though  we  cannot  tell  how  ;  but  certainly 
we  should  have  lost  much,  and  gained  little  by  the  change. 

General  Answers. — Without,  then,  attempting  to  answer 
all  objections  in  detail,  let  the  following  rules  be  marked 
and  applied. 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE  REVELATION        273 

1.  We  must  interpret  Scripture,  its  announcements,  and 
disclosures,  in  accordance  with  what  it  professes  to  be 

—  an  inspired  volume  designed  to  set  forth  the  scheme  of 
salvation  by  Christ,  and  to  bring  men  unto  God.  So  far 
as  it  is  like  other  books  written  in  the  language  of  man, 
it  must  be  interpreted  by  the  same  laws  as  other  books  ; 
we  must  ever  look  at  the  words,  the  context,  the  speaker, 
and  the  customs  and  history  of  his  age  ;  but  so  far  as  it 
differs  from  other  books — being  inspired  and  intended  for 
all  time,  every  part  of  it  foreshadowing  or  plainly  exhibiting 
the  Cross — we  must  give  to  its  phrases  and  intimations  a 
plenary  and  spiritual  significance. 

The  offerings  ordained  by  the  Law,  for  example,  considered  in 
themselves  alone,  were  sanguinary.  They  certainly  contain  no  inti- 
mation that  they  prefigured  the  death  of  our  Lord.  Their  ultimate 
purpose,  however,  is  unquestioned  ;  and  in  the  meantime  they  taught 
the  great  doctrine  of  sacrifice,  to  some  probably  most  plainly  ;  and 
they  impres.-!.ed  the  hearts  of  men  with  some  of  the  same  sentiments 
as  are  now  awakened  by  the  Cross.  The  promise  to  Abraham,  again, 
has  no  such  terms  as  point  exclusively  and  clearly  to  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah  ;  and  such  a  promise  found  in  Virgil  or  in  Homer  could 
not  fairly  be  interpreted  as  having  such  a  reference.  But  the 
Christian  cannot  doubt  its  meaning.  If  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures 
did  not  foresee  all  the  truths  which  might  be  drawn  from  their  words, 
God  the  Holy  Spirit  foresaw  them  ;  and  the  business  of  interpretation 
is  to  learn  His  purpose  and  end  in  what  was  revealed.  To  explain, 
therefore,  the  inspired  Scriptures  in  all  respects  as  if  they  were 
human  compositions,  with  no  wider  range  and  no  spiritual  rule,  is, 
as  Lord  Bacon  has  expressed  it,  to  'dishonour  the  Scriptures  and 
injure  the  Church,' 

2.  Scripture  must  be  regarded  as  a  system  from  begin- 
ning to  end ;  and  the  different  books  and  sentences  must 
be  interpreted  as  the  component  and  connected  parts  of  a 
great  whole.  All  the  light  which  the  first  page  throws 
upon  the  last,  or  the  last  upon  the  first,  may  be  freely  used 
for  purposes  of  illustration  and  defence ;  not,  of  course,  to 
prove  that  every  passage  has  the  same  meaning,  but  to 
prove  that  aU  have  the  same  end. 

T 


274     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

This  rule,  it  will  be  observed,  does  for  facts  and  truths  what  the 
kindred  rule  on  the  comparison  of  parallel  passages  does  for  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  words.  See  §  129.  '  From  him  that  hath  not  shall  be 
taken  away  even  that  which  he  hath,'  for  example,  is  the  sentence  of 
our  Lord.  Separate  these  words  from  the  context,  from  the  parallel 
passage  in  another  Gospel,  from  the  principle  of  the  Divine  govern- 
ment which  they  illustrate,  and  we  miss  their  sen^e  ;  explain  them 
connectedly  and  the  whole  is  clear.  So  of  other  truths.  The  sacrifice 
and  the  death  of  Abel,  viewed  in  themselves,  seem  not  more  significant 
than  the  good  deed  and  untimely  end  of  any  good  man  ;  but  view  his 
death  as  the  firstfruits  of  sin,  and  his  sacrifice  as  an  evidence  of  the 
true  nature  of  every  acceptable  offering  ;  as  a  proof,  moreover,  how 
conscious  demerit  expressed  itself  in  the  first  age,  and  how  deeply 
it  felt  the  need  of  vicarious  suffering,  and  the  whole  narrative  assumes 
an  aspect  of  importance  and  dignity.  Explain  in  the  same  way  the 
ordinances  of  the  Law,  the  personal  history  of  many  ancient  saints, 
and  incidents  in  themselves  trivial  become  fresh  marks  of  internal 
credibility,  and  even  lessons  for  the  instruction  of  the  Church  through- 
out every  age. 

3.  As  it  is  important  to  study  Scripture  connectedly,  it 
is  even  more  important  to  study  it  in  its  true  connexion, 
and  in  that  alone.  A  false  system  may  be  more  mischievous 
than  no  system  at  all. 

If  idolatry,  for  example,  be  regarded  as  mental  error  merely,  or 
if  the  Jews  be  regarded  as  an  ordinary  community,  the  punishment  of 
that  sin  with  death  may  seem  severe.  In  reality  it  was  a  penalty 
inflicted  only  on  the  apostate  Israelite,  who  had  repeatedly  accepted 
Jehovah  as  his  chosen  King.  In  a  theocracy  idolatry  was  civil  treason  ; 
and  the  penalty  of  treason  was  therefore  awarded. 

To  find  fault  with  the  acts  of  ancient  saints,  and  to  conclude  that 
the  record  of  their  faults  is  as  inconsistent  with  the  Divine  origin 
of  the  Bible  as  the  acts  themselves  were  derogatory  to  true  religion, 
implies  a  false  theory.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  object  of  the 
Bible  be  the  revelation  of  God  and  the  improvement  of  man,  and  the 
objections  cease. 

Take,  as  an  instance,  the  deception  of  Jacob,  Gen  27^^"",  and  mark 
its  lessons  in  relation  to  God  and  to  ourselves.  His  superiority  over 
his  brother  and  his  inheritance  of  the  promise  had  been  foretold  at  his 
birth.  Isaac,  Rebekah,  and  Jacob  himself  all  probably  knew  of  this 
prediction,  although  Isaac,  in  spite  of  it,  made  Esau  his  favourite, 
and  destined  for  him  the  blessing.  Jacob,  again,  had  so  little  faith 
in  the  Divine  promise,  that  he  needlessly  removed  the  difficulty  of 


DIFFICULTIES  IN  THE  EEVELATION        275 

his  brother's  priority  by  purchase  :  Rebekah,  with  no  more  faith, 
induced  her  son  to  practise  the  deception  which  obtained  him  the 
blessing.  The  guilt  and  folly  of  this  whole  transaction  soon  bore  their 
appropriate  fruits.  The  weakness  of  Isaac  was  punished  by  the 
alienation  and  dispersion  of  his  children.  Rebekah's  unbelief  ended 
in  her  becoming  dependent  upon  the  son  she  had  wronged  :  her 
favourite  son  she  never  again  saw.  Jacob  was  driven  from  his  home 
— was  himself  robbed  and  defrauded  by  Laban  ;  the  wife  he  despised 
became  the  mother  of  the  chosen  tribe,  and  in  the  deception  of  his  own 
children  he  learned  the  grievousness  of  his  sin.  The  punishment, 
in  fact,  was  complete  :  nor  less  so  is  the  lesson.  It  may  be  said  that, 
nevertheless,  he  inherited  the  blessing  ;  and  this  is  true  :  for  the  gifts 
of  God  are  without  repentance,  and  the  choice  of  His  servants  is 
founded  upon  no  personal  merit,  but  on  reasons  which,  in  most  cases, 
as  in  this.  He  has  seen  it  fit  to  conceal. 

4.  Let  no  man  attempt  or  expect  the  explanation  of 
every  diflS-culty. 

*0f  the  dark  parts  of  Scripture,'  says  Warburton,  'there  are  two 
sorts,  one  which  may  be  cleared  up  by  the  studious  application  of 
well-employed  talents,  the  other  which  will  always  recede  within  the 
shadow  of  God's  throne,  where  it  would  be  impiety  to  intrude.'  'The 
last  step  of  reason,'  says  Pascal,  '  is  to  know  that  there  is  an  infinitude 
of  things  which  sui-pass  it.'  After  all  difficulties  have  been  solved, 
and  every  word  of  the  Bible  explained,  the  weightiest  difficulties 
of  all  will  remain.  The  origin  of  evil,  the  mystery  of  Divine  fore- 
knowledge and  free  agency,  and  much  of  the  scheme  of  redemption 
will  still  exercise  our  faith.  We  shall  say  even  then,  as  it  is  our 
wisdom  to  say  now,  *0  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom 
and  knowledge  of  God!  how  unsearchable  are  His  judgements,  and 
Ills  ways  past  finding  out  I ' 


T  S 


CHAPTER    IX 

INTERPRETATION.    PART  IL 

On  the  Use  of  External  Helps 

♦Th«*  Bible  resembles  an  extensive  garden,  where  there  is  a  vast 
variety  and  profusion  of  fruits  and  flowers,  some  of  which  are  more 
essential  or  more  splendid  than  others ;  but  there  is  not  a  blade 
suffered  to  grow  in  it  which  has  not  its  use  and  beauty  in  the  system. 
Salvation  for  sinners  is  the  grand  truth  presented  everywhere,  and  in 
all  points  of  light :  but  the  pure  in  heart  sees  a  thousand  traits  of  the 
Divine  character,  of  himself,  and  of  the  world ;  some  striking  and 
bold,  others  cast  as  it  were  into  the  shade,  and  designed  to  be  searched 
for  and  examined.' — Cecil,  Remains,  p.  198. 

Thoroughly  to  understand  the  Scriptures,  to  harmonize 
apparent  contradictions,  to  gather  up  all  the  truth  it  con- 
tains, and  sometimes  even  to  enable  us  to  select,  out  of 
several  meanings,  the  one  which  is  most  consistent  with 
the  Divine  plan,  it  is  often  necessary  to  seek  some  ex- 
ternal or  collateral  help.  We  need  to  know  the  facts 
of  general  history,  of  chronology,  of  natural  history,  of 
geography,  with  the  opinions  and  ideas  prevalent  among 
the  people  to  whom  the  various  parts  of  Scripture  were 
addressed,  and  especially  the  manners  and  customs  of  Eastern 
nations.  The  illustrations  derived  from  these  several  sources 
often  throw  a  flood  of  light  upon  the  sacred  text. 

L     Geography 

167.  Importance  of  Geographical  Study.  A  knowledge 
of  Geography,  especially  that  of  the  Holy  Land,  is  essential, 
in  ordet'  to  give  local  colour  to  our  conceptions.     By  such 


HELPS   FKOM   GEOGRAPHY  277 

help,  the  histories  become  more  vivid,  the  prophecies  more 
expressive,  tlie  allusions  in  Bible  poetry  more  intelligible. 

The  value  of  this  study  is  illustrated  by  the  subjoined  examples — 
a  few  only  out  of  multitudes.  But  first  it  will  be  useful  to  give  in 
outline  the  chief  geographical  facts.  To  Bible  students  a  good  atlas 
is  indispensable. 

Lands  of  the  Bible.  The  Bible  directs  us  to  the  high 
parts  of  Armenia,  Hhe  land  of  Ararat,'  and  the  fertile 
plains  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  as  the  first 
settlement  of  mankind  after  the  Flood.  In  the  subsequent 
dispersion,  Shem  and  his  descendants  occupied  the  south- 
westerly districts  of  Asia;  Ham,  Africa,  with  the  land  of 
Canaan  and  part  of  the  Arabian  peninsula  ;  and,  after  some 
time,  Japheth,  Europe  and  part  of  Asia. 

Going  south-westwards  from  Ararat,  we  come  to  the 
mountain  ranges  of  Lebanon,  'the  White  Mountain f*,'  on 
the  outskirts  of  Palestine.  Lebanon  proper  extends  from 
the  north,  where  it  reaches  its  highest  elevation  (about 
10,000  feet),  for  about  90  miles,  to  the  great  gorge  of  the 
Litany  (Leontes)  above  Tyre ;  and  Anti-Lebanon  ('  Lebanon 
towards  the  sunrising,'  Jos  13^)  for  60  miles  in  a  nearly 
parallel  direction,  until  it  culminates  southwards  in  Mount 
Hermon'^.  Betw^een  the  two  ranges  there  lies  the  broad 
uneven  plain  called  by  the  Greeks  Coele-Syria  {'  the  Valley 
of  Lebanon,'  Jos  11^^,  where  Baal-gad  is  probably  Baalbek, 
the  heathen  City  of  the  Sun).     Looking  from  either  Lebanon 

»  '  White,'  either  because  of  the  snows  which  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  cover  the  summits ;  or,  as  more  generally  explained,  from 
the  limestone  cliffs  and  '  scaurs  '  which  gleam  in  the  sunlight. 

^  Hermon  (9, 200  feet) ,  also  called  Sirion  (*  breastplate '),  Senir  (perhaps 
*  coat  of  mail'),  and  Sion  ('  elevated,'  an  entirely  different  word  from 
Zion  in  Jerusalem),  is  distinguished  by  three  summit-peaks,  nearly 
equal  in  height.  Hence  '  the  Hermons,'  Ps  42^  (not  '  the  Hermonites,' 
as  A.  v.).  See,  for  the  different  names  of  this  mountain,  Dt  3^  Ct  4* 
Eze  275  Dt  4**.  It  is  visible  from  almost  every  part  of  Palestine, 
terminating  the  view  to  the  north.  Probably  it  was  on  this  'high 
paountain'  that  our  Lord  was  transfigured,  Mt  17^  Mk  9^. 


278      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

or  Hermon  (see  Ct  4^)  we  have  aroimd  us  'the  lands  of 
the  Bible.'  On  the  left,  far  over  the  Syrian  desert,  are  the 
Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  which,  taking  their  rise  in 
Armenia,  run  into  the  Persian  Gulf,  and,  as  they  flow, 
enclose  the  country  called  Mesopotamia  ('between  the 
rivers ').  On  the  banks  of  these  rivers,  men  first  associated 
themselves  in  organized  communities ;  on  the  Euphrates 
rose  the  city  of  Babylon,  and  on  the  Tigris,  the  city  of 
Nineveh. 

Between  the  Euphrates  and  the  table-land  east  of  Jordan, 
is  the  great  Syrian  desert ;  southward,  Arabia  Petraea  (the 
rocky),  including  the  peninsula  of  Sinai  and  the  land  of 
Edom  (Mount  Seir),  with  Petra  as  its  capital.  Southward 
still,  and  reaching  to  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  Persian 
Gulf,  is  Arabia  the  fruitful,  including  SSheba'  ('Seba*  was 
in  Africa  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  Red  Sea),  whence 
(or  through  which)  came  the  gold  and  spice  of  Eastern 
story. 

Southwards,  below  Hermon,  lies  Palestine  ;  having  on  its 
northern  seaboard  Phoenicia  ('  the  coasts  of  Tj^re  and  Sidon '), 
and,  on  its  southern,  Philistia.  To  the  east  there  extends 
the  wide,  but  undefined  region  of  Syria  (Aram,  the  highland), 
including  Aram-Damassek,  *  Syria  of  Damascus,'  Aram- 
Zobah,  '  Syria  of  Zobah,'  Aram-Naharaim  or  Mesopotamia, 
'  Syria  of  the  Two  Rivers,'  and  Paddan-Aram,  the  '  Plain 
of  Syria.'  Through  the  whole  of  Palestine  run  two  moun- 
tain ridges,  that  on  the  left  being  lost  in  the  Red  Sea,  that 
on  the  right  in  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  the  scene  of  the 
wanderings  of  the  Israelites  during  forty  years. 

To  the  west  of  this  latter  region  we  find  Egypt. 

Beyond  the  plain  which  stretches  away  to  the  left  is  the 
ancient  and  famous  city  of  Damascus ;  on  the  right  are 
the  blue  tideless  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  connecting 
the  traffic  of  Europe  with  the  marts  of  the  East ;  and  in 
succession,    Cyprus,    Crete,    Malta,    and    Sicily — 'the    isles 


GEOGRAPHY:   PALESTINE  279 

of  the  sea.'  Of  these,  Cyprus  is  the  only  one  visible  from 
this  point,  far  over  the  waste  of  water — the  outpost  of  the 
western  Gentile  lands  *.  If  now  we  carry  our  eye  in  a  line 
with  our  right  hand,  we  look  toward  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  whose  various  provinces  are  mentioned  in  the  Acts. 
Westward,  across  the  ^gean  Sea,  is  Hellas,  or  Greece 
('Achaia'j,  having  Macedonia  on  the  north,  and  Thrace  on 
the  north-east.  From  Macedonia,  Illyricum  stretches  away  to 
the  north-west.  Across  the  Adriatic  is  the  port  of  Brundi- 
sium  (Brindisi),  in  Italy,  whence  a  route  over  the  Apennine 
Hills  conducts  to  Rome,  on  their  western  side.  Thence 
over  the  Alps,  or,  by  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  France  (Gaul)  is 
reached;  and  from  France,  over  the  Pyrenees,  is  the  way 
to  Spain,  and,  proceeding  southwards,  to  '  Tarshish  ^.' 

168.  Palestine. — Returning  from  these  general  views  to 
Palestine  itself,  as  the  centre  of  all  interest,  we  may  enter 
into  more  special  detail.  Many  passages,  of  both  the  Old 
and  the  New  Testaments,  will  thus  receive  illustration. 

Its  Names. — The  country  was  early  inhabited  by  the 
descendants  of  Canaan,  the  grandson  of  Noah  (Gen  ii). 
It  was  thence  called  the  land  of  Canaan.  Or,  as  Canaan 
signifies  '  the  low  region,'  the  name  may  be  used  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  highlands  of  Lebanon  and  Gilead  (so  Gesenius\ 
as  referring  to  the  western  side  of  Jordan  only,  Num  33^^ 
Jos  22^^,  &c.  From  the  descendants  of  Jacob,  it  was  called 
the  land  of  Israel,  i  Sa  13^^  i  Ch  22^  2  Ch  2^^ ;  until  the  name 

*  See  Stanley,  Sinai  and  Palestine,  pp.  115,  406.  Cyprus  is  the 
'  Kittim '  of  the  Old  Testament,  Num  242*  Is  23^-12  Jer  2^0  Eze  af  Dn  ii^o. 
Compare  Ac  11'^  13*,  &c. 

*>  The  most  probable  identification  of  Tarshish  is  with  the  Tartessus 
in  the  south  of  Spain  (Cadiz),  the  western  limit  of  the  known  world. 
*  Tarsus,'  in  Cilicia,  has  been  proposed,  but  is  untenable.  '  Ships  of 
Tarshish  '  was  probably  a  general  term,  indicating  any  ships  adapted 
for  long  voyages  (as  formerly  '  Indiaman  '  in  English),  but  not  neces- 
sarily destined  for  the  west.     See  i  Ki  22*^ 


280     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

was  restricted  to  the  northern  kingdom  after  the  Disruption. 
See  2  Ch  30^'  Eze  27^^.  From  the  covenant  into  which  God 
entered  with  Abraham  and  his  posteritj^  it  was  called  the 
Land  of  promise,  Gen  12"^,  13^^  Ex  15"^  Heb  11^;  and  from 
the  Philistines  (strangers  or  immigrants),  who  inhabited  its 
southern  coasts,  Palestine.  But  it  is  observable  that  this 
term  is  never  employed  in  Scripture  for  the  land  as  a  whole. 
Where  it  occurs  in  A.  V.  it  signifies,  and  should  be  rendered, 
Philistia,  denoting  simply  the  south-west  coast.  See  Ex  15^* 
Is  1423.31  Joel  3*  (see  R.  V.),  and  compare  Pss  60^  83'^  87* 
108^.     All  these,  it  will  be  observed,  are  poetical  passages. 

The  Holf/  Land,  Zee  2'^'^,  the  Land  of  Jehovah,  Ho  9^,  and 
the  Glorious  Land,  Dn  11*^,  are  also  terms  employed  in 
Scripture.  Sometimes  the  country  is  mentioned  simply  as 
'the  Land,'  as  Ru  i^  Lu  4^^  23^*  Jas  5^"^. 

Its  boundaries. — The  boundaries  of  the  land  are  vari- 
ously stated  at  different  periods  in  the  nation's  history. 
A  distinction  must  also  be  drawn  between  the  ideal  and 
the  actual  extent  of  the  territory.  The  promise  to  Abraham, 
Gen  15^^  (*  the  Nile  to  the  Euphrates '),  reached  its  nearest 
fulfilment  in  the  days  of  Solomon.  North  and  south,  the 
borders  of  Israel  were  from  time  to  time  affected  by  its 
amicable  or  hostile  relations  with  'the  nations  round  about.* 
Westwards,  the  Mediterranean,  and  eastwards,  the  great 
Syrian  desert,  gave  distinct  lines  of  demarcation. 

It  is  very  noticeable  that  in  Hebrew  the  usual  name  for  the  west 
was  'sea'  (c^,  yam).  For  south,  the  word  was  generally  negeb  (a;:,  'dry' 
or  *  parched  '),  denoting  the  character  of  the  region.  Sometimes,  also, 
the  south  was  expressed  by  a  name  signifying  'at  the  right  hand,' 
dependent  on  the  usage  of  the  word  for  east,  qedem,  signifying  '  front,' 
the  spectator  being  regarded  as  having  his  face  towards  the  sun-rising. 
The  north  was  the  'hidden'  or  'dark'  quarter  {tsdphon).  Hence  the 
'  points  of  the  compass '  with  the  Israelites  were  literally  Gloom,  Dry- 
land, Front,  and  Sea. 

The   familiar   phrase   'from    Dan    to    Beer-sheba'  (in 


GEOGRAPHY:   PALESTINE  281 

Chronicles  ^  Beer-sheba  to  Dan  ')  occurs  in  nine  passages : 
Judg  20^  (a  gathering  of  the  tribes),  i  Sa  3^°  (extent  of  the 
prophet's  fame),  2  Sa  3^^  17^^  24.'^-^^  and  i  Ch  21^  (David's 
dominion),  i  Ki  4^^  (Solomon's  dominion),  2  Ch  30^  (Heze- 
kiah's  summons).  Dan,  in  these  passages,  is  in  the  region 
at  the  foot  of  Hermon,  with  its  chief  city  of  the  same  name 
(or  Laish).  Beer-sheba  is  the  place  of  Seven  Wells,  so 
celebrated  in  the  patriarchal  history,  with  its  immense 
pastures  extending  to  the  Negeb. 

But  another  specification  of  the  northern  and  southern 
boundaries  was  in  the  repeated  phrase,  *  from  the  entrance 
(or  pass)  of  Hamath  to  the  brook  of  Egypt/  Num  13^^ 
348  I  Ki  865  2  Ki  1425  I  Ch  13^  2  Ch  7^.  This  carried 
out  the  boundary-line  considerably  further  in  each  direc- 
tion. In  the  north,  instead  of  starting  from  the  foot 
of  Hermon,  it  extended  to  the  depression  between  the 
northern  point  of  Lebanon  and  the  lower  mountain  range 
of  Bargylas,  continuing  to  the  valley  of  the  Orontes-'. 
This  depression  opened  up  the  way  from  the  Mediterranean 
eastwards  to  the  small  but  powerful  kingdom  of  Hamath 
in  the  upper  Orontes  valle}^,  upon  the  *  north  border,' 
Num  34^  ;  visited  by  the  spies,  Num  13^^  ;  allied  with 
David,  2  Sa  8^"^^ .  niade  tributary  by  Solomon,  2  Ch  8* ; 
subdued  by  Jeroboam  II  after  a  brief  period  of  independence, 
2  Ki  i425~-8  •  and  finally  absorbed  in  the  Assyrian  empire, 
2  Ki  i83't  Is  lo^  See  Am  6^.  The  '  brook  of  Egypt'— the 
southern  boundary  (not  river,  as  in  A.  V.,  which  would  mean 
the  Nile) — is  the  Wady  el-ArisJi,  a  winter  torrent  which 
carries  the  waters  of  the  Negeb  into  the  Mediterranean, 
about  40  miles  south  of  Gaza. 

*  An  older  explanation,  now  generally  abandoned,  is  that  the 
*  entering  in  of  Hamath '  was  in  the  Lebanon  valley,  or  Coele-Syria, 
at  the  watershed  formed  by  the  screen  of  hills  across  the  plain  between 
the  Orontes  to  the  north  and  the  Leontes  (Litany)  to  the  south.  See 
Robinson,  Biblical  Researches,  Appendix,  vol.  iii,  for  a  convincing  discus- 
sion of  the  subject. 


282      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Care  must  be  taken  to  distinguish  between  the  various  words  trans^ 
lated  'river'  in  the  Old  Testament  (A.V.).  The  Hebrewirr; ,  naMr, 
denotes  a  perennial  river,  as  the  Euphrates  ;  and  the  '  river  of  Egypt,' 
where  this  word  is  used,  is  the  Nile  (see  Gen  15^^).  But  Snj,  nachal, 
may  stand  for  a  mountain-torrent,  partly  or  wholly  dried  up  in 
summer,  or  for  the  valley  down  which  such  a  torrent  flows  (in  Arabic, 
loady).  The  Kishon,  the  Kidron,  the  Arnon,  the  Jabbok,  and  many 
smaller  valley-streams,  are  denoted  by  this  word.  So  the  'brook  of 
Egypt '  (as  the  R.  V.  reads  in  i  Ki  8^5  2  Ki  24"^  i  Ch  13^  2  Ch  7*  Eze  482*) 
was  the  extreme  south  boundary  of  the  Land  of  Promise.  The  dis- 
tance from  Dan  to  Beersheba  was  143  miles,  that  from  the  entrance  to 
Hamath  to  the  brook  of  Egypt  277.  The  breadth  of  western  Palestine, 
from  Jordan  to  the  Mediterranean,  averages  about  50  miles,  so  that 
the  country  was  about  the  size  of  Wales. 

169.  Its  main  divisions. — The  divisions  and  chief 
features  of  Palestine  may  be  most  clearly  shown  by  a  rough 
parallel  arrangement  ^^  thus  :  — 


North. 

I. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

The  Sea. 

Seaboard  Plain. 

Mountain 

Valley  op 

Beyond 

Regions. 

THE  Jordan.  • 

Jordan. 

(Mediterra- 

Akka 

Galilee 

Waters  of 

nean.) 

(Carmel). 

(Esdraelon). 

Merom. 

Bashan 

Sharon. 

Mount 

Lake  of 

and 

The  Shephelah. 

Ephraim. 

Gennesaret. 

Gilead 

Judaea — Hill 

The  Salt  Sea. 

{Percea). 

country. 

The  Arabah. 

Judfea — 

Wilderness. 

Notes  on  the  above  Table. 

1.  The  unbroken  coast. — The  great  characteristic  of  the  Palestinian 
seaboard  is  its  unbroken  character — an  almost  straight  line  without 
creeks  or  harbours.  This  tended  greatly  to  isolate  the  land  ;  it  was 
*  shut  in '  by  the  sea. 

2.  The  Western  Plain. — This  great  level  extended  southwards 
from  the  Phoenician  frontier  to  the  promontory  of  Carmel — then  along 


*  See  Dr.  George  Adam  Smith,  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land, 
p.  49- 


GEOGRAPHY:   PALESTINE  283 

the  flowery  vale  of  Sharon  to  the  Shephclah  or  'lowland,'  the  Philis- 
tian  plain,  stretching  inland  in  a  series  of  low  hills  to  the  foot  of  the 
Judsean  mountains.  The  word  shepJiBlah  ('plain'  A.  V.,  'lowland' 
R.  V.)  is  applied  to  this  region  in  i  Ch  27-*  2  Ch  g"''  Jer  17-^  Ob  ^' 
Zee  f. 

3.  The  Hig-hland  Seerion. — The  Galilean  highlands  (the  '  moun- 
tains of  Naphtali') — limestone  hills,  rocky,  often  flat-topped,  with 
innumerable  clefts  and  precipices — descend  on  the  south  to  the  Plain 
or  Valley  of  Jezreel  (in  the  later  Greek  form  of  the  word,  Esdraelon"), 
an  irregular  triangle,  with  its  base  on  the  eastern  side,  about  15  miles, 
its  north  side  below  the  Galilean  hills  12  miles,  and  its  south  side  18, 
its  apex  being  near  the  sea  where  the  Kishon,  '  that  ancient  river,' 
Judg  5"^\  which  drains  the  valley,  forces  its  way  through  a  gorge 
below  Carmel.  This  plain  was  the  great  battle-field  of  Palestine. 
Here  the  Canaanite  hosts  were  defeated  by  Barak,  and  the  '  Amalek- 
ites,  Midianites,  and  children  of  the  east '  by  Gideon  (.Tudg  6^^  7'^''2^). 
Here  also,  on  Mount  Gilboa,  Saul  and  Jonathan  fell  before  the  Philis- 
tines (i  Sa  31  I  Ch  10),  and  at  Megiddo  Josiah  was  defeated  and  slain 
by  Pharaoh-Necho,  2  Ki  23-^.  To  this  region  belong  some  of  the  most 
famous  Bible  lyrics — the  Song  of  Deborah,  the  Elegy  of  David,  and  the 
lamentations  of  '  the  singing  men  and  singing  women  of  Judah  '  at 
Hadad-Rimmon  (Zee  12'^)  over  their  pious  hero-king.  Such  events 
were  to  the  Apocalyptic  seer  a  type  of  the  final  world-conflict  between 
good  and  evil  to  be  fought  out  at  Har-Magedon  (R.  V.),  'the  mountain 
of  Megiddo,'  Rev  i6^^  Around  this  famous  plain  were  places  of 
familiar  name.  Tabor  and  Gilboa  were  its  outstanding  hills,  making 
the  base-line  of  the  triangle  ;  and  among  its  towns  and  villages  were 
Shunem  and  En-dor,  Cana,  Nain,  and  Nazareth. 

Beyond  this  plain  to  the  south  rises  Mount  Ephraim,  the  name  not 
of  a  single  eminence,  but  of  an  irregular  range  of  hills,  interspersed 
with  fertile  plains.  Among  these,  the  vale  of  Shechem,  between  the 
rocky  uplands  of  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  is  pre-eminent.  The  beautiful 
Tirzah,  and  Samaria,  with  its  'crown  of  pride,'  were  successively  the 
chief  places  of  this  part  of  the  land  ;  its  sanctuaries  were  Bethel  and 
Shiloh. 

Southwards,  again,  with  scarcely  a  break  or  mark  of  division,  the 
mountains  of  San^aria  merge  into  the  more  precipitous  and  rugged 
hills  of  Judaea.  Among  them,  in  a  position  of  unique  strength, 
stands  the  mountain-city  of  Jerusalem. 

A  graphic  description  may  here  be  quoted: — 'At  a  point  exactly 
opposite  to  the  extreme  north  of  the  Dead  Sea,  i.  e.  due  west  from  it, 

*  Judith  3^  4^  But  the  LXX  generally  transliterates  the  Hebrew 
WOl'd  as  'le^parjX. 


284     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

where  the  mountain  ridge  has  an  elevation  of  about  2,710  feet,  and 
close  to  the  saddle  of  the  ridge,  a  very  remarkable  feature  of  this 
rocky  process,  so  to  call  it,  occurs.  The  appearance  is  as  if  a  single 
but  vast  wave  of  the  sea  of  rock,  rising  and  swelling  gradually  from 
north  to  south,  had  been  suddenly  checked  in  its  advance,  and,  afte^ 
a  considerable  eubsidence  below  the  general  level,  left  standing  per- 
fectly isolated  from  the  surrounding  mass,  both  as  to  its  front  and 
sides.  Add  that  about  the  middle  of  this  wave  there  is  a  slight  depres- 
sion, channelling  it  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and  you  have 
before  you  the  natural  limestone  rock  which  forms  the  site  of 
Jerusalem*.'     For  Divisions  4  and  5  see  §§  172,  173. 

170.  Jerusalem. — The  Tel  el-Amarna  letters  give  the 
form  lerusalim,  '  City  of  Salim '  or  '  of  peace.'  The  name  of 
the  city,  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  was  Salem  ^,  and  it  was 
called  Jebus  at  the  time  of  Israel's  entrance  on  the  Holy 
Land  ^.  Its  Jewish*  name  was  perhaps  suggested  by  these 
facts,  and  means  '  the  foundation  of  peace.'  Part  of  the  city 
belonged  to  Benjamin,  and  part  to  Judah.  The  name  of 
Jerusalem  first  appears  Jos  10^.  A  deep  valley  surrounds 
three  sides,  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  through  which  the 
brook  Kidron  flows,  on  the  east ;  and  Hinnom,  in  a  rocky 
gorge  on  the  south  and  west.  Beyond  the  valle^^s  are  lofty 
hills  ;  so  that  the  city  is  not  easily  visible  till  the  traveller 
is  near  it.  The  soil  is  very  stony,  and  the  country  round  is 
dry  and  barren. 

The  extent  of  the  city  di'ff'ered  at  different  times.  It  w^as 
largest  at  the  time  of  its  final  overthrow  by  Titus.  It  then 
included  Zion,  Acra,  Moriah,  and  Bezetha.  Zion,  the  ancient 
stronghold  of  the  Jebusites,  was  on  the  south-western  side 
of  the  city ;  and  immediately  north  of  it  was  Acra.  Zion 
was  the  higher  of  the  two  (2,550  feet  above  the  sea-level) ; 
the  part  of  Jerusalem  which  was  built  upon  it  was  called 
the  upper  city,  and  the  part  built  on  Acra,  the  lower.  They 
were  divided  by  a  high  wall,  first  erected  by  David,  who 
resided  on  Mount  Zion.     The  name  of  Zion  was  often  used 

•  Christian  Rememhranctr,  new  series,  vol.  xviii.  pp.  425,  426. 
»»  Gen  14^^  (Ps  762).  0  Jos  15*  i8-»  Judg  igio-^i. 


GEOGRAPHY:   JERUSALEM  285 

in  later  times  to  denote  the  whole  of  Jerusalem^  Pss  87"^  149- 
Is  33i*-2o,  &c. 

Moriah  (where  it  is  generally  held  that  Abraham  was 
about  to  offer  Isaac,  when  the  angel  stayed  his  hand)  lay  to 
the  east  of  Acra,  and  was  the  site  of  the  Temple.  The 
valley  between  it  and  Acra  was  nearly  filled  up,  that  access 
to  the  Temple  might  be  more  easy.  With  Zion,  Moriah 
was  connected  by  a  bridge  and  terrace.  It  is  now  the  site 
of  the  Mosque  of  Omar.  To  the  north  was  the  hill  Bezetha, 
which  Agrippa  joined  to  the  city.  The  whole  circumference 
of  the  walls  was,  at  the  time  of  their  greatest  extent,  about 
4  miles  (33  stadia,  Josephus,  Wars,  v.  4,  §  3).  The  total 
extent  of  the  modern  walls  is  between  2^  and  2|  miles.  The 
population  in  1899  was  about  28,600  (Moslems  7,700,  Chris- 
tians 10,900,  Jews  10,000). 

To  the  east  of  Jerusalem,  across  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat, 
lay  the  Mount  of  Olives.  This  valley  has  been  for  more 
than  3,000  years,  and  is  to  the  present  day,  used  as 
a  burial-place. 

In  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  (Gehenna)  the  Jews  had  once 
worshipped  Moloch,  and  offered  to  it  in  sacrifice  their  own 
children.  When  Josiah  recalled  them  to  the  worship  of  the 
true  God,  the  valley  was  made  the  receptacle  for  the  filth  of 
the  city,  and  for  the  bodies  of  criminals  who  had  been  exe- 
cuted, 2  Ki  23^^  2  Ch  28^.  To  consume  these  substances 
fires  were  kept  continually  burning,  and  hence  the  place 
was  used  as  an  emblem  of  future  punishment,  Mt  5^'-.  On 
the  south  declivity  of  the  valley  lay  the  Potter's  Field,  afte-r- 
wards  called,  from  the  circumstances  of  its  purchase,  the 
Field  of  Blood. 

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans,  a.  d.  70,  more  than 
a  million  of  the  Jews  perished,  and  97,000  were  taken  prisoners. 
About  sixty  years  afterwards,  the  Jews,  who  had  begun  to  gather 
round  their  ancient  home,  were  all  banished,  their  return  prohibited 
on  pain  of  death,  and  the  site  of  the  Temple  ploughed  up.  Several 
hundred  years  afterwards,  the  city  was  again  rebuilt.      In  614  the 


28G      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTUEE 

Persians  captured  it,  and  90,000  Christians  were  slain.  In  637  it  was 
taken  by  the  Saracens,  who  kept  it  till  1079,  when  the  Turks  became 
its  masters.     Its  modern  name  in  Arabic  is  el-Kuds,  '  The  Holy.' 

After  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  many  oi  the  Jews  removed 
to  Tiberias,  which  was  long  the  chief  seat  of  their  literature  and 
learning. 

The  Southern  Hill-country.— Southward  of  the  Holy 
City,  the  hill-country  continues  to  Bethlehem  (6  miles),  with 
its  terraced  slopes  leading  down  to  cornfields  and  pastures ; 
then,  14  miles  further,  to  Hebron  (or  Kirjath-Arba),  one  of 
the  most  ancient  cities  in  the  world,  in  its  mountain  valley, 
near  the  vineyards  of  Eshcol.  Here  was  the  grove  of  Mamre, 
Abraham's  Amorite  friend,  where  the  patriarch  conversed 
with  angels  :  here,  too,  is  Machpelah,  the  burial-place  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  with  their  wives — one  of  the 
Bible  sites  that  are  positively  known  *.  Hebron  and  its 
neighbourhood  form  one  of  the  most  fertile  and  beautiful 
districts  in  southern  Palestine. 

Twenty-five  miles  further  south  is  Beer-sheba,  also  famed 
in  patriarchal  history.  Two  out  of  the  wells  there  are  still 
in  use.  The  hills  of  Judaea  here  sink  into  the  arid  levels 
of  the  Negeb :  and  *  the  South '  is  the  natural  boundaiy 
of  the  land. 

171.  Character  of  the  highland  regfion.— From  northern 
to  southern  Palestine  the  highland  region  presents  almost 
uniform  characteristics.  From  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon  the 
hills  to  the  south  continue  gradually  rising,  till  at  Jerusalem 
we  i-each  a  height,  above  the  surface  of  the  Dead  Sea,  of 
3,900  feet.  South  of  Jerusalem  they  reach  a  still  greater 
height :  eastward,  the  country  falls  rapidly,  so  that  Jericho, 
which  is  but  20  miles  from  Jerusalem,  is  3,406  feet  below 
it :  so  accurate  is  the  description  given  in  the  Bible,  Lu  io^° 
Jn  7^^  Ac  24^     Compare  Gen  26^  46^. 

*  See  Stanley's  Jewish  Church,  vol.  i,  Appendix,  for  a  description  of 
the  visit  paid  to  the  mosque  that  covers  the  burial  cave  in  1862,  in 
company  with  the  Princw  of  Wales  (King  Edward  VII). 


GEOGRAPHY  :   PALESTINE  287 

Many  of  these  mountains  abound  in  caverns.  Their  sides 
afford  large  sheep-walks  (Am  i^),  and  the  plains  which  are 
found  on  the  summits  of  some  are  covered  with  corn.  In  the 
crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  wherever  there  was  any  depth  of 
earth,  the  olive  flourished,  and  the  fig.  In  peaceful  times 
the  hills  were  terraced  wath  earth  carefully  banked  up  and 
renewed  every  year  after  the  wdnter  floods,  so  that  where  now 
the  mountain-sides  are  bare  and  desolate  there  once  were 
fertility  and  beauty.  The  vales  were  most  luxuriant  and 
fruitful,  and  the  veiy  deserts  wei-e  largely  formed  of  ex- 
tensive pasture-land,  unfit  for  the  plough,  but  rich  in  grass 
and  timber.  The  products  of  all  climes  were  thus  found  in 
Palestine,  and  upon  the  same  range  of  hills  were  often 
growing  the  fig  and  date  of  the  tropics,  with  the  oak  and 
fir  of  the  temperate  zone.  Watercourses  were  innumerable. 
East  and  west  the  torrents  descended  in  the  rainy  season, 
the  water  being  stored  in  reservoirs  or  'cisterns'  for  summer 
use.  In  many  places  were  fountains  of  'living'  or  '  spring- 
ing '  water — a  priceless  boon  !  Such  a  fountain  was  called 
i^y,  ayin,  'eye,'  a  word  which  appears  in  local  names  &sEn~ 
'  En-gedi,'  'En-gannim,'  'En-rogel.'  Distinguished  from  this 
is  the  Be'er  P^*?),  a  well  or  pit  excavated  in  favourable  situa- 
tions to  catch  and  store  the  water  from  whatever  source. 
Thus  the  natural  features  of  the  land  w^ere  eminently 
adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the  Chosen  People,  exactly 
corresponding  to  the  description  of  the  Bible— 'a  good  land, 
a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  that  spring  out  of  the  valleys  and 
hills.' 

The  Wilderness  of  Judah. — The  hill-country  of  Judah, 
east  and  south  of  Jerusalem,  passes  into  what  is  appro- 
priately called  'the  wilderness.'  The  limestone  rocks  become 
more  rugged  and  precipitous,  abounding  in  caverns.  There 
is  little  vegetation  of  any  kind,  petty  wandering  tribes  are 
its  only  inhabitants,  with  a  few  shepherds  who  roam  with 
their  flocks  in  search  of  the  scanty  herbage.    Wild  goats  and 


288      THE  INTERPEETATION  OF  SCRIPTUKE 

the  'conies'  of  the  rocks  here  find  their  dwelling-place.  This 
region  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  Judg  i^^.  From  Jos  15®^ 
it  would  appear  that  it  had  at  one  time  a  settled  population. 
It  was  the  scene  of  David's  wanderings,  the  *  Carmel '  on 
the  western  fringe  of  the  district  being  the  abode  of  the 
churlish  Nabal,  and  En-gedi  on  the  east,  with  its  cave  and 
fountain,  the  meeting-place  on  a  memorable  occasion  between 
David  and  Saul. 

Masada,  to  the  south  of  En-gedi,  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  was 
occupied  as  a  stronghold  by  Jonathan  Maccabaeus,  and  became  in  later 
days  more  memorable  from  a  fearful  tragedy  at  the  close  of  the  war 
under  Titus.  See  Josephus,  Wars,  vii.  9,  §  i.  Some  part  of  this  wilder- 
ness, it  has  been  generally  believed,  was  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
Temptation,  tradition  pointing  to  a  mountain  about  7  miles  north- 
west of  Jericho,  called  Quarantana,  from  the  Latin  word  signifying/or<j/. 

172.  4.  The  Jordan  Valley.  The  valley,  or  rather  the 
deep  gorge,  of  the  Jordan  forms  the  boundaiy  of  western 
Palestine.  Tlie  ordinary  word  for  river,  nahar,  is  never 
applied  to  it  in  Scripture :  it  is  always  and  only  '  Jordan ' 
[Yarclen],  or  'the  Jordan*,'  the  Descender,  as  the  word  in 
Hebrew  means.  No  name,  indeed,  could  be  more  appro- 
priate. Its  remoter  source  is  in  a  fountain  of  'the  Valley 
of  Lebanon '  (Coele-Syria),  where,  under  the  name  of  the 
Ilasbdny,  it  flows  southward  until  it  encounters  the  streams 
from  the  sides  of  Hermon  above  Dan  and  Caesarea  Philippi 
(Banias);  two  localities  often  identified,  as  by  Dr.  G.  A.  Smith. 
Thence  by  the  'Waters  of  Merom'  {el-HuIeh),  the  marshy 
lake^  near  which  northern  Palestine  was  won,  Jos  ii^~'-^,  it 
flows  to  the  Lake  of  Chinnereth  or  -oth  (perhaps  'harp- 
shaped  '),  Num  34^1  Jos  1 1^  12^  I  Ki  15-'^) ;  in  the  N.T.  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (12J  miles  by  8),  or  'of  Tiberias,'  or/  L.  of  Genne- 
saret ' — so  memorable  in  the  Gospel  history.  Before  reach- 
ing this  lake  the  Jordan  has  already  begun  to  'descend,'  the 

*  Always  with  the  definite  article,  except  Job  40^^^  Ps  42^. 
''  See  Macgregor's  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan  for  a  vivid  description   of 
this  lake,  with  its  vast  growth  of  tlie  papyrua-plunt. 


GEOGEAPHY:  THE  JOEDAN  VALLEY   289 

surface  level  being  680  feet  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean. 
From  the  outlet  of  the  hike  it  pursues  its  swift,  muddy, 
generally  shallow  course  until  it  loses  itself  in  the  Dead  Sea, 
called  in  Scripture  the  '  Sea  of  the  Plain,'  Dt  4*^  2  Ki  i^^^, 
the  'Salt  Sea,'  Dt  3^^  Jos  3^^  123,  and  the  'East  Sea,'  Joel  2^0 
Eze  47^^  Zee  14^.  The  name  by  which  it  is  now  generally 
known  does  not  occur  in  Scripture  or  in  any  of  the  ancient 
Jewish  writers.  The  Arabs  generally  call  it  Bahr  Lut,  the 
'Lake  of  Lot.' 

The  distance  between  the  Lake  of  Galilee  and  the  Salt  Sea  is,  in 
a  straight  line,  65  miles,  but  the  many  windings  of  the  Jordan  make 
the  whole  length  of  the  river  about  200  miles.  As  the  surface  of  the 
Salt  Sea  is  1,292  feet  below  that  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  total  descent 
in  that  distance  is  somewhat  more  than  600  feet.  The  width  of  the 
river  varies  fx-om  45  to  180  feet.  Its  margin  on  both  sides  is  filled  by 
an  alluvial  deposit  on  which  tropical  vegetation  rankly  flourishes.  In 
time  of  hai-vest  (April)  the  melting  snows  from  the  Lebanon  swell  the 
stream  to  a  great  width  and  depth,  dislodging  wild  animals  from  their 
lairs  by  the  bank  and  driving  them  into  the  higher  country. 

The  Salt  Sea,  16  miles  from  Jerusalem,  overhung  by  barren 
mountains,  which  rise  precipitously  from  a  lonely,  desolate  shore, 
received  that  name  from  the  mineral  matters  which  it  holds  in  solu- 
tion, and  which  give  to  its  w^aters  a  specific  gravity  of  from  20  to 
25  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of  sea-water.  No  form  of  organized 
life  can  survive  in  its  depths,  and  the  fish  carried  down  to  it 
from  the  Jordan  immediately  die.  To  these  facts  many  travellers' 
fables  have  been  added,  as  that  birds  cannot  fly  over  it,  nor  wild 
animals  live  upon  its  shores.  The  sea  has  no  outlet  ;  the  waters  of  the 
Jordan,  as  well  as  of  the  wadys  that  descend  from  the  surrounding 
hills  (six  millions  of  tons  per  day,  it  is  estimated),  are  carried  off  by 
the  enormous  evaporation. 

The  Arabah. — South  of  the  Salt  Sea,  a  steep  and  rocky 
track,  identified  by  some  with  the  '  Ascent  of  Akrabbim,* 
or  'Scorpion  Pass,'  leads  to  the  great  desert  plateau  of 
which  the  Wilderness  of  Zin,  west  of  the  Edomite  Mount 
Seir,  forms  a  part.  Known  as  the  Arabah,  and  extending 
to  the  Gulf  of  Akaba  on  the  Eed  Sea,  it  was  the  '  Plain ' 
along  which  the  Israelites  in  the  last  year  of  their  wanderings 
made  their  toilsome  way. 

u 


290     THE  INTEKPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

It  may  bo  noted  that  difTerent  words  are  translated  '  Plain*  in  the 
A.  V.  of  the  Old  Testament.  Thus,  Gen  12^  14^',  and  similar  passages, 
the  word  {'elon)  is  'oak  '  or  'terebinth  tree  '  :  in  Dt  3^"^  Jos  13'^  it  is 
more  correctly  '  table-land'  (ynlshor)  :  in  Dt  i^-"^  i  Sam  23^*,  and  many 
other  passages,  it  is  Arabah  as  above  ;  and  in  i  Ch  27-"  Ob  ^^,  &c.  it  is 
ShephUah,  or  'lowland,'  as  previously  noted.  §  169.  For  the  most  part, 
the  R.  V.  makes  these  disstinctions  clear.  See  Young's  Analytical  Con- 
cordMice  for  the  passages. 

173.  5.  Beyond  Jordan.  The  region  east  of  Jordan, 
between  the  river  and  the  Syrian  desert,  comprised  in  its 
northern  portion  the  fertile  territory  of  Bashan,  an  un- 
dulating and  well-watered  table-land  between  two  mountain 
ranges.  It  is  mostly  of  volcanic  rock  ;  the  pulverized  lava 
being  an  excellent  foundation  for  pasture  land.  Hence  the 
cattle  of  Bashan  became  proverbial  for  size  and  strength. 

In  the  north-east  of  this  region  was  the  extnnordinary  district  of 
Argob — afterwards  Trachonitis,  '  the  rough  country,'  in  Arabic  Lejah, 
'the  Retreat';  a  mass  of  basaltic  rock  22  miles  by  14,  studded  with 
towns  and  large  villages.  See  i  Ki  4''.  Many  of  these  remain, 
although  in  ruins*.  The  territory  was  assigned  to  the  'half  tribe  of 
Manasseh,'  a  pastoral  people.  With  Ephraim,  it  cast  in  its  lot  with 
the  Northern  Kingdom  at  the  time  of  the  Disruption  :  but  was  subject 
to  the  incursions  of  Syria  (2  Ki  lo"^),  and  became  largely  infected  with 
the  idolatiy  of  its  heathen  neighbours.  It  was  among  the  first  of  the 
tribes  to  be  taken  captive  by  Assyria  (i  Ch  s^^),  and  so  vanishes  from 
liistory.  Bashan  was  subsequently  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Batanaea  (from  the  original  name),  Trachonitis,  Auranitis(the  Ilauran, 
afterwards  liurwa),  and  Gaulanitis  {Golan,  Jos  20*^). 

South  of  Bashan  were  the  verdant  hills  and  rich  pastures 
of  Gilead,  held  by  the  tribe  of  Gad  until  the  Assyrian  inva- 
sion. At  Ramoth-gilead  was  the  battle-field  where  Ahab 
fell.  The  territory  was  watered  by  the  Jabbok.  This  region 
embraced  the  greater  part  of  the  Persea — the  '  beyond  Jordan ' 
of  the  gospel  history. 

Still  south,  and  extending  along  the  upper  eastern  shore 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  rose  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  Moab,  to 

*  See  Porter's  Giant  Cities  of  Bashan.  Many  of  those  remains,  it  is 
now  proved,  are  Roman  ;  but  primaeval  relics  arc  yet  traceable. 


GEOGEAPHY:    DIVISIONS   OF   CANAAN    291 

the  east  of  which  lay  broad  pasture  and  forest  lands.  Among 
these  mountain  heights  were  Peor,  from  which  Balaam 
surveyed  the  '  goodly  tents '  of  Israel,  and  Pisgah,  whence 
Moses  viewed  the  Promised  Land  before  his  death.  The 
region  was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben  ;  and  the  river 
Arnon.  by  which  it  was  bounded,  was  the  southern  frontier 
of  the  Holy  Land.  To  the  watercourses  which  fertilized  the 
country,  and  the  indisposition  of  the  prosperous  settlers  to 
warlike  enterprise,  Deborah  refers  in  her  triumphal  ode  on 
the  defeat  of  the  Canaanites,  Judg  515-16  (gg^  ^  yy 

Beyond  the  Arnon,  on  tlie  south,  the  Moabite  territory  was 
diminished  by  tlie  conquests  under  Josliua  ;  becoming  alternately 
independent  and  tributary  to  Israel.  The  famous  'Moabite  stone' 
was  discovered  at  Dibon,  in  the  Keubenite  country.  The  Ammonites, 
whose  diminished  kingdom  lay  between  Mount  Gilead,  witli  the 
Reubenite  territory,  on  the  west,  and  the  Great  Desert  on  the  east,  for 
some  time  maintained  a  precarious  existence,  but  were  finally  amalga- 
mated with  the  general  Arab  population.  So  with  the  Edomites 
or  Idumseans,  between  the  wilderness  of  Judaea  and  the  Sinaitic 
peninsula. 

174.  Successive  InliaTaitants  of  Canaan:  Political 
Divisions. — The  Canaanites,  at  the  dawn  of  their  history, 
seem  to  have  formed  ten  nations.  They  afterwards  dwindled 
to  seven.  Gen  15I8-21  j)t  -yi ;  of  whom  the  Amorites  were 
the  most  powerful,  their  name  being  sometimes  used  for  the 
whole,  Gen  15^^.  The  Philistines,  Moabites,  Midianites, 
Ammonites,  and  the  children  of  Amalek  and  Edom,  were 
residing,  when  the  Israelites  entered  Canaan,  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  and  some  of  them  within  its  borders. 

Joshua  divided  the  country  into  twelve  parts,  giving  one 
to  each  tribe  ;  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  being  reckoned  among 
the  tribes,  and  Levi  having  his  portion  among  the  rest. 

In  the  Kortli  dwelt  Asher,  Naphtali,  Zebulun,  and  Issachar  :  after- 
wards '  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles,'  and  Galilee  proper. 

In  the  Middle,  Ephraim  and  half  of  Manasseh  :  afterwards  '  Samaria.' 
In    the    South,  Judah,   Benjamin,  Dan,  and  Simeon :    afterwards 
'Judaea.' 

U  2 


292     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Beijond  Jordan,  Keuben,  Gad,  and  half  of  Manasseh  :  afterwards 
*  Peroea,'  &c. 

Under  the  reign  of  Solomon,  the  kingdom  was  greatly  extended, 
and  tlie  distinction  of  tribes  became  less  marked.  Tlie  whole  of 
his  territory  was  therefore  divided  afresh  into  twelve  districts,  each 
under  its  own  olficer,  i  Ki  4'''"^^. 

On  the  death  of  Solomon,  ten  tribes  revolted  from  his  son 
Rehoboam,  and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  of  which 
Sychar,  or  Shechem,  was  at  first  the  capital,  afterwards  Tirzah 
(i  Ki  1533  i623),  until  Omri  built  Samaria  (i  Ki  16^^).  The 
tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  with  parts  of  Dan  and 
Simeon,  formed  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  whose  chief  city  was 
Jerusalem.  This  division  ceased,  however,  on  the  over- 
throw of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  Sargon  the  Assyrian, 
after  it  had  continued  for  about  220  years.  The  southern 
kingdom  was  conquered  by  the  Babylonians  under  Nebuchad- 
nezzar about  120  years  afterwards,  and  the  people  were 
carried  into  captivity,  which  endured  until  the  subjugation 
of  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  when  permission  was  given  to  return. 
Syria  and  Palestine  now  remained  a  province  of  Persia 
until  the  conquests  of  Alexander,  after  the  division  of  whose 
empire  among  his  generals  Palestine  became  subject  to  the 
rulers  of  Egypt  and  Syria  in  turn.  Then  followed  the 
period  of  the  Maccabaeans  and  the  final  conquest  by 
the  Romans.     See  Part  II,  Ch.  XVII. 

From  the  Captivity  onwards,  the  term  Israel  was  applied  to  the 
surviving  part  of  the  whole  nation,  who  were  also  called  Jews,  or 
Judaeans,  without  regard  to  the  old  tribal  distinctions.  Tlie  name  of 
Judaea  as  applied  to  the  country  is  first  found  Ezr  5^  Dn  5^^ 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  Palestine,  a  Roman  proconsulate 
under  the  governor  of  Syria,  comprised  five  divisions : 
(i)  Galilee,  w^hich  included  most  of  the  scenes  of  His  personal 
ministry,  and  whence  most  of  His  disciples  were  chosen, 
Is  9^  Mt  22^-2^  Lu  4I*  Mt  2663  28^.10^  This  district  was 
despised  by  the  Jews  because  of  its  distance  from  Jerusalem, 
its  connexion  with  the  Samaritans,  and  the  impurity  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY:   PALESTINE 


293 


dialect  spoken  by  the  people,  Mk  14"^^  (2)  Samaria,  which 
included  the  middle  division  of  the  kingdom,  and  separated 
Galilee  from  Judaea,  Jn  4*.  (3)  Judaea,  which  was  nearly 
co-extensive  with  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Judah.  (4)  The 
district  of  Persea  (or  beyond  Jordan),  which  included  Abilene, 
where  Lysanias  was  tetrarch,  Lu  3^,  Trachonitis,  Ituraea  or 
the  Hauran  %  Gaulanitis  ^,  Batanaea  (the  ancient  Bashan,  but 
less  extensive),  Peraea  proper  (between  the  Arnon  and  the 
Jabbok),  where  John  was  beheaded,  and  Decapolis  (or  the 
district  of  the  Ten  Cities).  (5)  Idumaea,  a  province  Avhich 
was  added  by  the  Romans.  It  comprised  the  extreme  south 
parts  of  Judaea,  with  a  small  part  of  Arabia. 

It  will  facilitate  the  study  of  sacred  Scripture  to  note  the  divisions 
of  the  country  and  the  changes  of  the  government  in  the  time  of 
our  Lord. 


Dominions  of  Herod  the  Great,  from  e.g.  37  to  e.g.  3. 


Judaea, 
Samaria,  Idumaea. 


Revenue,  400  talents 
(about  one  million 
sterling). 

These  he  bequeaths  to 
his  son, 

Archelaus,  who  is  ba- 
nished, and  the  pro- 
vince is  put  under 
procu  rators,of  whom 
one  of  the  chief  was 

Pontius  Pilate,  a.d.  7 
to  36  (dies  36). 


Galilee, 
Peraea  Proper. 


Revenue,  200  talents. 


These  he  bequeaths  to 
his  son, 

Herod  Antipas,  who  be- 
headed John. 


Herod     Antipas     ba- 
nished (40). 


Trachonitis 
and  Itur*a. 


Revenue,  100  talents. 

These    he     bequeaths 

to  his  son, 

Philip  Herod  (Jn  4). 


Philip  dies  (37). 


Herod  Agrippa  (grandson  of  Herod)  made  king  of  the  whole 
(Ac  12)  A.  D.  41-44. 


Procurators :  Fadus  ; 
Alexander  ;  Venti- 
dius  ;  Felix  ;  Festus. 


I  Agrippa  (son  of  H. 
Agrippa),  tetrnrch  of  Trachonitis,  is  made 
tetrarch  of  Galilee  also.  Paul  pleads  before 
him  at  Csesarea  (Ac  25,  26). 


*  J  Ch  i'^  (from  Jetur)  ;   Eze  47I6.I8  Hauran. 


*>  Jos  30*. 


294     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

In  later  times  these  divisions  have  undergone  various  changes.  In 
the  fifth  century  A.  D.  tlie  country  was  divided  into  three  parts  :  Judaea 
and  Samaria  ;  Galilee  and  Trachonitis  ;  Peraea  :ind  Idumaea.  In  the 
time  of  the  Crusades  episcopal  sees  -were  established  in  the  principal 
cities.  Under  the  modern  Turkish  authority,  the  whole  country  is 
divided  between  the  pachaliks,  or  governments,  of  Bey  rout,  Damascus, 
and  Jerusalem. 

175.  Climate  of  Palestine. — Under  Physical  Geography 
are  included  climate,  weather,  seasons,  &c. ;  and  a  knowledge 
of  these  will  often  throw  light  on  Scripture. 

The  heat  of  the  climate  of  Judfea  in  summer  is  intense, 
and  frequently  proves  fatal.  Near  Mount  Tabor,  many 
soldiers  of  the  army  of  Baldwin  IV  died  from  this  cause 
(a.  d.  ii86),  at  the  very  place  (Shunem)  where  the  child 
died  in  the  days  of  Elisha,  2  Ki  4^^"-^.  How  impressive 
the  figure  of  the  prophet,  'A  man  shall  be  as  the  shadow 
of  a  great  reck  in  a  weary  land'!  Is  32'^. 

During  the  summer  there  is  no  rain  in  Palestine  (hence 
the  marvel  recorded  i  Sa  12^") ;  but  in  the  evening  the 
mist  (called  '  dew '  in  A.V.)  falls  heavily  and  suddenly,  often 
wetting  the  incautious  traveller  to  the  skin.  It  is  as  suddenly 
dried  up  on  the  following  morning.  Compare  with  this  fact 
the  following  passages,  Ps  133^  Ho  6*  14''  2  Sa  17^^  Pr  3^°. 

The  early  rains  fall  in  the  month  of  Tisri  (Sept.-Oct.),  replenishing 
Hhe  streams  in  the  south'  (Ps  126*)  ;  the  latter  rains,  in  the  month 
Nisan  (Mar.-Apr.).  The  former  quickened  the  seed,  the  latter  filled 
the  ears.  It  was  at  the  timo  of  the  Passover,  when  the  Jordan  had 
been  swollen  by  the  early  rains,  that  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan, 
Jos  3.     Compare  the  Calendar,  §  216. 

Philo  tells  us  that  there  are  no  rains  in  Egypt ;  and  it 
is  certain  that  rain  in  that  country  is  exceedingly  rare  *, 
Hence  the  evidence  of  the  miracle  mentioned  Ex  g^^~^^, 
and  the  hardness  of  heart  displayed  by  Pharaoh  in  resisting 
the  message  of  Moses. 

•  Zee  14". 


GEOGRAPHY:   PHYSICAL  295 

Rain  is  generally  preceded  by  a  squall  of  wind.  Compare 
2  Ki  3^6.17  and  Pr  25!^. 

Winds. — The  east  wind  of  Palestine  is  very  hurtful  to 
vegetation.  In  winter  it  is  dry  and  cold,  and  in  summer 
dry  and  hot.  It  carries  off  the  moisture  of  the  leaves  too 
rapidly,  and  withers  them  ^.  When  it  sweeps  over  the 
Mediterranean  it  is  peculiarly  dangerous  ^  It  was  this 
wind — Euroclydon,  or  Euro-aquilo  (east  by  north),  called  by 
sailors  '  Levanter ' — which  proved  so  fatal  to  the  ship  in 
which  Paul  sailed  c.  The  west  wind  brings  showers,  and, 
after  a  long  drought,  heavy  rain  ^l  The  north  wind  is  cold 
and  drying®.     The  south  wind  brings  heat^'  and  whirlwinds. 

Compare  Is  17^^  Ho  13^  Mt  7^7. 

Wells.— The  value  of  wells  in  the  East  can  be  fully 
appreciated  only  by  those  who  know  the  scarcity  of  water 
in  the  summer  season.  These  wells  were  a  source  of  strife 
between  Abimelech  and  Isaac,  Gen  26^^"-^  ;  and  Moses  com- 
memorates God's  bounty  in  giving  the  Israelites  wells 
which  they  digged  not,  Dt  6^^. 

Travellers  crossing  the  deserts  sometimes  go  as  much  as  80  miles 
without  finding  water.  The  wells  are  often  very  deep,  many  of  them 
160  feet,  and  then  filled  only  with  rain-water.  In  going  to  Jerusalem 
the  devout  Israelites  went  from  strength  to  strength,  the  rain  filling 
the  pools,  Ps  84".  The  comparison  of  false  teachers  to  wells  without 
water  is  thus  seen  to  be  peculiarly  just ;  bitterly  disappointing  the 
hopes  of  their  hearers,  2  Pet  2}''.  The  mirage,  or  glowing  watery 
appearance  of  distant  sand,  is  also  a  figure  expressive  of  disappoint- 
ment. Camels  and  travellers  are  both  deceived,  and  when  they  reach 
what  seemed  a  sheet  of  water  they  find  burning  dust.  See  Is  35'^ 
Job  6^^  Jer  15^^  marg. 

Temperature  of  the  nights. — Between  the  days  and 
nights  of  Europe,  there  is  no  very  great  difference  as  to 
the   qualities   of  heat  and   cold.     In  the  East  it   is   quite 

•  Gen  4i<'  Eze  17I"  19^2  jjo  12^  "  Ps  48^  «  Ac  27'-^ 

•*  Lu  12"  I  Ki  I8*♦•<^        •  Pr  252'  Job  3^-'^''.        '  Lu  i255  Zee  9". 


296     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

otherwise.  In  the  height  of  summer  the  nights  are  often 
as  cold  as  at  Paris  in  the  month  of  March,  and  the  days 
scorchingly  hot.  Compare  Gen  31*^  and  Jer  36^^  Is  49^^ 
Rev  f\ 

176.  Applications  of  Geographical  facts. — A  know- 
ledge of  geography  will  often  explain  and  reconcile  the 
statements  of  the  Bible,  show  the  beauty  and  truthfulness 
of  particular  passages,  confirm  the  authenticity  of  the 
narrative  by  the  accuracy  of  the  local  colouring,  and  bring 
out  the  sense  which  might  otherwise  remain  concealed. 

Local  characteristics  yield  many  an  allusion  and  figure  to  the 
poetry  of  Scripture:  thus  'the  glory  of  Lebanon,'  the  noble  cedar 
forests  ;  '  the  excellency  of  Carmel,'  its  wide-spreading  woods  ;  '  and 
of  Sliaron,'  the  profusion  of  spring  flowers;  'the  pride  of  Jordan* 
(A.  V.  '  swelling  '),  the  luxuriant  and  brilliant  jungle-growth  upon  its 
banks  affording  many  a  lurking-place  for  wild  beasts.  See  Is  35-  60^' 
Jer  12"'  49'^,  and  the  Psalms  throughout.  Note  especially  the  prayer 
of  the  returning  exiles  :  'Turn  again  our  captivity  as  the  streams  in 
the  South,'  the  watercourses  of  the  Negeb  refilled  after  the  summer 
drought.  With  regard  to  *  the  South '  it  may  also  be  noted  that  it  so 
completely  became  the  designation  of  a  certain  region  that  it  was  not 
incongruous  to  speak  of  going  to  the  South  when  in  fact  the  journey 
was  northward.     So  with  the  spies,  Num  is^"-^*. 

The  word  '  sea  '  is  often  applied  in  Scripture  to  great  rivers.  The 
Nile  is  so  called,  Nah  3"*,  wliere  the  prophet  is  speaking  of  No-Ammon  or 
Thebes,  the  ancient  capital  of  Egypt,  built  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile, 
and  300  miles  from  the  Mediterranean:  see  also  Is  27^  and  Jer  si^", 
where  the  Euphrates  is  so  called.  The  Nile  is  still  called  by  this 
name,  el-Bahr  (the  sea).  It  should  be  noted  that  the  word  '  coasts,' 
as  often  used  in  the  A.V.,  means  borders  or  districts,  Mt  2^^  1521.  In 
the  R.  V.  the  Avord  is  assimilated  to  modern  usage;  as  'borders,' 
*  regions,'  &c.  In  Matthew,  Mark,  and  John  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  is 
spoken  of  as  'the  Sea  of  Galilee.'  Luke  (5')  has  the  more  correct 
designation,  '  lake.' 

In  Is  28^  Samaria  is  called  '  the  crown  of  pride,'  and  her  glory  is 
compared  to  the  fading  flower  of  the  drunkard.  The  custom  referred 
to  in  this  passage  (which  is  also  mentioned  in  Wisd  2^-^)  is  that  of 
wearing  chaplets  in  seasons  of  festivity.  Samaria,  moreover,  was 
built  on  the  top  of  a  round  hill,  and  the  fact  suggested  the  appropriate 
^m^ge  of  a  wreath  of  flowers  bound  roui>d  the  head  of  the  drunkard. 


HELPS   FKOM   GEOGRAPHY  297 

Tlie  chief  city  of  Edom  (Sela)  is  described,  with  equal  truth,  as 
dwelling  in  the  clefts  of  the  rock,  and  holding  the  height  of  the  hill, 
Ob  ^  :  a  most  accurate  description  of  the  wondrous  city  of  Petra, 
whose  ruins  were  first  explored  in  modern  times  by  Burckhardt,  in 
1812,  and  have  been  repeatedly  visited  since.  See  Palmer,  Desert  of 
the  Exodus,  vol.  ii,  also  Kobinson's  Biblical  Researches,  and  Stanley's  Sinai 
and  Palestine. 

The  expression  in  Jn  4*,  'He  must  needs  go  through  Samaria,'  has 
sometimes  been  taken  to  imply  that  the  '  needs  be  '  was  founded  upon 
the  Divine  purpose.  The  fact  is,  that  Samaria  lay  in  the  direct  route 
between  Galilee  and  Judaea  ;  although  the  longer  way  by  the  east  of 
Jordan  was  often  taken,  because  of  the  enmity  between  Jews  and 
Samaritans. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  the  Jews  called  all  civilized  nations, 
except  themselves,  Greeks,  Ac  19'°  so'^^  Ro  i^®  2"-^°  lo^^  ;  as  the  Greeks 
called  all,  except  themselves,  Barbarians.  Hence  the  woman  whom 
Matthew  calls  a  Canaanite  is  called  by  Mark  a  Greek  and  a  Syro- 
phoenician,  Mt  le^"^^  Mk  7^^ ;  the  prefix  '  Syro- '  being  intended  probably 
to  guard  Eoman  readers  (for  whom  his  Gospel  was  designed)  against 
supposing  that  she  belonged  to  Carthage,  a  '  Phoenician  city.' 

On  comparing  Lu  24^*^  with  Ac  i^'-,  it  seems  that  our  Lord  led  His 
disciples  as  far  as  Bethany ;  and  yet  He  ascended  from  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  In  fact,  the  Mount  of  Olives  has  on  the  side  of  it  next  to 
Jerusalem  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane,  and  on  the  other  side,  the 
village  of  Bethany.  The  top  of  the  mount  overlooks  them  both,  and 
the  two  passages  are  quite  consistent. 

'Asia'  means  in  the  New  Testament  a  small  part  of  Asia  Minor 
(known  as  Proconsular  Asia)  of  which  Ephesus  was  the  capital :  hence 
when  the  Apostle  was  forbidden  to  go  into  Asia,  he  felt  himself  free  to 
go  to  Bithynia,  one  of  the  provinces  of  Asia  Minor,  Ac  2'  i  Cor  16^^ 
Rev  1*. 

The  word  'Grecian'  or  '  Hellenist'  refers  to  Jews  who  for  the  most 
part  resided  out  of  Judsea,  and  used  the  Greek  language  and  manners, 
Ac  6^  9^^     On  the  reading  of  Acts  ii'^'^'  see  p.  80. 

177.  Glossary  of  Arabic  local  names. — In  using  a 
modern  atlas  of  Palestine,  the  following  table  will  be  of 
use : — 


Ain,  pi.  ayun — fountain. 
Arabah — plain,  or  desert. 
Bab — door,  gate. 
Bahr — sea,  or  lake. 
Beit,  pi.  buyut — house. 


Bir — well. 

Birkeh,  pi.  burak — pooL 

Burg — castle. 

Deir — convent. 

El,  en,  er,  &c. — the. 


298      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


Ghor — valley  between  two  moun- 
tains. 
Hajr — great  stone. 
Ham  mam— bath. 
Jobel,  pi.  jebal — mountain. 
Jisr— bridge. 
Kabr,  pi.  kubur— tomb. 
Kefr— village. 
Khan — inn. 
Khulat) 
Kusr 


—  castle. 


Kurn,  pi.  kurun — horn. 

Mcrj,  pi.  muruj — meadow. 

Mesjed — mosque,  temple. 

Mukam — tomb  of  a  saint. 

Nahr,  |)Z.  anhur — river. 

Nukb — pass. 

Ras  — cape,  or  head. 

Tel,  pi.  telul— hill. 

Wady — valley,  or  water-courae. 

^Yely— saint's  tomb. 


History 

178.  Value  of  the  Study. — The  history  of  the  'nations 
round  about'  Palestine  affords  copious  illustration  of 
Scripture,  as  well  as  remarkable  confirmations  of  its  truth. 
Difficulties  have  been  removed,  allusions  explained,  narratives 
supplemented,  and  data  for  a  sure  Bible  chronolog}^  secured. 
This  branch  of  study  has  been  pursued  with  especial  success 
since  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  aided  by  large 
discoveries  of  monumental  records  ;  and  almost  every  year 
adds  something  to  the  store  of  ascertained  facts. 

Starting-point. — The  starting-point  in  the  history  of 
the  Chosen  People  is  the  dej^arture  of  Abraham,  at  the 
Divine  call,  from  '  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,'  that  is,  from  his 
home  in  Shinar  or  southern  Babylonia  ^,  to  Haran,  and 
eventually  to  Palestine.  The  vast  alluvial  plain  to  the 
north  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  surrounding  the  lower  course 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  and  the  confluence  of  these 
two  rivers,  was  the  abode  of  one  form  of  early  civilization, 
as  Egypt  was  of  another.  In  his  eventful  life  Abraham 
became  conversant  with  both.  The  main  connexion,  how- 
ever, of  Babylon  with  his  descendants  belongs  to  the  later 

*  Now  Mugheir.  The  older  identification  with  Urfa  or  Edessa  is  now 
generally  abandoned. 


HISTORY:    EGYPT  299 

liistoiy,  as  will  be  hereafter  shown.  Only  once  we  have 
a  glimpse  of  the  first  Babylonian  empire  in  Abraham's 
day;  when  Amraphel,  King  of  Shinar,  with  other  chieftains, 
invaded  the  Holy  Land,  Gen  14.  The  monuments  suggest 
the  probable  identification  of  this  king  with  Khammurabi, 
who  ruled  in  Babylonia  before  2000  b.  c.  The  cuneiform 
inscriptions  also  connect  his  name  with  that  of  his  con- 
temporary, Eri-aku  of  Larsa  (Arioch  of  Ellasar) ;  while 
*  Chedorlaomer '  is  the  Elamite  name  Kudar-lagamar,  *ser- 
vant  of  Lagamar,*  one  of  the  principal  deities  of  the  great 
kingdom  east  of  the  lower  Tigris.  His  name  has  been  read 
on  a  tablet  of  Khammurabi ".  It  was  several  centuries 
before  the  land  of  Israel  was  again  brought  into  connexion 
with  Shinar. 

Egypt 

179.  The  *  Shepherd-Kings.' — Meanwhile  Egypt  became, 
in  a  special  sense,  the  cradle  of  Israel '\  A  notable  fact  throws 
much  light  on  the  patriarchal  history.  When  Abraham 
went  down  into  Egypt,  and  afterwards  in  the  immigration 
of  Jacob  and  his  family,  the  country  was  under  the  hated 
rule  of  the  Hyksos,  or  *  Shepherd-Kings «,'  chiefs  of  an 
Arabian  tribe  that  had  vanquished  the  native  rulers,  and 
held  the  country  for  a  little  over  500  years.  Hence  the 
cordial  reception  at  the  Pharaoh's  court,  first  of  Abraham, 
afterwards  of  Jacob,  and  the  assignment  to  Israelites  of 
a  separate  district,  shepherds  being  '  an  abomination  to  the 
Egyptians,'  Gen  46"*. 

»  See  Sayce  in  Hastings'  Diet.  Bible,  vol.  i.  p.  375,  and  Monuynent 
Facts,  ch.  iv{  and  Prof.  Driver  in  the  Guardian,  March  11,  1896. 

^  See  Ho  ii^  The  history  of  Israel,  in  this  aspect  of  it,  found 
a  parallel  in  the  history  of  the  infant  Saviour,  Mt  2^-\ 

'^  See  the  fragment  of  Manetho  in  Josephus,  Against  Apion,  i.  14. 
The  occupancy  of  Egypt  by  the  Hyksos  is  dated  by  Prof.  Flinders 
Petrie  at  about  B.C.  2098-1587  {Histoi-y  of  Egypt,  vol.  i.  (5th  ed.)  p.  233). 


300     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

180.  The  great  Oppression. — The  'new  king,  which 
knew  not  Joseph,'  Ex  i^,  was  one  of  the  dynasty  (numbered 
eighteenth  in  the  history  of  Egypt*)  which  succeeded  the 
expulsion  of  the  Hyksos ;  and  the  Pharaoh  of  the  great 
oppression  is  shown  by  concurrent  evidences  to  have  been 
Ramses  II  (of  the  nineteenth  dynasty),  the  Sesostris  of  the 
Greeks,  the  ruins  of  whose  'treasure  cities'  (Ex  i^^) 
remain  to  this  day,  bearing  the  recorded  boast  that  they 
were  built  entirely  by  the  labours  of  an  alien  people.  The 
bricks,  both  with  and  without  straw,  still  further  illustrate 
the  history  ^. 

It  is  true  that,  in  the  words  of  Prof.  Sayce,  'there  is  no  direct 
mention  of  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  on  the  monuments  or  in  the  papyri, 
neither  is  there  any  representation  of  their  servitude ;  but  the 
references  and  aUusions  in  the  Bible  to  Egypt  are  perfectly  accurate. 
The  amu,  the  representatives  of  the  Semitic  race  generally,  are 
depicted  as  brick-makers,  and  literally  hewers  of  wood  and  drawerg 
of  water;  hence,  none  need  expect  that  every  family  or  tribe  of  this 
numerous  and  wide-spreading  race  would  be  portrayed  on  the  temples, 
or  walls,  or  tombs.  Also,  there  is  no  mention  of  the  plagues  which 
came  upon  the  oppressors  ;  but  the  nations  of  antiquity  were  not  given 
to  chronicle  the  misfortunes  that  overtook  them*.' 

181.  The  Exodus  and  settlement  in  Palestine.— The 
Exodus,  in  all  probability,  took  place  in  the  reign  of 
Meneptah,  son  and  successor  of  Ramses^,  who,  in  fact, 
explicitly  mentions  Israel — the  only  known  instance  of  the 
kind  on  the  Egyptian  monuments.  To  what  period  it 
belongs  is  uncertain  «.    The  interpretation  of  the  hieroglyphs 

*  The  list  of  dynasties  may  be  found  in  Brugsch,  Egypt  under  the 
Pharaolis,  also  in  Sayce's  Dwellers  on  the  Nile  (R.  T.  S.),  in  Prof. 
Flinders  Petrie's  History  of  Egypt,  and  the  various  Biblical  dictionaries. 
There  is  still  some  divergence  in  the  chronology,  but  the  tendency  is 
to  approximation. 

^  See  Sayce's  Fresh  Light  from  the  Ancient  Monuments,  pp.  59,  60. 

*  Dwellers  on  the  Nile,  pp.  93,  94.  ^  See  Brugsch,  ch.  xiii. 

*  It  is  alleged  by  some  to  prove  that  Israelites  were  in  Palestine 
before  the  Exodus — an  unhistorical  conclusion.  Others  suppose  *  Israel  * 
tiP  be  a  mistaken  reading. 


HISTOKY:   EGYPT  301 

IS,  *Tlie  Israelites  are  ruined  ;  their  crops  are  destroyed.' 
After  the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Canaan,  the  relations  of 
Israel  and  Egypt  appear  to  have  been  amicable  for  some 
generations.  It  was  through  an  Egyptian  that  David 
recovered  the  spoil  from  the  Amalekites  (i  Sa  30^^"-°).  Solo- 
mon had  a  treaty  with  Egypt,  partly  for  commercial  purposes 
(i  Ki  3^  io-^-2^) ;  he  also  married  an  Egyptian  princess, 
daughter,  there  is  little  doubt,  of  the  last  king  in  the  twenty- 
first  dynasty,  Paseb-chanen.  Egypt  afterwards  became  a 
place  of  refuge  for  the  disaffected,  i  Ki  10-^  ii^^  12^.  The 
first  king  of  the  twenty -second  dynasty,  Sheshank  or  Shishak, 
had  some  cause  of  offence  against  Rehoboam,  and  attacked 
and  plundered  Jerusalem,  i  Ki  14.^^'^'^,  2  Ch  i2^-i". 

In  the  inscription  on  the  walls  of  the  great  temple  at  Karnak, 
Sheshank  is  represented  in  colossal  proportions,  dragging  his  captives. 
In  the  enumeration  of  his  conquests  reference  is  made  to  his  suc- 
cessful invasion  of  Palestine,  and  there  are  sculptured  figures  of 
captives  with  Jewish  features.  One  of  these  'bears  the  inscription, 
Yudeh  Mcdk,  and  represents  either  the  captive  Judaean  kingdom  or 
Rehoboam  himself*.'  Prof.  R.  Poole's  article  upon  Shishak  in  Smith's 
Did.  of  the  j^iWe  contains  a  transcription  of  the  names  of  the  cities  or 
tribes  conquered,  among  which  some  have  been  identified  as  Jewish. 
See  also  R.  C.  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  pp.  131,  132. 

182.  Palestine  between  great  empires. — In  later  times, 
during  the  struggle  for  supremacy  between  Egypt  and  the 
great  Asiatic  kingdoms  on  the  north,  Palestine,  lying  be- 
tween, was  in  continual  unrest.  It  was  an  intrigue  with 
the  Egyptian  Savakha  or  So  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty 
(2  Ki  17*)  that  led  to  the  downfall  of  Hoshea,  the  Israelite 
king,  and  to  the  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes.  For  many 
years  the  mighty  struggle  continued  between  Tirhakah 
'the  Ethiopian,'  latest  king  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty,  and 
the  kings  of  Assyria,  who  for  the  time  prevailed,  Is  37^ 
Nah  38-10  2  Ki  199. 

A  remarkable   monolith   of  the   Assyrian  King  Esar-haddon,  dis- 

•  Rawlinson,  Hist  Anc.  Egypt,  vol.  ii.  p.  423  (1881). 


302     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

covered  in  the  Taurus  range  (Ilittite  territory),  represents  that  monarch 
with  two  suppliant  figures  at  his  feet,  one  of  whom,  in  a  kneeling 
attitude,  is  identified  by  the  inscription  as  Tij-hakah.  The  monument 
records  the  capture  of  Memphis  (Noph),  Is  ip^^  jjq  ^s^  ^^(J  explains 
the  '  cruel  lord  '  and  '  fierce  king '  of  Is  19*  as  Esar-haddon.  The 
Assyrian  king  holds  a  couple  of  chains,  each  attached  to  a  ring  in  the 
captives'  lips.     See  Is  37^^. 

Egypt  was  again  regained  by  Psammetichus  II,  of 
the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  who  reigned  fifty-four  years: 
his  son  Neco  adventured  a  march  uj^on  Babylon,  for 
which  purpose  he  traversed  Palestine ;  King  Josiah,  re- 
sisting his  progress,  being  defeated  and  slain  at  Megiddo. 
Neco  placed  Jehoiakim  (EL'alvim)  on  the  Jewish  throne,  in 
place  of  Jehoahaz,  the  people's  choice  ;  but  Nebuchadnezzar 
marched  against  the  Egyptian  king  and  inflicted  upon  him 
a  decisive  defeat  at  Carchemish,  b.  c.  605  (2  Ki  23^^  2  Ch 
35-^  Jer  46-).  This  most  important  event  practically 
decided  the  fate  of  Egypt,  which  became  vassal  to  Babylon, 
afterwards  to  Persia,  with  occasional  struggles  and  revolts. 
The  series  of  dynasties  ended  with  the  thirtieth  ;  Nectanebo 
being  the  last  native  ruler  who  has  ever  reigned  over 
Egypt,  so  strikingly  fulfilling  the  prediction  in  Eze  30^^. 
Compare  Eze  29^-^  Zee  lo^^ 

Moab 

183.  Relations  of  Israel  with  3ICoab. — Before  passing 
from  the  South  to  the  great  northern  nations  which  had  so 
much  to  do  with  the  fortunes  of  Israel,  reference  may  be 
made  to  Moa"b,  a  pastoral  yet  warlike  people,  with  which 
the  Israelites  were  sometimes  friendly,  oftener  in  collision. 
Ruth,  ancestress  of  David,  was  a  Moabitess.  After  the 
division  of  the  kingdoms,  Moab  remained  tributary  to 
Israel,  until  after  the  death  of  Ahab.  See  the  history  in 
2  Ki  3,  as  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  famous  Moabite 
stone,  discovered  at  Dibon,  in    1868,   by  the  Eev.   F.  A. 


HISTOKY:   PHCENICIA  303 

Klein,  a  missionar}^  of  the  C.  M.  S.  The  stone  was  set  up 
by  the  Mesha  mentioned  in  the  fourth  verse  as  '  a  sh«ep 
master.' 

The  original,  as  restored,  is  in  the  Jewisli  Court  of  the  Louvre,  at 
Paris  ;  a  facsimile  is  in  the  British  Museum.  Its  record  is  supple- 
mentary to  the  passage  in  Kings  referred  to  ;  it  describes  the  successful 
revolt  of  Mesha  and  the  revenge  he  took  upon  the  Israelites  for  the 
former  oppression  of  his  country  *.  *  Chemosh  '  (the  god),  says  Mesha, 
'  was  angry  with  Moab,  and  Omri,  King  of  Israel,  oppressed  the  land 
for  many  days.  And  his  son  succeeded  him,  and  he  also  said,  I  will 
oppress  Moab.  But  I  saw  my  desire  upon  him  and  his  liouse,  and 
Israel  perished  for  ever.'  The  tribute  exacted  by  Ahab  was  no  doubt 
very  burdensome,  '  a  hundred  thousand  lambs  and  a  hundred  thousand 
rams,  with  the  wool,'  2  Ki  3*  R.  V.  (marg.).  But  the  boast  of  Mesha 
was  premature  1 

Phoenicia 

184.    nelatious   of  Israel    with    Phoenicia. — Passing 

northward,  we  reach  Phoenicia,  often  termed  also  '  the 
district  of  Tyre  and  Sidon.'  This  country,  comparatively 
small,  became  from  its  position  on  the  seaboard  and  the 
convenience  of  its  ports  the  great  emporium  of  the  East. 
Its  people  were  of  Hamite  descent,  though  their  language 
was  Semitic. 

The  Phoenicians  are  known  pre-eminently  as  Canaanite  :  compare 
Mt  15-2  *a  Canaanitish  woman'  with  Mk  f^  'a  Greek  (or  Gentile), 
a  Syrophoenician.'  The  LXX  renders  '  Canaan,'  '  Canaanite '  by 
'Phoenicia,'  '  Phoenician,'  in  Ex  i6^^  Job  41^  The  land  was  allotted 
between  Dan,  Asher,  and  Naphtali,  but  was  never  wholly  occupied  by 
these  tribes.  Its  relations,  however,  with  Israel  were  for  the  most 
part  amicable.  Hiram,  King  of  Phoenicia,  was  'a  lover  of  David,' 
r  Ki  5^  The  western  slopes  of  Lebanon,  belonging  to  Phoenicia, 
furnished  to  Solomon  the  cedar  and  other  materials  for  the  Temple 

"  A  full  account  of  the  stone,  including  text  and  translation,  is  given 
by  Dr.  Owen  C.  Whitehouse  in  the  article  Moab  in  Hastings'  Did.  of 
the  Bible,  also  a  full  translation  in  Prof.  A.  II.  Sayce's  Fresh  Light  from 
Ancient  Monuments,  and  another  by  Prof.  Driver  in  his  Notes  on  the 
Hebrew  Text  of  Samuel.  A  convenient  popular  account  is  given  by  the 
Bishop  of  Ossory  (W.  Pakenham  Walsh)  in  The  Moabite  Stone,  1883. 


304     THE  INTEKPRETATION  OF  SCKIPTURE 

in  Jerusalem,  i  Ki  5^~i°  10-2.  In  Pr  31-*  '  Canaanite '  is  synonymous 
with  'merchant';  sometimes  unfair  in  dealing,  Ho  12"^.  In  Joel  3^ 
Tyre  is  denounced  for  selling  Israelites  into  slavery,  and  in  Am  i* 
for  betraying  them  to  Edom.  These  acts  were  breaches  of  the  brotherly 
covenant  which  had  existed  since  David's  time,  as  no  king  of  Israel 
or  Judah  ever  made  war  against  Phoenicia.  During  tho  latter  part  of 
Solomon's  life  he  tolerated  Phoenician  idolatry,  i  Ki  11^,  the  wox'ship 
of  Baal,  afterwards  established  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  Jezebel. 
Tammuz,  Eze  S^-*,  was  a  Phoenician  deity,  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
Adonis.  One  of  the  most  graphic  and  impressive  descriptions  of 
ancient  commerce,  in  its  fullness  of  pride,  is  in  the  poem  on  the  over- 
throw of  Tyre,  Eze  27.  A  monumental  inscription  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
should  be  read  as  a  commentary  on  this  wonderful  dirge.  Tyre  had 
been  besieged  by  the  Chaldean  monarch  for  thirteen  years  before  it 
capitulated  ;  the  country  subsequently  fell  under  the  power  of  Persia, 
and  its  ruin  was  completed  by  Alexander  '.  In  New  Testament  times 
Phoenicia  reappears— a  Gentile  land  visited  by  our  Lord,  Mt  15^^ 
Mk  7^*.  Many  of  its  inhabitants  resorted  to  His  ministry,  Mk  3*, 
and  in  apostolic  times  there  were  Christian  churches  at  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  Ac  ai*  27^ 

Syria  and  Hamath 

185.  Petty  northern  states. — These  countries  have 
already  been  described  in  the  Geographical  Section.  Syria 
was  for  the  most  part  a  collection  of  petty  states,  striving 
with  one  another  for  supremacy,  but  with  indeterminate 
results.  The  kingdom  of  Damascus  was  the  chief;  and, 
after  the  days  of  Abraham,  it  first  appears  in  the  Bible 
history  as  confederate  against  David  with  Hadadezer,  King 
of  Zobah  (2  Sa  8^).  The  result  was  that  Syria  submitted  to 
David  ;  but  in  the  days  of  Solomon  it  revolted  under  Kezon 
of  Zobah,  who  also  captured  Damascus  (i  Ki  ii-3-25j.  From 
that  time  the  Syrian  kingdoms  were  independent  of  Israel, 
with  which  they  had  repeated  wars  under  the  '  Hadad ' 
dynasty,  notably  in  the  siege  of  Samaria,  so  marvellously 
frustrated  (2  Ki  6,  7). 

*  Students  of  prophecy  have  noted  the  literal  fulfilment  of  the  pre- 
diction that  tho  rock  of  Tyre  should  become  a  place  for  'the  spreading 
of  nets,'  Eze  36'*. 


THE    HITTITE   EMPIEE  305 

Hazael  afterwards  murdered  the  Syrian  king  and  usurped  the 
throne,  greatly  harassing  Israel,  but  was  overcome  in  turn  by  Joash 
(a  Ki  12^2-25^^  Jeroboam  II  followed  up  the  advantage  ;  and  in  a 
subsequent  reign  the  Syrian  kingdom  under  Rezin  is  found  in  alliance 
with  Israel  against  Ahaz,  King  of  Judah.  See  the  remarkable  passage, 
Is  7^~^.  The  issue  of  the  conflict  was  that  Ahaz  invoked  the  aid  of 
the  Assyrian  Tiglath-pileser  against  the  confederate  kings,  and  the 
swiftly  following  series  of  events  led  to  the  defeat  and  death  of  Rezin 
and  the  absorption  of  Damascus  in  Assyria.  From  that  time  the 
Syrian  states  ceased  to  have  any  independent  existence,  but  became 
a  part  of  the  great  Assyrian  empire,  from  which  they  passed  to  the 
Babylonians,  the  Persians,  and  the  generals  of  Alexander,  Avho  for 
the  first  time  consolidated  them  into  a  great  and  prosperous  kingdom. 
The  inscriptions  of  Tiglath-pileser  commemorate  the  fall  of  Damascus, 
the  overthrow  of  Eezin  (mentioned  by  name),  and  give  the  name  of 
Hadad  as  that  of  the  Syrian  divinity  *. 

Sjrria  in  New  Testament  times. — In  New  Testament 
times,  Syria,  as  a  Eoman  province,  included  Palestine,  which, 
however,  had  a  separate  governor  or  procurator.  Thus  at 
the  birth  of  our  Lord  the  'legatus '  of  Syria  was  C.  Sentius 
Saturninus,  followed  by  P.  Quintilius  Varus  and  P.  Sulpi- 
tius  Quirinius.  At  the  date  of  the  Crucifixion,  M.  Calpurnius 
Piso  was  legate,  and  Pontius  Pilate  procurator. 

The  Hittite  Empire 

186.  A  great  forgotten  empire. — That  the  Hittiies,  or 
*sons  of  Heth,'  held  an  important  place  in  the  Eastern 
world  is  suggested  by  many  passages.  In  the  time  of 
Abraham  there  was  a  Hittite  settlement  at  Hebron  (Kirjath- 
Arba)  in  southern  Palestine  (Gen  23)  ^,  but  their  chief  seat 
was  in  the  north,  their  territoiy  being  defined  as  '  from  the 
Lebanon  to  the  Euphrates,'  Jos  1*  Judg  i^^.  The  enumerators 
of  David's  census  reached  'Kadesh  of  the  Hittites^j'a  city 

•  See  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  pp.  170,  181. 

**  See  also  Gen  26^*^^  (Esau's  Hittite  drives)  and  the  fears  of  Isaac 
and  Rebekah  concerning  Jacob,  27**. 

<=  For  so,  according  to  the  best  interpreters,  the  unintelligible  Tahtlm- 
hodshi  (2  Sa  24^)  ought  to  be  read,  the  LXX  supplying  the  clue. 

X 


306     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

on  the  Orontes,  close  to  the  Lake  of  Horus.  Uriah, 
husband  of  Bathsheba,  was  a  Hittite,  probably  of  the 
southern  branch.  Solomon  trafficked  for  horses  with  the 
'kings  of  the  Hittites'  as  well  as  of  Egypt  and  other  nations, 
I  Ki  lo'-'^.  In  the  days  of  Elisha  the  Syrians,  smitten  with 
a  panic  in  besieging  Samaria,  imagined  that  the  Israelites 
were  being  reinforced  by  '  the  kings  of  the  Hittites  and  the 
kings  of  the  Egyptians,'  2  Ki  7^ 

All  this  betokened  an  important  people,  but  was  dismissed  as  *un- 
historical'  by  critics  who  argued  that  there  was  no  evidence  of  the 
Hittite  power  having  ever  been  so  considerable.  But  now  the  evidence 
of  the  monuments,  in  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Asia  Minor,  has  abundantly 
confirmed  and  illustrated  the  Bible  records.  '  A  great,  forgotten 
empire'  has  sprung  to  light.  It  is  proved  that  the  origin  of  the  people 
was  in  the  mountain  region  of  the  Taurus,  that  their  settlements  and 
conquests  embraced  the  provinces  afterwards  known  as  Cappadocia, 
Cilicia,  and  Lycaonia  ;  while  even  in  the  west  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
Pass  of  Karabel,  not  far  from  Smyrna,  a  monument  believed  by  Hero- 
dotus to  represent  the  Egyptian  Sesostris  (Eamses  II  of  Egypt)  is 
shown  to  be  that  of  a  Hittite  warrior.  Similar  monuments  confirm 
the  conclusion  that  at  one  time  the  whole  country  (including  the 
'  Asia '  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles)  was  under  Hittite  domination.  In 
the  Tel  el-Amarna  tablets,  there  are  repeated  references  to  the  Hittites 
as  a  warlike  and  formidable  people.  From  their  early  abodes  the 
people  extended  their  empire  to  the  Euphrates,  where  Carchemish 
became  their  capital ;  and  southwards  by  Hamath  to  northern  Syria, 
where  they  established  themselves  at  Kadesh  as  above  mentioned.  So 
powerful,  in  fact,  was  the  nation,  that  the  Assyrians  applied  the  name 
of  *  Hittite  '  to  all  the  nations  west  of  the  Great  River.  Jerusalem 
itself  is  described  as  the  daughter  of  a  Hittite,  Eze  i63*s,  j^j^j^j.  jg^  j^g  ^^ 
should  say,  an  original  Hittite  settlement,  or  colony. 

The  Hittite  monuments,  depicting  a  people  of  a  marked  Mongolian 
or  Hamite  type  (Heth,  a  grandson  of  Ham,  Gen  10^^),  bear  in- 
scriptions which  were  long  the  despair  of  decipherers  ;  but  an  im- 
portant clue  was  suggested  in  1903,  chiefly  through  the  labours  of 
Professor  Sayce  * ;  and  it  is  more  than  probable  that  these  records, 
like  those  of  Egypt  and  Babylon,  may  eventually  be  laid  open  to  the 
student.     Meantime,  it  is  not  too  nmch  to  say,  with  Dr.  Sayce,  that 

*  See  a  paper  by  Dr.  Sayce  in  the  Monthly  Review,  September  190a, 
and  the  third  edition  of  his  book  on  The  Hittites  ('By-Paths  of  Bible 
Knowledge,'  R.  T.  S.,  1903). 


ASSYRIA  307 

'light  has  been  cast  upon  a  dark  page  in  the  history  of  western  Asia, 
and  therewith  upon  tlie  sacred  record  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  a 
people  have  advanced  into  the  forefront  of  modern  knowledge  who 
exercised  a  deep  influence  upon  the  fortunes  of  Israel,  tliough  hitherto 
they  had  been  to  us  little  more  than  a  name.  .  .  .  The  friends  of 
Abraham,  the  allies  of  David,  the  mother  of  Solomon,  all  belonged  to 
a  race  which  left  an  indelible  mark  upon  the  history  of  the  world, 
though  it  has  been  reserved  in  God's  wisdom  for  our  own  generation 
to  discover  and  trace  it  out.' 

See  further  The  Empire  of  the  Ililtites,  by  Dr.  W.  Wright,  1884; 
Sclirader,  Keilinschriften,  Eng.  trans.,  vol.  i.  p.  107  ;  and  Col.  Conder, 
The  Hittites,  1898  ;  a  Tract  on  The  Hiltiles  by  Dr.  L.  Messerschmidt,  1903, 
condensing  the  results  of  research  to  that  date ;  also  the  great  Bible 
dictionaries. 

Assyria 

187.  Assyrian  Kings  mentioned  in  tlie  O.  T. — The 
kings  of  Ass3rria  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  (i)  in  connexion 
with  the  Israelitish  kingdom,  Shahnaneser  II,  B.C.  858, 
Slialmaneser  III,  781,  Pul,  otherwise  Tiglath-pileser  III, 
745,  Shahnaneser  IV,  727,  and  Sargon,  722  ;  (2)  in  connexion 
with  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  Sennacherib,  715,  Esar-haddon, 
681,  and  Assliur-bani-pal,  'the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,' 
Ezr  4^°.  The  monuments  brought  to  light,  especially  at 
Nineveh,  by  Botta,  Layard,  and  other  explorers,  abound  in 
most  interesting  and  valuable  elucidations  of  Scripture. 

The  earliest  Israelite  king  expressly  mentioned  on  these  monuments 
is  Omri,  the  conspicuous  character  of  whose  reign  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  inscriptions  of  Shalmaneser  II,  Tiglath-pileser  III,  and  Sargon, 
the  Northern  Kingdom  is  referred  to  as  '  the  house '  or  *  land  '  of  Omri. 
On  the  celebrated  Black  Obelisk  of  Shalmaneser,  discovered  by 
Mr.  Layard  in  1846,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum,  Jehu,  though 
the  destroyer  of  Omri's  dynasty,  appears  as  his  son.  Another  inscrip- 
tion of  this  Assyrian  monarch,  found  at  Kurtch  on  the  Tigris,  and 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  records  his  important  victory  at  Qarqar 
on  the  Orontes  over  twelve  allied  kings,  led  by  Ben-hadad  of  Syria, 
and  including  Ahab  [Akhabbu]  of  Israel,  who  contributed  to  the 
forces  700  chariots,  700  horsemen,  and  10,000  men  *.     Here  no  doubt  we 

*  Sayce,  Assyria,  its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People  ('By-Path'  Series, 
R.  T.  S.),  p.  147  ;  C.  J.  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  p.  165. 

X   2 


308     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

see  a  sequel  to  the  brief  alliance  made  between  the  kings  of  Israel  and 
Syria,  so  sternly  denounced  by  the  prophet  Elijah,  i  Ki  20^*-'*'*.  This 
was  in  the  sixth  year  of  Shalmaneser  :  in  his  eleventh  year  we  find 
him  (in  the  inscription  on  the  Black  Obelisk)  again  in  conflict  with 
Syria,  now  under  Hazael  ;  and  Jehu  is  mentioned  as  among  the  tri- 
butary kings ;  see  2  Ki  lo^^.  <  A  series  of  bas-reliefs  in  the  second 
row,  extending  round  the  four  sides  of  the  monolith,  represents  the 
payment  of  tribute  by  "  Yaua  (Jehu),  the  son  of  Khumri  (Omri),"  who 
brought  silver,  gold,  lead,  and  bowls,  dishes,  cups,  and  other  vessels  of 
gold.'  Further,  '  from  a  paper-squeeze  in  the  British  Museum  we 
learn,'  writes  Mr.  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge,  'that  Shalmaneser  II  received 
tribute  from  Jehu  daring  the  expedition  against  Hazael '  {Brit.  Mus. 
Guide  to  the  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Antiquities,  p.  25  (1900)). 

In  the  annals  of  Jehoahaz,  the  son  of  Jehu,  it  is  recorded 
(2  Ki  13)  that  the  kingdom  was  oppressed  by  Syria,  under 
Hazael  and  his  son  Benhadad  III.  It  is  parenthetically  added 
(verse  5)  that  Jehovah  '  sent  a  deliverer,'  so  that '  the  children 
of  Israel  dwelt  in  their  tents  as  aforetime.'  Of  this  deliver- 
ance, and  the  power  by  which  it  was  effected,  the  sacred 
historian  tells  nothing  more ;  but  we  can  now  read  it  on 
the  monuments.  The  '  deliverer '  was  the  King  of  Assyria, 
Rimmon-nirari  III  (grandson  of  Shalmaneser  II). 

In  a  long  inscription  of  his  we  read  '  To  the  land  of  Damascus  I 
went ;  I  shut  up  Marih,  King  of  Damascus,  his  royal  city.  The 
fear  of  the  brilliance  of  Assur,  his  lord,  overwhelmed  him,  and  he 
took  my  feet ;  he  offered  homage,  2,300  talents  of  silver,  20  talents  of 
gold,  3,000  talents  of  bronze,  5,000  talents  of  iron,  garments  of  damask 
and  linen  ;  a  couch  of  ivory,  a  sunshade  of  ivory  I  took,  I  carried  to 
(Assyria).  His  spoil,  his  goods  innumerable,  I  received  in  Damascus, 
his  royal  city,  in  the  midst  of  his  palace*.' 

188.  Aggressions  of  Tiglath-pileser. — The  references 
in  the  Assyrian  inscriptions  to  the  expeditions  of  Tiglath- 
pileser  against  Syria  and  Israel  are  equally  striking.  Thus, 
in  the  annals  of  Menahem,  2  Ki  15^^,  we  have  a  brief  reference 
to  the  invasion  of  Israel  by  'Pul,'  another  name  for  the 
Assyrian  king,  with  the  tribute  exacted. 

*  Sayce,  Assyria,  its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People ;  Schrader,  KeUinschriften, 
Eng.  trans.,  vol.  i.  p.  203. 


ASSYKIA  309 

The  name  of  Menahem  appears  among  that  of  other  tributaries  of 
Tiglath-pileser  III  on  the  hexagonal  clay-cylinder  of  Sennacherib, 
known  among  Assyriologists  as  the  Taylor  Cylinder,  from  the  name  of 
a  previous  owner,  but  now  among  the  treasures  of  the  British  Museum. 
Also  on  a  much  mutilated  fragment  of  the  annals  of  Tiglath-pileser  III 
appear  the  names  of  Rezin  of  Damascus,  Menahem  of  Samaria,  and 
Hiram  of  Tyre  as  tributary  kings.  According  to  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions, three  or  four  years,  not  ten,  must  have  been  the  extent  of  the 
reign  of  Menahem,  viz.  b.  c.  741-737*. 

The  son  and  successor  of  Menahem  was  slain  by  Pekah, 
who  usurped  his  throne,  and  in  whose  days  Tiglath-pileser, 
in  a  fresh  descent  upon  the  Israelite  kingdom,  took  several 
cities  and  transported  the  inhabitants  to  Assyria,  2  Ki  15^^. 
This  also  the  Assyrian  king  has  chronicled  in  an  account  of 
his  expedition  against  Philistia. 

'The  towns  of  Gil(ead)  and  Abel-(beth-Maachah)  in  the  province  of 
Beth-Omri  [Samaria],  the  widespread  (district  of  Naphta)li  to  its  whole 
extent  I  turned  into  the  territory  of  Assyria.  My  (governors)  and 
officers  I  appointed  (over  them). 

'  The  land  of  Beth  Omri  ...  a  selection  of  its  inhabitants  (with 
their  goods)  I  transported  to  Assyria.  Pekah  their  king  I  put  to 
death,  and  I  appointed  Hoshea  to  the  sovereignty  over  them.  Ten 
(talents  of  gold  ...  of  silver  as)  their  tribute  I  received,  and  I  trans- 
ported them  (to  Assyria).' 

It  is  observable  that  the  sacred  historian,  2  Ki  15^^, 
ascribes  the  death  of  Pekah  to  a  conspiracy  by  Hoshea; 
whereas  Tiglath-pileser  claims  to  have  slain  Pekah  and  to 
have  raised  Hoshea  to  the  throne.  No  doubt  there  was 
a  Syrian  party  in  Samaria  as  well  as  an  Assyrian  ;  Pekah 
belonging  to  the  former,  Hoshea  to  the  latter.  Hence 
the  act  of  Hoshea  may  have  been  virtually  that  of  the 
Assyrian  king. 

The  siege  of  Damascus  by  Tiglath-pileser  is  recorded  2  Ki  i6^  From 
the  Assyrian  inscriptions  we  learn  that  the  city  stood  a  two  years' 
siege ;  that  Tiglath-pileser,  not  being  successful  the  first  year  (b.c.  733), 

•  See  article  on  *  Chronology  of  the  Old  Testament,'  by  Dr.  E.  L.  Curtis, 
in  Hastings'  Dictionary  ef  the  Bible  ;  Schrader,  Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  Eng. 
trans.,  vol.  i.  p.  265. 


310     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

returned  in  the  next.  Of  a  mutilated  inscription  referring  to  the  event, 
a  few  lines  are  :  '  He  betook  himself,  to  save  his  life,  alone  to  flight. 
.  .  .  Into  the  chief  gate  of  his  city  I  entered,  his  superior  commandants 
alive  ...  I  caused  to  be  crucified  [impaled],  his  land  I  subjugated.' 
Upon  a  now  lost  tablet  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  found  a  reference  to  the 
death  of  Rezin. 

At  Damascus,  according  to  the  Assyrian  records,  Tiglath-pileser 
gathered  twenty-three  kings  to  do  him  homage.  This  illustrates  a  Ki 
i6^^y  '  Ahaz  went  to  Damascus  to  meet  Tiglath-pileser.'  Hoshea 
would  be  another  of  these  kings,  although  not  expressly  mentioned 
either  in  the  history  or  the  inscriptions. 

189.  Shalmaneser  and  Sargoii. —  The  Assyrian  king 
mentioned  in  2  Ki  17^  18^  was  Shalmaneser  IV.  He 
besieged  Samaria  for  three  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time 
'they  took  it.'  The  form  of  expression,  omitting  any 
reference  to  the  king,  is  explained  by  the  monuments. 
Shalmaneser  died  before  the  siege  was  completed,  and  the 
city  was  actually  taken  by  his  successor,  Sargon,  who  thus 
records  the  achievement : — 

rail  of  Samaria. — *  (In  the  beginning  of  my  reign)  the  city  of 
Snmaiia  I  besieged,  I  captured  ;  27,280  of  its  inhabitants  I  carried 
away;  fifty  chariots  in  the  midst  of  them  I  collected,  and  the  rest 
of  their  goods  I  seized  ;  I  set  my  governor  over  them  and  laid  upon 
them  the  tribute  of  the  former  king  (Hoshea)  V 

The  removal  of  the  people  of  Samaria,  and  the  repeopling  of  their 
land,  is  confirmed  by  such  inscriptions  of  Sargon  as  the  above,  and  the 
followin:^ :  '  I  assigned  abodes  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  countries 
taken  by  me,'  and  allusions  to  those  whom  lie  *  transported  to  the 
midst  of  the  land  of  Beth-Omri  .  .  .  setting  them  in  the  city  of 
Samaria  ^' 

Conquests  of  Sargon. — The  name  of  Sargon  occurs  but 
once  in  Scripture  (Is  20^),  in  connexion  with  an  expedition 
against  Ashdod  conducted  by  his  general.  Ashdod  was  the 
key  to  Egypt ;  and  from  inscriptions  which  recount  Sargon's 
prowess,  we  find  that  the  Assyrian  monarch,  having  added 

*  Sayce,  Afsvjria,   iifs   Princes,  Priests,  and   People.     There  is  another 
rendering  in  Schradei-,  vol.  i.  p.  264. 
"  Sayce  and  Sclirader,  as  above. 


ASSYRIA  311 

Ilamath  to  his  dominions,  and  overturned  the  Hittite  empire 
in  the  capture  of  Carchemish  (see  Is  lo^),  was  advancing 
to  the  south-west,  taking  Palestine  in  his  way,  and,  as  he 
asserts,  capturing  Jerusalem.  His  approach  to  the  capital, 
from  village  to  village,  from  hill  to  hill,  is  vividly  depicted 
by  the  prophet  in  a  familiar  passage  ;  and  in  '  the  burden 
of  the  valley  of  vision,'  ch.  22,  the  picture  is  repeated,  as 
from  within  the  city*.  But  Sargon  withdrew,  leaving 
Jerusalem  tributary,  but  still  hankering  after  alliance  with 
Egypt,  the  source  of  many  subsequent  troubles. 

Probably  Sargon  was  hindered  from  pressing  his  advantage  against 
.Tudah  by  the  troubles  in  Babylonia,  then  a  small  and  struggling  pro- 
vince, intent  upon  casting  oft  the  Assyrian  yoke.  Merodach-baladan, 
the  Babylonian  chieftain,  sought  the  alliance  of  Hezekiah  by  an 
embassage  sent  ostensibly  to  congratulate  him  on  recovery  from  a 
dangerous  illness.  See  Is  39,  to  be  placed,  with  ch.  38,  before  the  account 
of  Sennacherib's  invasion.  That  invasion  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
twenty-fouith  year  of  Hezekiah,  b. c.  701.  The  fourteenth  year  was 
the  date  of  Sargon  s  invasion,  b.  c.  711  ^ 

190.  Sennacherib  and  the  kingdom  of  Judah.— On  the 

death  of  Sargon,  b.  c.  705,  murdered  by  his  soldiers,  and 
the  accession  of  his  son  Sennacherib,  Hezekiah,  relying  upon 
the  co-operation  of  Egypt,  endeavoured  to  cast  off  the  Assyrian 
yoke,  refusing  the  customary  tribute.  Sennacherib,  after 
three  years'  delay,  set  out  upon  the  memorable  expedition 
related  at  large,  Is  36,  37  and  2  Ki  18,  19  (the  same  account). 
The  story  is  also  told  on  the  Assyrian  monuments,  from  Sennacherib's 

•  Before  the  discovery  of  the  monuments  that  have  thrown  light 
upon  Sargon's  reign,  it  was  supposed  by  all  expositors  that  the  pro- 
phet's representations  referred  to  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib.  Some 
still  adhere  to  this  view.  An  obvious  difficulty  is  that  Sennacherib 
advanced  from  the  south-west  (from  Lachish),  whereas  the  description 
in  Is  10  represents  the  invader's  approach  as  from  the  north-east,  the 
way  by  which  Sargon  would  come.  But  see  the  discussion  of  Is  36^  in 
the  work  of  Principal  Douglas,  Isaiah  One  and  his  Book  One,  pp.  405-407. 

"  On  this  part  of  the  history,  see  Sayce's  Fresh  Light  from  Ancient 
Monuments  (1900),  pp.  112-114. 


312      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

own  point  of  view.  After  narrating  the  siege  and  ruin  of  Lachish  * 
(2  Ki  i8^^-^'^  2  Ch  32^),  his  account,  preserved  upon  the  Taylor 
Cylinder,  in  a  most  interesting  way  supplements  the  Biblical  account ; 
although  it  makes  no  mention  of  the  great  disaster  so  impressively 
recorded  by  the  Jewish  historian  (2  Ki  iq''^).  Like  the  Egyptians  and 
some  other  nations,  the  Assyrians  often  ignored  their  defeats  and 
exaggerated  their  victories.  Sennacherib's  narrative,  at  any  rate,  is 
not  that  of  a  decisive  success  :  the  campaiga  closed  suddenly  and 
without  the  usual  long  list  of  spoil — a  lack  which  he  attempts  to 
supply  by  representing  that  the  presents  offered  by  Hezekiah  were 
sent  to  Nineveh. 

The  following  is  one  of  the  latest  versions  of  the  portion  referring  to 
Hezekiah,  as  given  by  Dr.  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge  in  his  Guide  to  the  Assyrian 
Antiquities  in  the  British  Museum,  p.  195  (1900)  : — 

'  I  then  besieged  Hezekiah  of  Judah,  who  had  not  submitted  to  my 
yoke,  and  I  captured  forty-six  of  his  strong  cities  and  fortresses  and 
innumerable  small  cities  which  were  round  about  them,  with  the 
battering  of  rams  and  the  assault  of  engines,  and  the  attack  of  foot 
soldiers,  and  by  mines  and  breaches  (made  in  the  walls).  I  brought 
out  therefrom  two  hundred  thousand  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  people, 
both  small  and  great,  male  and  female,  and  horses,  and  mules,  and 
asses,  and  camels,  and  oxen,  and  innumerable  sheep  I  counted  as 
spoil.  (Hezekiah)  himself,  like  a  caged  bird,  I  shut  up  within  Jeru- 
salem his  royal  city.  I  threw  up  mounds  against  him,  and  I  took 
vengeance  upon  any  man  who  came  forth  from  his  city.  His  cities 
which  I  had  captured  I  took  from  him  and  gave  to  Mitinti,  King  of 
Ashdod,  and  Padi,  King  of  Ekron,  and  Silli-Bel,  King  of  Gaza,  and 
I  reduced  his  land.  I  added  to  their  former  yearly  tribute,  and 
increased  the  gifts  which  they  paid  unto  me.  The  fear  of  the  majesty 
of  my  sovereignty  overwhelmed  Hezekiah,  and  the  Urbi  and  liis 
trusty  warriors,  whom  he  had  brought  into  his  royal  city  of  Jerusalem 
to  protect  it,  deserted.  And  he  dispatched  after  me  his  messenger  to 
my  royal  city  Nineveh  to  pay  tribute  and  to  make  submission  with 
thirty  talents  of  gold,  eight  hundred  talents  of  silver,  precious  stones, 
eye-paint  .  .  .  ivory  couches  and  thrones,  hides  and  tusks,  precious 
woods,  and  divers  objects,  a  heavy  treasure,  together  with  his 
daughters,  and  the  women  of  his  palace,  and  male  and  female 
musicians.' 

*  This  siege,  with  its  barbarous  details,  is  represented  upon  a  series 
of  sculptured  slabs  from  Sennacherib's  palace  at  Nineveh,  in  the 
Assyrian  saloon  of  the  British  Museum.  Engravings  and  descriptions 
will  be  found  in  Layard's  Monuments  of  Nineveh  and  Nineveh  and  Babylon  ; 
also  in  Light  from  the  East,  by  C.  J.  Ball,  pp.  190,  191. 


ASSYRIA  313 

The  discrepancy  between  the  Biblical  text  of  300  talents  of  silver, 
and  the  800  as  referred  to  in  the  Assyrian  account,  may  be  explained 
by  the  different  standards  of  the  Palestinian  and  Babylonian  currency 
and  perhaps  by  monumental  exaggeration. 

Destmction  of  Sennacherib's  army. — It  should  be 
noted  that  the  Egyptian  tradition  of  the  catastrophe  of 
Sennacherib's  host,  as  recorded  by  Herodotus  (ii.  141),  places 
the  event  near  Pelusium,  where  the  Assyrian  army  suddenly 
found  itself  defenceless,  through  innumerable  field-mice 
having  during  the  night  gnawed  their  bowstrings  and  the 
thongs  of  their  shields,  rendering  them  useless.  It  is  certain 
that  Sennacherib  was  at  the  time  on  his  march  to  Egypt 
(Is  37^^),  taking  Jerusalem  and  Libnah  in  his  way.  Herodotus 
no  doubt  saw  some  hieroglyphic  illustration  of  the  disaster, 
in  which  a  mouse,  the  emblem  of  pestilence,  was  gnawing  at 
a  how,  the  symbol  of  military  force.     See  Driver,  Isaiah,  p.  82. 

In  2  Ki  19''  and  Is  37'*  the  assassination  of  Sennacherib  by  two  of 
his  sons  is  related  :  and  an  inscription  found  at  Kouyunjik,  Nineveh, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  refers  to  Esar-haddcn's  receipt  of  the  news 
of  the  unnatural  crime  of  the  two  brothers  : — *  From  my  heart  I  made 
a  vow  ;  my  liver  was  inflamed  with  rage.  Immediately  I  wrote  letters, 
saying  that  I  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  my  father's  house.'  He  then 
lifted  up  his  hands  in  prayer  to  his  gods,  and  marched  upon  Nineveh. 
He  was  opposed,  but  by  whom  is  not  certain,  as  the  end  of  the  tablet, 
as  well  as  the  beginning,  has  been  broken  ofif.  See  Records  of  the  Fast, 
vol.  iii.  p.  103  (First  Series). 

Esar-haddon  and  Manasseh  of  Judah. — Several  im- 
portant cylinders  have  been  discovered  referring  to  the  his- 
torical events  of  Esar-haddon's  reign.  Upon  one  of  them  is  the 
statement  that  he  assembled  '  the  kings  of  Syria  and  of  the 
nations  beyond  the  sea ' — among  whom  we  find  mentioned — 
'Manasseh,  King  of  Judah.'  The  inscription  in  part  runs 
as  follows : — '  I  assembled  the  kings  of  Syria  and  the  land 
beyond  the  (Mediterranean)  Sea,  Baal,  King  of  Tyre, 
Manasseh,  King  of  Judah,  Kaus-gabri,  King  of  Edom,  Migri, 
Kingof  Moab,  &c.^' 

•  Sayce,  Assyria,  its  Princes,  Priests,  and  People,  p.  15a. 


314      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Mention  has  filreadybeen  made  of  Esar-haddon's  triumph 
over  the  Ethiopic-Egyptian  King  Tirhakah. 

His  reign  is  chiefly  remarkable  from  his  completing  the  capture  of 
Babylon.  In  fact,  lie  was  the  only  Assyrian  monarch  who  actually 
ruled  in  that  city.  This  explains  what  has  sometimes  caused  a  diffi- 
culty in  2  Ch  33^^  :  'The  cjiptains  of  the  host  of  the  king  of  Assyria 
took  Manasseh  and  carried  him  to  Babylon.'  Why  not  to  Nimvgh,  the 
Assyrian  capital  ?  But  the  narrator  shoAvs  his  perfect  accuracy,  as 
confirmed  by  the  monuments. 

Asshur-bani-pal. — The  Assyrian  records  of  this  son  of 
Esar-haddon,  now  identified  with  '  the  great  and  noble 
Asnapper'  of  Ezr  4^°,  show  him  to  have  been  a  very  able 
and  powerful  monarch.  He  founded  the  great  library  of 
Nineveh  which  has  furnished  so  many  treasures  to  the 
British  Museum.  The  fact  that  it  was  he  who  peopled 
Samaria  with  colonists  from  the  conquered  nations,  is  in 
accord  with  all  we  know  of  his  character  and  with  the  policy 
of  the  greatest  Assyrian  kings  ^ 

The  Assyrian  empire  fell  B.C.  606  before  the  armies  of 
Nabopolassar,  the  revolted  vassal-king  of  Babylonia  in  alliance 
with  the  Modes.  See  Eze  31^"^*  for  a  description  of  the 
empire's  fallen  greatness,  and  the  prophecy  of  Nahum 
throughout  for  the  premonition  of  its  final  ruin  ;  compare 
Zep  3I5. 

Babylon 

191.    The  later    or  Second   Babylonian    Empire   was 

founded  by  Nabopolassar,  who  wrested  the  sovereignty 
from  the  long  dominant  power  of  Assyria.  Nebuchadnezzar, 
or  more  correctly  Nchuchadrczzar,  son  and  successor  of 
Nabopolassar,  first  showed  his  prowess  in  warfare  as  his 
father's  general,  by  his  decisive  victory  over  Egypt  at 
Carchemish  as  already  noted.  Before  the  death  of  his  father, 
he   had   captured    Jerusalem,  making  Judaea   tributary   to 

*  See  Ball,  Light  from  the  East,  p.  200. 


BABYLON  315 

Babylon,  and  afterwards  completed  his  conquest  by  crushing 
the  rebellion  of  Jehoiakim,  who  fell  ignominiously  in  the 
struggle*.  The  brief  reign  of  Jehoiachin,  his  long  captivity 
in  Babylon,  and  the  ten  years'  reign  of  his  uncle  Zedekiah, 
with  its  terrible  close  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and 
the  exile  of  its  people,  are  recounted  by  the  inspired  his- 
torian ^.  It  is  observable  that  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (32*-'* 
34'^)  had  foretold  the  deportation  of  Zedekiah  to  Babylon, 
while  Ezekiel  (12^^)  predicted  that  he  should  not  see  the  city. 
Both  prophecies  were  literally  fulfilled,  Zedekiah  being 
cruelly  blinded  before  he  was  carried  thither. 

The  reigrn  of  Nebtichadnezzar  was  chronicled  by  Berosus,  'the 
Manetlio  of  Chaldaea.'  His  writings  have  mostly  perished,  but,  as  in 
the  case  of  the  Egyptian  historian,  Josephus  in  his  treatise  Against 
Apion''  has  preserved  a  fragment  which  at  least  illustrates  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's boast,  recorded  Dn  4^^,  '  Is  not  this  great  Babylon  which 
I  have  built?'  This  is  also  the  burden  of  the  'East  India  House' 
inscription  of  the  king,  discovered  among  the  ruins  of  Babylon  in 
1803  <». 

The  list  of  public  works  which  the  king  had  undertaken  for  the 
improvement  of  Babylon  is  amazing.  They  comprised  more  than 
twenty  temples,  with  strengthened  fortifications,  the  excavation  of 
canals,  vast  embankments  by  the  river,  and  the  celebrated  hanging 
gardens.  Another  inscription,  on  two  barrel  cylinders  in  the  British 
Museum,  gives  a  very  similar  account  of  the  architectural  works  by 
which  this  great  monarch  enriched  his  metropolis  and  kingdom*. 
All  through  Babylonia  the  discovery  of  bricks  enstamped  with 
Nebuchadnezzar's  name  attests  his  enterprise  as  well  as  his  opulence 
and  taste.  On  a  cylinder  disinterred  from  the  ruins  of  Abu  Habbah 
is  an  inscription  recording  the  restoration  of  the  Temple  of  the  Sun. 
The  words  read  almost  like  a  heathen  version  of  Solomon's  address 
and  prayer  at  the  dedication  of  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem.  In  the 
Book  of  Daniel  the  sequel  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  boast  was  his  attack  of 
madness  and  his  seclusion  from  public  affairs.    Neither  Berosus  nor  any 

•  Josephus,  Ant.  x.  6,  §  3.     See  Jer  22'8-^3. 

^  See  2  Ki  24*^-25-^  "^  Book  i.  iq. 

*  See  a  representation  of  this  inscription  in  Ball's  Light  from  the  East, 
p.  207.     A  facsimile  of  the  inscription  is  in  the  British  Museum. 

e  A  translation  of  this  will  be  found  in  Dr.  Wallis  Budge's  Babylo- 
nian Life  and  History,  pp.  16-22. 


316     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

of  the  hitherto-discovered  inscriptions  refers  directly  to  this  fact*; 
which  need  excite  no  surprise,  as  references  to  what  was  inglorious 
and  humiliating  were  out  of  the  line  of  such  monumental  records. 

192.  The  narratives  In  Daniel  accord  in  many  ways  with  the 
representations  given  of  Babylon  and  its  customs.  That  no  men- 
tion has  been  as  yet  discovered  of  Daniel  himself,  who  for  a  time 
played  so  great  a  part  in  Babylonian  affairs,  is  not  surprising. 
Great  kings  did  not  name  their  subordinates  when  recording  the  glory 
of  their  deeds.     The  honour  and  renown  they  arrogated  to  themselves  **, 

Not  a  few  difficulties  that  have  arisen  in  the  comparison  of  the 
Bible  liistory  with  the  monumental  records  have  been  cleared  away 
by  larger  knowledge.  Thus  Belahazzar,  termed  a  king  in  Dn  5  (also 
7^  8'),  Nebuchadnezzar  being  his  father  (verses  2,  i8),  does  not  any- 
where appear  in  the  Babylonian  lists  of  kings ;  Evil-merodach  having 
been  Nebuchadnezzar's  son  and  successor,  2  Ki  25^^.  Hence  there  has 
been  much  discussion  as  to  Belshazzar's  personality,  some  critics  even 
doubting  his  existence,  until  the  discovery  by  Sir  H.  Rawlinson  of  an 
inscribed  cylinder  of  King  Nabonidus,  expressly  naming  him  (Belu- 
sharra-usur)  as  his  eldest  son.  Another  cylinder  of  the  same  king  states 
that  the  son  of  Nabonidus  was  appointed  commander  of  his  forces.  The 
difficulty  thus  vanishes.  Nabonidus  was  an  able  and  accomplished 
ruler,  and  has  left  many  records  of  his  eight'ien  years'  reign.  But  he 
was  of  a  placid,  inert  disposition,  and  averse  from  the  cares  of  state, 
Belshazzar,  accordingly,  acted  as  his  father's  viceroy,  practically  king, 
being  a  '  son  '  or  descendant  of  Nebuchadnezzar''  through  the  marriage 
of  Nabonidus  into  that  great  king's  family.  Both  father  and  son  died  in 
the  same  year  (b.  c.  538),  Belshazzar  falling  in  Babylon,  and  Nabonidus, 
who  had  fled  to  Borsippa  before  the  approach  of  the  army  of  Cyrus 
under  Gobryas,  dying  five  months  afterwards*^.' 

Another  difficulty  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  is  the  reference  to  'Darius 
the  Mede'  as  'king'  in  Babylon  after  the  capture  of  the  city 
by  Cyrus  (Dn  5^^  6).  No  such  name  appears  on  the  monuments  or  in 
secular  history.     That  Cyrus  placed  Gobryas,  governor  of  Kurdistan, 

*  For  some  time  it  was  supposed  that  a  passage  in  the  king's  great 
inscription,  interpreted  of  his  temporary  seclusion  from  public  affairs, 
might  refer  to  this  malady ;  but  the  reading  is  now  believed  to  be 
mistaken. 

»>  See  Dr.  Wallis  Budge,  p.  71. 

*  See  the  full  and  convincing  discussion  of  the  facts  in  Canon 
Kawlinson's  Egypt  and  Babylon,  1885,  ch.  ix.  Herodotus  (i.  185-188) 
speaks  of   Nabidonus  under  the  slightly  altered  form   of  Labyyietus. 

^  Berosus. 


BABYLON  317 

in  charge  of  Babylon  until  he  himself  could  assume  the  sovereignty, 
appears  frum  the  Babylonian  chronicle ;  and  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  he  was  the  '  king  '  or  'vice-king'  in  question.  The  difficulties  of 
such  identification  are  great.  There  is  no  evidence  that  Gobryas  was 
a  Mede  *,  and  his  assumption  of  the  name  Darius  cannot  be  satis- 
factorily explained.  Another  explanation  is  that  he  was  Cyaxares  II, 
uncle  to  Cyrus  ^;  but  this  also  has  many  improbabilities.  If  it  be 
accepted,  'Ahasuerus*  in  9^  must  be  a  Hebrew  form  of  '  Astyages.' 
The  supposition  that  Darius  Hystaspes  is  intended,  although  upheld 
by  some  scholars,  is  quite  inadmissible.  That  he  was  a  Median  noble- 
man, otherwise  unknown,  has  also  been  suggested.  On  the  whole, 
the  identification  of  this  Darius  must,  for  the  present,  be  placed 
among  the  unsolved  problems  of  sacred  history  awaiting  elucidation 
by  further  discoveries. 

A  cylinder  of  Cyms  himself,  unfortunately  imperfect, 
now  in  the  British  Museum,  describes  from  his  own  point 
of  view  the  capture  of  Babylon.  Its  inscription  may 
well  be  compared  with  the  narratives  of  Scripture  and  of 
Herodotus,  which  it  supplements  in  a  most  interesting 
way.  Among  other  references  to  the  respect  paid  by  Cyrus, 
an  evident  latitudinarian,  to  the  national  deities,  the  king 
goes  on  to  say,  '  the  gods  that  abode  in  the  (conquered)  lands 
I  restored  to  their  place,  and  settled  in  an  eternal  abode ; 
all  their  populations  I  gathered  together,  and  restored  to  their 
own  dwelling-place.'  The  words  very  strikingly  illustrate  the 
permission  given  to  the  Jews  to  return  to  their  own  countiy, 
and  to  reinstate  the  worship  of  Jehovah  the  God  of  Israel. 
It  was  *  no  isolated  act  of  clemency,  but  a  part  of  the  general 
policy  of  the  Persian  conqueror  towards  the  foreign  popula- 
tions who  liad  been  deported  to  Babylonia  by  Nabopolassar 
and  his  successors  c.' 

*  According  to  Xenophon,  Cyrop.,  he  was  an  Assyrian. 

^  Evidently  the  opinion  of  Josephus.  '  He  (Darius)  was  the  son  of 
Astyages,  and  had  another  name  among  the  Greeks'  (Ant.  x.  it,  §  4). 

"  See  a  representation  of  this  cylinder  in  Dr.  Budge's  Guide  to  the 
Babylonian  and  Assynan  Antiquities  in  the  British  Museum,  Plate  XXXI. 
The  inscription,  so  far  as  it  is  unbroken,  is  given,  with  the  comment 
here  quoted,  in  C.  J.  Ball's  Light  from  the  East,  p.  224. 


318     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Thus,  to  the  very  close  of  the  Old  Testament  history,  the 
written  word  and  the  monumental  records  of  many  nations 
cast  light  upon  each  other,  enabling  us  to  read  and  under- 
stand witli  more  comprehensive  knowledge,  as  well  as  to 
believe  with  a  deeper  assurance. 

193.  New  Testament  and  Secular  History. — The  New 

Testament  records  also  touch  the  annals  of  the  world's 
empire  at  many  important  points,  which,  however,  may  be 
better  noted  under  the  head  of  Chronology.     See  §  202. 

194.  Illustrative  historical  facts. — Many  incidental 
illustrations  of  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  valuable 
lessons,  may  be  gained  by  reference  to  the  general  history 
of  the  times. 

Thus  Mt  a^-s  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  there  was  a  general  im- 
pression at  that  time  throughout  tlie  East  tliat  a  great  prince  was 
about  to  appear  and  govern  the  world  (Tac.  Hist.  5.  13;  Suet.  Vit.  Vesp. 
C.4). 

In  Mt  24^*-^*  our  Saviour  warns  His  disciples  to  quit  Jerusalem  before 
the  siege  began  ;  and  history  tells  us  that  they  profited  by  His  instruc- 
tions, for  before  the  city  was  surrounded  by  the  Roman  armies,  they 
retired  to  Pella,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan. 

The  'rest'  spoken  of  in  Ac  9'^  is  explained  in  contemporary  history. 
It  must  not  be  ascribed  to  the  conversion  of  Saul,  for  the  persecution 
continued  three  years  after  ;  but  to  the  circumstance  that  at  that  time 
(a.  d.  40)  Caligula  attempted  to  set  up  liis  statue  in  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
The  consternation  of  the  Jews  at  this  tlireatened  profanation  diverted 
their  attention  from  the  Christians,  and  so  *  the  churches  had  rest.' 

In  Ac  17'^  Athens  is  said  to  be  'full  of  idols.'  .^lian  (a.  d.  140) 
calls  it  the  altar  of  Greece;  and  Pausanias,  the  Greek  historian  (a.d. 
174),  speaks  of  altars  to  '  unknown  gods'  (Attica,  i.  4). 

Many  incidental  references  in  Acts  are  strikingly  illustrated  by  the 
history.  Thus  in  Macedonia,  Philippi  is  *a  colony'  (16^"^)  with  its 
magistracy  on  the  Roman  model  ;  while  Thessalonica,  a  free  city,  has 
its  'politarchs'  (17^),  a  local  office,  as  now  proved  by  monuments. 
Achaia  is  governed  by  a  'proconsul'  (iS^^),  a  title  which,  a  little 
earlier  or  a  little  later,  would  have  been  inaccurate.  At  Ephesus, 
again,  there  are  '  Asiarchs,'  an  appellation  equally  exact.  For  further 
correspondences,  see  Bp.  Lightfoot,  Smith's  Diet.  Bible,  art.  'Acts,'  and 
Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay,  St.  Paul  th«  Traveller,  throughout. 


ANCIENT  KELIGIONS  AND  PHILOSOPHIES    319 

Light  from  heathen  religions. — A  knowledge  of  the 
religious  opinions  of  the  nations  by  "whom  the  Israelites 
were  surrounded  is  often  useful. 

Among  the  Egyptians,  for  example,  a  lamb  or  kid  was  an  object  of 
veneration,  and  the  male,  as  the  representative  of  Ammon,  was 
worshipped. 

The  plagues  of  Egypt  were  all  inflicted  on  objects  of  Egyptian  wor- 
ship, and  thus  they  became  a  rebuke  to  idolatry,  as  well  as  an  evidence 
of  Divine  power. 

At  solemn  festivals,  the  Phoenicians  ate  of  the  raw  flesh  of  their 
ofl'erings  ;  part  of  it  they  roasted  in  the  sun,  and  part  was  sodden  for 
magical  purposes,  the  intestines  being  used  for  divination,  and  the 
fragments  for  charms  and  enchantments.  All  these  practices  were 
forbidden  to  the  Jews,  and  though  no  doubt  other  solemn  lessons 
were  taught  by  the  burning  of  the  victim  in  the  fire,  it  was  also 
intended  to  teach  them  to  avoid  the  rites  of  the  heathen. 

See  also  Lev  19-^  Ps  16*  Jer  44^^-^'. 

Among  the  ancient  Persians  it  was  held  that  there  were  two  deities 
of  equal  power,  Ormuzd  and  Ahriman.  Jehovah,  in  His  address  to 
Cyrus,  claims  authority  over  them  both  :  *  I  form  the  light,  and  create 
darkness  :  I  make  peace,  and  create  evil,'  Is  45^. 

The  stud)'  of  Bahijlonian  beliefs  is  especially  interesting  and  valuable 
as  bringing  into  strong  relief  the  contrast  between  the  heathen  cor- 
ruption of  primitive  beliefs  and  the  authentic  records  of  the  Word 
of  God. 

Iiig-ht  from  ancient  philosopMes. — Many  who  had  embraced  the 
Oriental  philosophy  became  Christians,  and  attempted  to  blend  their 
former  tenets  with  the  doctrines  of  Christ.  Some  of  them  (the 
Valentinian  Gnostics  for  example)  held  the  opinion  that  there  were 
several  emanations  of  the  Godhead,  called  the  Word,  the  Life,  the 
Light,  &c.  :  opinions  the  germs  of  which  existed  very  early.  See  in 
Jn  i^~^*,  where  all  those  titles  are  claimed  for  our  Lord. 

From  their  principles,  many  of  them  deduced  a  loose  morality,  and 
others  justified  the  imposition  of  unreasonable  austerities.  To  the 
speculative  opinions  of  those  sects  are  opposed  such  passages  as  these, 
I  Jn  i^-""^  222-2'  42.3.9.14.15  5I-09-20  .  and  to  their  practice,  i  Jn  i^-e  22« 
gi-io  518.21^  rf  j^g  deeds  of  the  Nicolaitanes  were  probably  of  the  same 
order,  Rev  2'. 

In  Europe  the  Greek  philosophy  was  most  prevalent,  ahd  the  Greek 
character  showed  its  tendency  in  subtle  disquisition.  Two  only  of 
the  Grecian  sects  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  the  Epicureans  and  the 
Stoics.     The  first  held  that  God  took  no  concern  in  the  affairs  of  the 


320     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

universe,  but  dwelt  in  some  distant  region  ;  and  the  second  held  that 
He  was  the  soul  of  the  world.  They  agz-eed,  however,  in  maintaining 
that  the  Greeks  were  superior  to  all  other  nations.  The  Apostle  Paul 
rebuked  both,  Ac  17^^"^^^,  alternately  correcting  their  errors,  and 
revealing  to  them  the  great  doctrines  of  the  Resurrection  and  the 
atonement  of  Christ.  A  knowledge  of  their  views  explains  his  appeal, 
rebukes  *  reserve '  in  the  exhibition  of  the  gospel,  and  illustrates  the 
simplicity  and  dignity  of  truth. 

Tlie  Divinity  of  our  Lord,  and  the  inutility  of  the  ceremonial  law, 
are  both  taught  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul.  It  is  a  confirmation  of  this 
view  that  the  Ebionites,  who  observed  the  Law  and  maintained  the 
simple  humanity  of  Christ,  rejected  those  epistles,  and  received  only 
a  mutilated  copy  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew. 

Many  of  the  discourses  of  our  Lord  contain  special  reference  to  the 
views  of  the  various  Jewish  sects.  The  reader  will  find  those  views 
noticed  in  Part  II,  Ch.  XVII. 

Here,  again,  a  caution  is  needed.  Tke  errors  referred  to 
in  the  passages  which  are  thus  made  clear  by  this  knowledge 
were  often  local  and  temporary.  They  generally  sprang, 
however,  from  some  deep-seated  tendency  of  human  nature, 
and  are  apt  to  show  themselves  under  different  forms  ;  and 
the  refutation  of  them,  given  in  Scripture,  always  embodies 
truths  of  permanent  and  universal  application. 


Chronology  :   the  Old  Testament 

First  Period. 

195.  Antediluvian  Period. — For  the  first  period  the 
genealogies  in  Gen  5  are  the  only  authority,  as  no  con- 
temporary records  exist.  The  sum  of  years  is  found  by 
adding  together  the  ages  of  the  antediluvian  patriarchs, 
each  at  the  birth  of  his  eldest  son  ;  Noah's  age  being  taken 
at  the  time  of  his  entrance  into  the  ark.  The  Hebrew  text 
differs  from  the  Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan,  as  shown  in 
the  table  annexed. 


OLD  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY 


321 


Authority. 

Hebrew. 

Septuagint. 

Samaritan. 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Gen  53      . 

Adam  .... 

130 

230 

130 

6 

Seth      . 

105 

205 

105 

9 

Enos     . 

90 

190 

90 

12 

Cainan 

70 

170 

70 

15 

Mahalaleel 

65 

165 

65 

18 

Jared    . 

162 

162 

62 

"21 

Enoch  . 

65 

165 

65 

25         [ 

Methuselah 

187 

187'^ 

67 

28 

Lamech 

182 

188 1' 

53 

',,'7"  : 

Noah  at  the  Deluge 

600 

600 

600 

1656 

2262 

1307 

Josephus  makes  the  total  2,256,  agreeing  in  Lamech  with  the  Hebrew, 
and  elsewhere  with  the  LXX. 


It  need  hardly  be  added  that,  whatever  the  number  of 
years  from  Adam  to  the  Deluge,  the  computation  affords 
no  basis  for  a  date  b.  c.  This  must  evidently  depend  on 
the  length  of  the  succeeding  periods.  The  estimate  there- 
fore of  4,004  years  from  Adam  to  Christ  must  be  discarded 
as  unsupported.  In  fact  there  are  as  many  different  views 
of  the  date  of  Creation  as  there  are  chronological  systems. 
No  fewer  than  140  different  dates  have  been  variously 
assigned  ;  the  shortest  being  that  of  the  rabbis,  who  give 
only  3,483  years  as  the  time  of  the  world's  duration  before 
the  Christian  era. 

Second  Period. 

196.  The  second  period,  in  like  manner,  is  calculated  from 
the  Bible  genealogies,  but  includes  the  beginnings  of  secular 
history. 

*  Some  copies,  167.  ''  Josephus,  182. 


322      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


r 

rom  the  Deluge  to  the  Call  of  Abrahai 

n. 

Authority. 

Hebrew. 

SeptuagirU. 

Samaritan^ 

Years. 

Years. 

Years. 

Gen  iiio  . 

.Shem  after  the  Flood  . 

2 

2 

2 

12 

Aiphaxad     . 

35 

135 

135 

LXXand*. 

Cainan  II     .         .         . 

130 

Gen  III*  . 

Salah    .... 

30 

130 

130 

16 

Heber  .... 

34 

134 

134 

18 

Peleg    .... 

30 

130 

130 

20  \ 

Reu       .         .         .         . 

32 

132 

132 

22   _ 

Serug    .... 

30 

130 

130 

"           2*   ". 

Nalior  .... 

29 

179 

79 

Gen  ii26-' 

3'^    12*      1 

Teiah   .... 

130 

130 

130 

Gen  12*    . 

Abraham 

75 

- 

427 

75 

75 

1307 

1077 

The  different  computations. — The  discrepancy  between 
the  Hebrew  text  and  the  others  is  here  specially  noticeable, 
and  has  led  to  much  discussion,  as  between  the  longer  and 
the  shorter  chronology. 

The  longer  is  by  many  considered  to  be  best  entitled  to  confidence, 
for  the  following  reasons,  among  others  : — 

1.  The  Hebrew  is  deemed  more  likely  to  have  been  shortened  than 
the  LXX  to  be  lengthened,  as,  for  some  time  after  the  Christian  era, 
the  Jews  had  a  motive  for  diminishing  the  period  between  the  Creation 
and  the  birth  of  Jesus,  in  order  to  make  it  appear  that  the  time  which 
their  own  expositors  had  fixed  for  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah  had 
not  arrived ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  no  motive  so  strong  can  be 
supposed  to  have  existed  on  the  part  of  the  Jewish  translators  of  the 
Septuagint :  nor  could  there  have  been  an  opportunity  to  alter  the 
Greek  version  after  it  was  made  ;  for  it  was  in  extensive  circulation, 
and  in  constant  public  use,  both  among  Jews  and  Christians. 

2.  The  lengtli  of  time  assigned  by  the  Septuagint,  the  Samaritan 
text,  and  Josephus,  to  the  period  between  the  Deluge  and  the  birth  of 
Abraham  (about  1,100  years),  is  deemed  more  consistent  with  historical 
facts  than  the  shorter  time  assigned  by  the  Hebrew  (about  350  years), 
which  appears  insufficient  for  the  great  multiplication  and  extended 
dispersion  of  Noah's  descendants  over  immense  tracts  of  country, 
extending  from  India  and  Assyria  to  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  and  Greece  : 


OLD  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY  323 

for  the  establishment  of  the  organized  and  powerful  monarchies  of 
Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  Egypt  ;  besides  the  lesser  chieftaincies  of 
Canaan,  which  seem  to  have  been  founded  by  descendants  of  Ham, 
after  the  expulsion  of  earlier  settlers  ;  and  for  the  spread  and  preva- 
lence of  idolatry.  In  fact,  it  is  difficult,  in  the  face  of  the  records  of 
ancient  empires  brought  to  light  by  research  during  the  nineteenth 
century,  to  suppose  that  thisgrowtli  of  nations  could  have  taken  place 
even  in  the  period  which  the  LXX  allows.  The  subject  is  one  that 
requires  still  further  elucidation. 

Those  who  adhere  to  the  shorter  computation  urge,  principally,  the 
following  considerations  : — 

1.  The  general  accuracy  of  the  original  Hebrew  text,  which  was 
preserved  by  the  Jews  with  most  jealous  care. 

2.  The  facilities  afforded  by  the  shorter  chronology  for  the  safe  and 
rapid  transmission  of  revealed  truth  in  the  earliest  ages  ;  Lamech 
being  contemporary  both  with  Adam  and  with  Shem,  whilst  Shem 
was  contemporary  with  Abraham. 

3.  The  objection  drawn  from  the  shortness  of  the  interval  between 
the  Deluge  and  the  birth  of  Abraham,  compared  with  the  apparent 
populousness  of  the  earth,  is  more  than  met  by  the  increase  of  man- 
kind in  newly  peopled  districts  in  modern  times,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  Hebrew  text  gives  at  least  as  many  generations  as  the  LXX  ; 
while,  on  the  supposition  that  men  generally  married  as  early  as  the 
ages  assigned  in  the  Hebrew  text,  it  implies  a  larger  population. 

4.  It  is  argued  that  the  Egyptian,  Assyrian,  and  Chaldaean  records 
are  too  seriously  discredited  by  the  fables  with  which  they  are  inter- 
mingled to  be  taken  as  the  basis  of  a  sound  chronology.  This  objec- 
tion, however,  loses  force  in  the  view  of  ever-accumulating  evidence, 
which  renders  it  more  and  more  practicable  to  separate  between  the 
fabulous  and  the  authentic. 


Third  Period. 

197.  From  the  call  of  Abraham  to  the  Exodus. — The 

third  period  is  calculated,  first,  from  the  lives  of  the  three 
great  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob;  and,  secondly, 
from  the  Scriptm-e  statements  regarding  the  duration  of  the 
Israelites'  abode  in  Egypt,  thus  : — 


Y    2 


324     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


Authority. 

Abraham  (until  Isaac's  birth) 

Isaac        

Jacob,  on  entering  Egj'pt 

Israelites  in  Egypt 

Hebrew. 

LXXtt-  Sa. 

Gen  ai6  . 

„      25^«              . 

„    47^  .         . 

Ex         12*0-",     ) 

LXX,   Gnl 

3"                 S 

Years. 

25 

6o 
130 

430 

Years. 

25 

60 

130 

215 

645 

430 

Disputed  passage  in  the  LXX. — With  regard  to  this 
period,  there  is  again  a  serious  discrepancy  between  the 
different  estimates ;  arising  in  this  instance  from  the  ad- 
dition in  the  LXX  of  an  important  clause  in  Ex  i2'^o^  ^j^^ 
Hebrew  reads,  'The  sojourning  of  the  children  of  Israel, 
which  they  sojourned  in  Egypt,  was  430  years' ;  the  LXX, 
the  Samaritan,  adding  after  Egypt,  'and  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,'  thus  including  the  years  of  the  previous  patriarchal 
abode  in  Palestine  (215  years).  This  was  evidently  the 
'  received  chronology '  in  apostolic  times,  and  as  such  is 
adopted  by  the  Apostle  Paul ;  while  it  certainly  seems  to 
be  supported  by  the  genealogies. 

See  the  authorities  in  the  above  table.  Ussher,  Hales,  and  the  older 
chronologers  generally  seem  to  concur ;  but  the  decided  tendency  is 
now  to  support  the  longer  estimate,  in  conformity  with  the  Hebrew 
text,  as  well  as  with  the  prophetic  intimation,  Gen  15^2  ('four  hundred 
years '  in  round  numbers  ;  compare  Ac  7^).  Bishop  Lightfoot  well 
remarks  that  *  the  difficulties  which  attend  both  systems  of  chronology 
need  not  be  considered  here  (on  Gal  3^'^),  as  they  do  not  affect  St.  Paul's 
argument,  and  cannot  have  entered  into  his  thoughts.' 


Fourth  Period. 

198.  Prom  the  Exodus  to  Saul. — In  this  fourth  period, 
the  reckoning  begins  with  the  forty  years  in  the  wilderness ; 
and  the  statement,  i  Ki  6\  that  from  the  Exodus  to  the 
building  of  the   Temple   there  were   480   years,  seems   to 


OLD  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY      325 

aiford  a  sure  basis  for  computation.  But  many  difficulties 
have  arisen  regarding  this  statement,  which  have  baffled 
chronologers. 

The  LXX  reads  'the  440th  year';  but  this  may  be  simply  from  the 
omission  of  the  forty  years'  wandering.  In  2  Ch  3^  (the  parallel 
passage)  there  is  no  date,  Josephus,  and  others  who  have  left  systems 
of  chronology,  seem  to  have  been  ignorant  of  this  computation,  which 
is  first  mentioned  in  the  fourth  century  by  Eusebius ;  and  he  does  not 
adopt  it.  St.  Paul,  again,  seems,  according  to  the  received  text,  to 
assign  450  years  as  the  time  from  the  division  of  Canaan  '  until  Samuel ' 
(Ac  13'^''),  and  if  so,  the  whole  period  must  have  been  579  years  at 
least*.  There  is,  however,  a  doubt  about  the  reading  of  this  passage. 
See  R.  v.,  which  places  the  450  years  before  the  period  of  the  judges, 
dating  from  the  gift  of  the  land  to  Abraham.  Ussher  supposes  the 
450  years  to  refer  to  the  time  between  the  birth  of  Isaac  and  the  entry 
upon  Canaan,  a  somewhat  forced  construction.  Josephus  mentions 
for  the  whole  period  592  years  {Ayit.  viii.  3,  §  i),  632  (x.  8,  §  5),  and  612 
(xx.  10,  i) ;  and  Hales  supposes  his  true  reckoning  to  be,  after  obvious 
corrections,  621  years.  Petavius  reckons  519  years ;  Greswell,  549 
years  ;  Jackson,  579  years  ;  Clinton  and  Cunningham,  612  years. 

In  turning  to  the  history  in  Judges,  and  reckoning  up  the  periods 
named,  the  questions  raised  by  these  different  views  are  not  solved. 
Six  servitudes  are  mentioned,  extending  over  11 1  years ;  and  fourteen 
judges  (not  including  Joshua,  Eli,  or  Samuel),  extending  over  279 
years,  or  390  in  nil.  Adding  to  this  number  46  and  83  as  in  the  note  *, 
Ave  have  an  entire  period  of  579  years.  But  here  are  various  elements 
of  uncertainty.  Are  these  servitudes  and  judgeships  to  any  extent 
contemporaneous?  Ussher  thinks  they  are.  Hales,  supposing  that 
Judg  2^^  applies  to  all,  concludes  that  they  are  not.  Again,  nothing 
is  told  us  of  the  length  of  Joshua's  government,  or  of  the  government 
of  the  elders  who  suxvived  him,  except  in  the  case  of  Othniel,  his 
son-in-law.  The  question  is  further  complicated  by  the  estimate  of 
Jephthah,  Judg  ii^^,  of  the  time  between  the  entrance  on  Canaan  and 
his  own  day  as  300  years  ;  but  this  may  be  only  a  rough  and  perhaps 
an  inaccurate  calculation.  Further,  it  is  not  clear  whether  Eli  was 
a  political  ruler,  or  simply  a  civil  judge,  as  Ussher  describes  him. 
If  the  latter,  he  is  not  to  be  reckoned  chronologically  among  the 

*  viz.     In  the  wilderness,  and  till  the  land  was  divided       46  years. 
Judges  including  Eli  and  Samuel         .         .         .     450      ,, 
Saul  40,  David  40,  3rd  Solomon  3       .         .         .       83      „ 

579 


326     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

judges.  And  lastly,  we  cannot  gather  from  Scripture  what  time 
elapsed  between  the  death  of  Samson  and  the  accession  of  Saul.  Eli 
judged  Israel  forty  years,  but  Ussher  makes  him  contemporary  of 
Samson,  and  not  his  successor.  He  reckons  between  Eli's  death  and 
Saul's  election  twenty-one  years,  though  Samuel  could  hardly  have 
been  in  that  case  *  old  and  gray-headed  '  (i  Sa  la^).  Eusebius  reckons 
forty  years  for  Eli,  and  includes  Samuel  in  Saul's  reign :  Josephus 
reckons  fifty- two  years  for  Eli  and  Samuel ;  Hales,  allowing  for  them 
seventy-two.  Clinton  supposes  St.  Paul's  reckoning  to  end  with  the 
beginning  of  Samuel's  judgeship,  and  adds  for  that  thirty-two  years. 
On  the  whole,  therefore,  it  may  be  said  that  if  we  set  aside  the  read- 
ing in  I  Ki  6^,  and  are  uncertain  of  the  precise  meaning  of  Ac  13^^,  we 
have  not  materials  for  solving  the  difficulties  which  this  fourth  period 
involves. 

Fifth  Period. 
199.  Period  of  the  Kingly  History.— For  the  fifth 
period,  the  main  source  of  information  from  Scripture  is 
in  the  lists  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  respectively, 
compared  with  the  annals  of  surrounding  empires.  The 
difficulties  in  the  computation  arise  first  from  the  fact  that 
the  two  series  of  reigns  differ  in  their  totals  ;  those 
of  Judah,  from  the  death  of  Solomon  to  the  fall  of  Samaria, 
seeming  to  amount  to  259  years  ;  those  of  Israel,  during  the 
same  period,  to  241  years.  Different  methods  of  explaining 
this  variation  have  been  adopted  :  one  by  assuming  un- 
recorded intervals  of  anarchy  in  Israel  ;  another,  by  showing 
that  in  Judah  there  were  instances  of  associated  sovereignty, 
so  that  the  same  years  were  counted  both  to  father  and  son. 
The  results  are  shown  in  the  Chronological  Appendix, 
based  upon  the  calculations  of  different  chronologers. 

A  second  source  of  occasional  difficulty  is  in  the  adjustment  of  the 
annals  of  other  nations  to  the  Bible  chronology.  Yet,  whatever  the 
apparent  disciepancies,  the  main  result  is  very  remarkably  to  confirm 
and  illustrate  the  statements  of  Scripture.  In  fact,  for  full  under- 
standing of  the  Bible  history  it  is  needful  to  know  that  of  tlie 
surrounding  peoples,  from  a  judicious  use  of  the  aids  that  have  been 
80  copiously  furnished  by  the  discoveries  of  recent  times.  Compara- 
tive chronology  is  one  of  the  most  fascinating  as  well  as  important 
studies  connected  with  the  Bible  history. 


OLD  TESTAMENT  CHRONOLOGY     327 

In  the  latter  j^art  of  this  fifth  period  the  synchronisms 
with  the  known  dates  of  secular  history  make  it  for  the 
first  time  possible  definitely  to  give  the  year  b.  c. 

It  should  be  especially  noticed  here  that  certain  pecu- 
liarities of  reckoning  cause  occasional  difficulty. 

(a)  Jewish  historians,  for  example,  speak  of  the  reign  of  a  king 
wliich  is  continued  through  one  whole  year  and  parts  of  two  others 
as  a  three  years'  reign.  It  may  be  two  years  and  ten  months,  or  it 
may  be  one  year  and  two  months. 

(&)  Tlicy  sometimes  set  down  the  principal  number  ;  the  odd,  or 
smaller  number,  being  omitted,  as  in  Judg  20'^  :  see  verse  46. 

(c)  As  sons  frequently  reigned  with  their  fathers  in  ancient 
monarchies,  the  time  of  the  reign  of  each  is  sometimes  mnde  to  include 
the  time  of  the  other,  and  sometimes  to  exclude  it.  Thus  Jotham  is 
said  to  have  reigned  sixteen  years,  a  Ki  15^^ ;  and  yet,  in  verse  30, 
mention  is  mnde  of  his  twentieth  year.  For  four  years  he  seems  to 
have  reigned  with  Uzziah,  who  was  a  leper.  So  2  Ki  13^10  24",  com- 
pared with  2  Ch  36''.  A  similar  principle  explains  Dn  i^  Jer  25^ : 
Nebuihadnezzar  being  king  with  his  father  when  Jerusalem  was 
besieged. 

This  peculiarity  of  reckoning  has  been  applied,  with  great  advantage, 
to  exi)lain  the  chronological  tables  of  Egypt  and  other  Eastern  countries. 

(d)  It  not  unfrequently  happens  that  different  modes  of  reckoning 
are  adopted  in  reference  to  the  same  transaction.  See  Gen  15^^  and 
Gal  3^^^  ;  Mo?es  speaking  of  400  years  from  the  birth  of  Isaac  to  the 
Exodus  ;  Paul,  of  430  years  from  the  call  of  Abraham  to  the  giving  of 
the  Law,  which  occurred  three  months  after  the  Exodus.     See  §  197. 


Sixth  Period. 

200.  Prom  the  Captivity  to  the  Advent.— The  sixth 
period,  covering  the  time  of  the  later  prophets,  the  close  of 
the  Old  Testament  Canon,  and  the  interval  before  the  Advent, 
is  definitely  marked  out  by  the  annals  of  the  several  nations. 
About  this  part  of  the  chronology  there  is  practically  no 
doubt.  The  dates  are  given  in  the  Chronological  Appendix: 
the  history  of  the  Jews  between  Malachi  and  John  the 
Baptist,  as  detailed  in  Part  II,  Ch.  XVII,  should  be  especially 
studied. 


328     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

201.  Chronological  Eras. — It  should  be  added  that  with 
respect  to  the  synchronisms  with  secular  history  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  periods  we  have  certain  fixed  eras  or  starting- 
points  of  reckoning,  with  '  Canons '  or  lists  following. 

1.  ABsyrian  Eponym  Canon. — Four  different  records  have  been 
discovered,  in  substantial  agreement ;  defects  in  any  one  of  them  being 
supplied  by  one  or  more  of  the  rest.  In  these  the  years  are  num- 
bered by  the  names  of  officers  annually  appointed  from  b.  c.  893  to  659. 
The  known  date  of  a  solar  eclipse  mentioned  in  these  records  (June  15, 
B.  c.  763)  aftbrds  a  key  to  the  rest.  See  for  the  lists  George  Smith's 
Assyrian  Eponym  Canon,  1863. 

2.  The  Babylonian  era  of  ITabonassar,  B.  c.  747.— Nabonassar  (Budge, 
Babylonian  Life  and  History,  p.  59)  was  a  Babylonian  king  of  whom 
nothing  more  is  known  than  that  the  celebrated  Canon  of  Ptolemy, 
the  Egyptian  astronomer  (about  a.  n.  150),  begins  from  his  reign, 
extending  from  B.C.  747  to  a.  d.  137.  This  Canon,  of  which  the 
accuracy  has  been  well  tested,  is  the  chief  source  of  information  on 
the  period  to  which  it  relates. 

3.  The  Olympiads,  or  periods  of  four  years,  reckoned  by  the  Greeks 
from  the  recurrence  of  the  Olympic  games,  beginning  with  B.C.  776, 
are  likewise  a  source  of  accurate  information. 

4.  The  Year  of  the  building-  of  Rome  {Annus  Urbis  Conditai),  generally 
quoted  as  a.u.c,  b.c.  754-753,  is  employed  in  Koman  calculations,  as 
also  are  the  names  of  the  consuls  in  each  year  from  b.  c.  509  to  a.  d.  476. 

5.  The  Seleucid  era  begins  wdth  the  occupation  of  Babylon  by 
Seleucus  Nicator,  after  the  death  of  Alexander's  son,  b.  c.  312.  It  is 
useful  in  studying  the  Books  of  Maccabees,  where  it  is  termed  'the 
era  of  kings.' 

6.  Scripture  itself  seldom  reckons  from  fixed  points.  An  exception 
is  in  the  prophet  Ezekiel's  constant  reference  to  the  date  of  Jeconiah's 
captivity,  b.c.  597.  The  'thirtieth  year,' however,  in  ch.  i\  belongs 
to  a  different  computation,  and  possibly  refers  to  the  prophet's  own 
life,  or  else,  as  has  been  conjectured,  to  the  accession  of  Nabopolassar, 
father  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  b.  c.  625. 

Years  beg-inning"  at  different  times. — The  above  epoclis  severally 
begin  on  diiferent  months  and  days  :  the  Assyrian  year  commencing 
(like  the  Jewish)  at  the  new  moon  before  the  vernal  equinox  ;  the  era 
of  Nabonassar  on  Feb.  26  ;  the  Olympiads  about  July  i,  the  day  of  the 
full  moon  following  the  summer  solstice  ;  a.u.c,  April 21;  the  Seleucid 
era,  Sept.  i.  This  has  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  comparing  the  several 
chrojiologie^ 


NEW    TESTAMENT   CHRONOLOGY  329 


New  Testament  Chronology. 

202.  New  Testament  Chronology.— This  is  fixed  by 
a  few  important  dates ;  the  Consular  lists  of  the  Roman 
Empire  being  an  accurate  guide. 

It  must  be  noted  that  the  'year  of  our  Lord,'  the  conventional  era, 
from  which  the  dates  before  and  after  (b.  c.  and  a.  d.)  are  all  reckoned, 
is  only  an  approximation.  The  year  was  fixed  by  the  calculations  of 
Dionysius  the  Little,  a  Roman  monk  in  the  days  of  the  Emperor 
Justinian,  as  a.u.c.  753  (see  §  201,  4).  As  it  is  certain,  however,  that 
our  Lord  was  born  before  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great  (a.u.c.  750), 
the  calculation  was  plainly  incorrect  by  at  least  three  years,  and 
although  certainty  as  to  the  exact  time  of  Christ's  birth  is  unattainable 
it  was  probably  about  a.  u.  c.  749,  i.  e.  in  B.C.  4  or  5.  The  question, 
however,  is  not  important,  and  the  conventional  landmark  of  time 
will  no  doubt  be  always  retained. 

The  New  Testament  gives  but  few  direct  notes  of  time. 
Such  as  are  specified  are  mainly  connected  with  the  Roman 
annals  ^. 

1.  Lu  3\  'the  fifteenth  year  of  Tiberius,'  i.e.  from  the 
time  when  Tiberius  was  associated  with  Augustus  in  the 
imperial  government  (a.  u.  c.  765).  This  gives  a.  u.  c.  780  or 
A.  D.  27  as  the  date  of  John's  ministry.  At  the  same  time 
our  Lord  was  'about  thirty  years  of  age,'  Lu  3^2 — about 
thirty-three,  therefore,  at  the  time  of  His  crucifixion,  which 
for  that  and  other  reasons  is  generally  assigned  to  a.  d.  30. 

2.  Jn  2-^,  *  Forty  and  six  years  '  from  the  time  of  Herod's 
undertaking  the  restoration  of  the  Temple.     This  work  w^as 

*  See  the  full  and  careful  discussion  in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  art.  *  Chronology  of  the  New  Testament,'  by  C.  H.  Turner,  M.A. ; 
also  Harnack's  Chronologie,  1897.  These  works  review  and  in  part 
reconstruct  Wieseler's  view  {Chronologie,  1848).  There  is  a  brief  and 
interesting  paper  on  *  The  Chronology  of  St.  Paul's  Life  and  Letters  ' 
in  Bishop  Lightfoot's  Biblical  Essays  (1863),  published  after  his  death. 
Compare  Prof.  Eamsay's  St.  Paul  the  Traveller  and  the  Roman  Citizen  ;  and, 
for  the  date  of  our  Lord's  birth,  his  later  book,  Was  Christ  bom  at 
Bethlehem?  (1898), 


330      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

begun,  according  to  Josephus,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Herod's  reign",  or  b.  c.  19,  which  would  give  a.  d.  27  or  28 
for  the  date  specified  in  the  text. 

3.  Ac  1223,  ^Y^Q  death  of  Herod  Agrippa.  This  was 
A.D.  44.  This  date  is  useful,  as  throwing  light  upon  the 
time  of  the  conversion  and  mission  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

4.  Accession  of  Nero,  the  'Caesar'  of  Ac  25^-^^,  &c.,  to 
the  imperial  throne,  a.  d.  54. 

5.  Ac  24^^.  Appointment  of  Festus  as  successor  to  Felix, 
as  procurator  of  Judaea,  a.d.  60,  according  to  the  generally 
received  view  ^. 

6.  The  great  persecution  under  Nero,  beginning  a.  d.  64, 
three  or  four  years  therefore  after  Paul's  arrival  in  Rome, 
and  about  two  years  after  his  first  trial  and  acquittal. 
During  these  two  years,  it  is  probable,  the  Apostle  began 
a  final  and  extended  missionary  journey. 

With  the  help  of  the  above  data,  a  tolerably  certain 
New  Testament  Chronology  may  be  constructed,  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  general  history.  A  question  yet  more 
important  is  that  of  the  succession  and  the  dates  of  the 
several  New  Testament  books,  especially  of  the  Epistles. 
This  must  be  settled  chiefly  by  internal  evidence.  See  the 
Introductions  in  Part  II  of  the  present  work. 

An  outline  of  the  Chronology  of  both  Old  and  Kew  Testaments  will 
be  found  in  the  Chronological  Appendix. 

203.  The  incidental  lessons  drawn  from  a  comparison 

of  dates  are  numerous  and  interesting.     A  few  only  can  be 

mentioned  here ;    but  the  study  of  the  subject  might  be 

profitably  extended. 

The  judgement  against  the  house  of  Eli,  in  Shiloh,  was  first  executed 
in  the  death  of  his  sons,  but  it  was. not  completed  till  eighty  years 

*  Jos.  Ant.  XV.  II,  §  I.     Ilerod  began  to  reign  B.C.  37. 

^  See  the  di.scussion  in  Hastings*  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  where  strong 
reasons  are  given  for  dating  the  appointment  of  Festus  two  years 
earlier. 


LESSONS   FEOM    CHRONOLOGY  331 

afterwards,  in  the  forfeiture  of  office  by  Abiathar  (i  Ki  s^^-ztn  Qq^j 
visits  surely  though  slowly. 

The  sin  that  most  dishonoured  David's  character  was  committed 
when  he  was  fifty  years  of  age.  An  instructive  illustration  of  the 
power  of  temptation,  continuing  through  the  life  even  of  a  servant  of 
the  Lord. 

From  2  Ki  23^^  ^e  learn  that  the  places  built  to  Ashtoreth  remained 
till  the  days  of  Josiah,  or  for  350  years:  Solomon  may  have  died 
I)enitent  ;  yet  the  consequences  of  his  sin  were  felt  for  several 
generations. 

The  date  of  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  a.  d.  64,  nearly  thirty  years 
after  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  adds  great  weight  to  his  declaration 
that  he  was  the  chief  of  sinners.  He  never  ceased,  it  is  plain,  to 
cherish  a  deep  sense  of  his  sinfulness.  We  may  measure  our  progress 
in  holiness  by  the  degree  of  our  humility,  i  Tim  i^^ 

Some  commentators  have  supposed  that  2  Cor  ii^s  refers  to  the 
events  recorded  in  Ac  27  ;  but,  in  fact,  the  epistle  was  written  before 
those  events  took  place.  Others  have  unthinkingly  connected  the 
Apostle's  fight  with  beasts  at  Ephesus,  i  Cor  15^2^  with  the  tumult  in  the 
theatre,  Ac  19^^,  which  occurred  after  the  epistle  was  written.  No  doubt 
the  reference  is  to  some  earlier  and  unrecorded  conflict  with  infuriated 
opponents,  hardly  with  beasts  in  the  amphitheatre.  It  may  be  noted 
that  the  references  here  and  elsewhere  (as  i  Cor  4'')  are  so  vivid  as 
to  suggest  personal  experience. 

The  man  of  sin  mentioned  in  2  Th  2'  has  been  referred  by  Grotius 
and  others  to  Caligula  ;  but  the  epistle  was  not  written  till  twelve 
years  after  that  emperor's  death. 

The  precept  of  Peter,  i  Pet  2^^,  '  Honour  the  king,'  derives  additional 
force  from  the  fact  that  the  tyrant  Nero  was  then  emperor  of  the 
Roman  world. 

More  than  600  years  elapsed  between  the  promise  given  to  Abraham 
and  its  accomplishment  under  Joshua  :  and  not  fewer  than  400  between 
the  prophecy  of  Malachi  and  its  fulfilment  in  John  the  Baptist.  'A 
thousand  years  are  with  the  Lord  aa  one  day:'  though  the  promise 
tarry  long,  we  are  to  wait  for  it. 

This  knowledge  is  thus  seen  to  be  especially  important  in 
interpreting  prophecy,  both  to  enable  us  to  ascertain  the 
event  foretold,  and  to  perceive  the  accomplishment. 


332      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


Natural  History* 

Many  of  the  allusions  and  expressions  of  Scripture  can  be 
explained  only  by  the  aid  of  knowledge  of  natural  history. 

204.  The  vegetable  world  yields  almost  innumerable 
allusions,  as  will  be  seen  by  consulting  Appendix  II,  '  Plants 
of  Scripture.' 

The  Bride  in  the  Canticles  says,  'I  am  a  rose  of  Sharon,  a  lily 
of  the  valleys.'  The  plain  of  Sharon  was  covered  in  the  early  spring 
with  innumerable  flowers,  and  the  maiden  in  her  humility  likens  her- 
self  to  a  wild  flower  of  the  plain,  probably  the  common  narcissus, 
or  else  '  the  scarlet  anemone  which  paints  the  plains  of  Palestine  with 
its  bright  flowers  from  February  to  April'  (Carruthers). 

In  Ps  92'^  it  is  said  that  *  the  righteous  shall  flourish  like  the  palm,' 
and  the  habits  of  this  tree  beautifully  illustrate  the  character  of  the 
righteous.  The  pahn  grows  not  in  the  depths  of  the  forest,  or  in 
a  fertile  loam,  but  in  the  desert.  Its  verdure  often  springs  apparently 
from  the  scorching  dust.  'It  is  in  this  respect,'  says  Laborde,  'as 
a  friendly  lighthouse,  guiding  the  traveller  to  the  spot  where  water 
is  to  be  found.'  The  tree  is  remarkable  for  its  beauty,  its  erect,  aspiring 
growth,  its  leafy  canopy,  its  waving  plumes,  the  emblem  of  praise  in 
all  ages.  Its  very  foliage  is  the  symbol  of  joy  and  exultation.  It 
never  fades,  and  the  dust  never  settles  upon  it.  It  was  therefore 
twisted  into  the  booths  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Lev  23*°),  was 
borne  aloft  by  the  multitude  that  accompanied  the  Messiah  to  Jeru- 
salem (Jn  12}^),  and  it  is  represented  as  in  the  hands  of  the  redeemed 
in  heaven  (Rev  7^).  For  usefulness,  the  tree  is  unrivalled.  Gibbon 
says  that  the  natives  of  Syria  speak  of  360  uses  to  which  the  palm 
is  applied.  Its  shade  refreshes  the  traveller.  Its  fruit  restores  his 
strength.  When  his  soul  fails  for  thirst,  it  announces  water.  Date- 
stones  are  ground  for  his  camels.  Its  leaves  are  made  into  couches, 
its  boughs  into  fences  and  walls,  and  its  fibres  into  ropes  or  rigging. 
Its  best  fruit,  moreover,  is  borne  in  old  age  ;  the  finest  dates  being 
often  gathered  when  the  tree  has  reached  a  hundred  years.  It  sends, 
too,  from  the  same  root  a  largo  number  of  suckers,  which,  in  time, 
form  a  forest  by  their  growth  (Judg  4*).  What  an  emblem  of  the 
righteous  in  the  desert  of  a  guilty  world  1  It  is  not  uninstructive  to 
add  that  this  tree,  once  the  symbol  of  Palestine,  is  now  rarely  seen  in 
that  country. 

Another  beautiful  tree  found  in  Palestine,  and  also  an  emblem  of 


NATUKAL  HISTORY  333 

the  Christian,  is  the  cedar.  'The  righteous  shall  grow  like  the  cedar.' 
This  tree  strikes  its  roots  into  the  cloven  rock.  Like  the  palm,  it  loves 
the  water  ;  and  if  the  wells  near  which  it  grows  are  dried,  it  withers, 
or  ceases  to  grow.  As  its  roots  stretch  away  into  the  mountain,  its 
boughs  are  spread  abroad.  Like  the  palm,  it  is  an  evergreen ;  though 
used  to  wintry  weather,  it  is  always  covered  with  leaves.  Its  bark 
and  leaves  are  highly  aromatic,  and  the  *  smell  of  Lebanon '  has 
become  a  proverb  for  fragrance.  The  cedar  is  sound  to  the  very  core. 
It  adorns  the  mountain's  brow,  and  then  does  service  in  the  Temple. 
After  living  a  thousand  years,  it  preserves  all  it  touches,  and  gives 
beauty  to  the  lintels  and  ceiling  of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  Such  is 
the  character  and  influence  of  a  resolute  and  consistent  Christian. 

In  the  parable  of  the  Wheat  and  the  Tares,  the  latter  name  denotes 
the  darnel,  a  noxious  plant  which  closely  resembles  wheat  until  in 
ear,  so  that  it  would  be  unsafe,  perhaps  impossible,  to  distinguish  the 
two  during  the  earlier  stages  of  their  growth.  The  darnel  also  reaches 
maturity  before  the  wheat  is  ripe,  so  that  the  distinction  becomes 
easier  *. 

The  '  oil '  of  the  olive  berry  soothes  pain,  and  by  closing  the  pores 
of  the  body  against  noxious  exhalations,  promotes  health.  It  was 
thought  peculiarly  successful  in  counteracting  the  effect  of  poison,  and 
hence  it  is  often  used  to  describe  the  power  of  the  gospel.  Its  medicinal 
properties  (see  Jas  5^*)  made  it  of  great  commercial  value  :  hence  it  is 
said  that  '  he  that  loveth  oil  shall  not  be  rich.' 

The  'myrrh'  and  'balm'  (or  balsam)  of  the  East  are  strongly 
aromatic  gums,  which  flow  spontaneously,  or  by  means  of  incision, 
from  the  trees,  and  were  in  great  request  as  articles  of  commerce. 
The  balm  of  Gilead,  Jer  8^2,  was  deemed  a  very  valuable  medicine, 
and  the  expression  is  used  figuratively  to  indicate  any  great  remedy 
or  restorative. 

205.  The  animal  kingdom  furnishes  emblems  equally 
striking. 

In  Dt  32^1  God  is  said  to  have  taught  Israel  as  the  eagle  trains  her 
young.  When  the  eaglets  are  old  enough  to  fly,  she  stirs  up  her  nest, 
separates  its  parts,  and  compels  the  young  birds  to  fly  to  some  neigh- 
bouring crag  ;  she  then  flutters  over  them,  teaching  them  to  move 
their  wings  and  to  sustain  and  guide  themselves  by  their  movements. 
Finding  them  weary  or  unwilling,  she  spreads  her  wings,  takes  her 
brood  upon  her  back,  and  soars  with  them  aloft.     In  order  to  exercise 

»  See  Tristram's  Natural  Histoiy  0/  the  Bible,  p.  487^  and  the  article  in 
Hastings'  Diet.  Bible,  s.  v. 


334      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

their  strength,  she  then  shakes  them  off ;  and  when  she  perceives  that 
their  pinions  flag,  or  that  an  enemy  is  near,  slie  darts  beneath  them 
witli  surprising  skill,  and  at  once  restores  their  strength,  or  places  her 
own  body  between  her  young  and  the  danger  that  threatens  them. 
The  eagle  is  the  only  bird  endowed  with  this  instinct,  and  the  whole 
of  her  procedure  is  suggestive  of  instructive  lessons  in  relation  to  the 
dealings  of  God.  In  the  history  of  ancient  Israel,  and  in  the  history 
of  the  Church,  it  is  found  that  He  weans  His  people  from  their  resting- 
place— in  Egypt,  in  the  world,  and  in  their  own  righteousness — by 
means  of  affliction  :  He  stirs  up  the  nest.  By  the  life  and  character 
of  His  Son,  by  the  influence  of  His  Spirit,  by  the  example  of  the  wise 
and  good,  He  flutters  over  them ;  while  His  promises  sustain  their 
hearts,  and  make  their  happiness  and  safety  as  sure  and  unchanging 
as  His  own. 

In  mountainous  countries  like  Palestine,  the  ass  was  often  pre- 
ferred, on  account  of  its  sureness  of  foot,  to  the  horse.  It  was 
also  much  larger  than  in  Britain,  more  like  the  ass  in  the  south 
of  Spain.  Asses  are  consequently  enumerated  among  the  riches  of 
Abraham  and  Job,  Gen  12^^  Job  ^2}^.  Mephibosheth,  the  grandson 
of  Saul,  rode  upon  an  ass  ;  as  did  Ahithophel,  the  prime  minister  of 
David  ;  and  as  late  as  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  the  son  of  Ahab,  the 
services  of  this  animal  were  required  by  the  wealthy.  The  Shunam- 
mite,  for  example,  a  person  of  high  rank,  saddled  her  ass  and  rode 
to  Carmel,  the  residence  of  Elisha,  2  Ki  4^'*.  In  later  times,  however, 
and  even  from  the  reign  of  Solomon,  the  paces  of  the  horse  began 
to  be  regarded  as  more  stately  and  noble.  Solomon  himself  intro- 
duced a  numerous  stud  of  the  finest  horses — horses  of  Arabia;  and 
after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon,  their  great  men  rode  for 
the  most  part  on  horses  or  mules.  It  soon  became,  therefore,  a  mark 
of  poverty  or  of  humility  to  appear  in  public  on  an  ass,  and  this  was 
the  impression  generally  prevalent  in  the  time  of  our  Lord.  (Compare 
Zee  9^  with  Mt  ai^-s.) 

The  Hebrews  employed  both  the  ox  and  the  ass  in  ploughing  the 
ground.  Is  30^^  32^^*^ ;  but  they  were  forbidden  to  yoke  them  to  the 
same  plough,  partly  because  of  their  unequal  step,  and  partly  because 
the  animals  never  associated  happily  together.  This  prohibition  may 
perhaps  suggest  the  impropriety  of  intercourse  between  Christians 
and  idolaters  in  social  and  religious  life  ;  but  it  was  intended  in  the 
first  instance,  and  chiefly,  to  protect  the  animals  from  cruel  treat- 
ment. 

Issachar  is  compared  to  an  ass  ;  and  vigour  and  bodily  strength  are 
suggested  by  the  comparison.  It  is  said  also  that  he  should  bow  his 
shoulder  to  bear,  and  prefer  the  yoke  of  bondage  to  the  difficult  issues 
of  war,  and  inglorious  ease  to  just  freedom,  Gen  49^^  :  a  prediction 


NATUEAL   HISTORY  335 

fulfilled  in  the  histoiy  of  that  tribe,  who  submitted  successively  to  the 
Phoenicians  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  the  Canaanites  on  the  other. 

Tlie  tail  of  the  Syrian  sheep  is  much  Larger  tlian  in  other  breeds.  In 
a  sheep  weighing  seventy  pounds,  the  tail  will  often  weigh  fifteen  ; 
and  it  is  deemed  the  most  delicate  part  of  tlie  animal.  Hence,  in  the 
religious  ritual  of  the  Hebrews,  the  priest  is  commanded  to  take  ihc  fat 
and  the  fat  tail  (R.  V.,  Lev  3^  ,  and  present  them  in  sacrifice  to  Jehovah. 
Both  were  to  be  ph\ced  on  the  altar,  to  indicate  the  completeness  and 
the  value  of  the  offering.  In  its  domesticated  state,  the  sheep  is 
a  weak  and  defenceless  animal.  It  is  therefore  dependent  upon  the 
shepherd  both  for  protection  and  support.  To  the  disposition  of  these 
animals  to  wander  from  the  fold,  and  thus  to  abandon  themselves  (in 
a  country  like  Judaea)  to  destruction,  there  are  many  touching  allu- 
sions in  Scripture,  Ps  iig^^*^  Is  53".  The  Eastern  shepherd  calls  his 
sheep,  and  they  recognize  his  voice  and  follow  him.  His  care  of  them, 
and  their  security  under  his  protection,  are  beautifully  set  forth  in 
Jn  10^'.  It  is  plain  that  a  knowledge  of  their  habits  is  essential  to 
a  right  appreciation  of  the  imagery  of  Scripture. 

The  lion  is  remarkable  for  strength  and  fierceness.  If  he  retreats 
from  an  enemy,  he  retreats,  as  if  in  angi-y  defiance,  with  his  face 
towards  him.  After  he  has  killed  his  victim,  he  tears  it  in  pieces, 
and  devours  it  with  the  utmost  greediness,  Ps  17^2  jjo  13^  The 
young  lion  subsists,  according  to  ancient  uatuialists,  by  hunting, 
and  seldom  quits  the  deserts  ;  but  when  he  has  grown  old  he  visits 
more  frequented  places,  and  becomes  more  dangerous  to  man.  The 
lion  thus  became  the  special  terror  of  pastoral  people  ;  and  the  extent 
and  variety  of  its  ravages  are  suggested  by  the  fact  that  no  fewer  than 
five  distinct  words  are  used  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  to  describe 
the  '  king  of  beasts.'  See  Appendix  II,  '  Natural  History.'  One  of  the 
coverts  of  this  animal  was  in  the  low  ground  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Jordan,  which,  like  the  Nile,  overflows  its  banks  every 
spring.  At  that  season,  therefore,  the  coverts  were  laid  under  water, 
and  the  wild  beasts  were  all  driven  to  the  hills,  where  they  often 
committed  great  ravages,  Jer  49-^.  '  Like  a  lion  from  the  swelling  of 
Jordan  '  thus  became  a  proverb  in  Judaea,  which  comparatively  recent 
discovery  has  enabled  us  to  understand.  The  power  of  God  to  strike 
terror  into  the  hearts  of  the  impenitent,  and  to  impart  comfort  to 
His  people,  is  compared  to  the  roaring  of  the  lion,  Joel  3^^  The 
savage  disposition  of  the  lion  is  sometimes  referred  to,  and  then 
always  in  a  bad  sense.  In  i  Pet  5^  Satan  is  compared  to  a  lion,  and 
the  enemies  of  the  people  of  Jehovah  are  represented  under  the  same 
name,  Is  5^^^. 


336     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 


Manners  and  Customs  of  the  Hebrews. 

A  knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews 
is  of  great  service  in  interpreting  Scripture. 

206.  Halsitations. — The  founders  of  the  Israelitish 
nation  were  a  tent-dwelling  people.  Tents  are  mentioned 
in  the  earliest  parts  of  the  history,  and  seem  naturally 
associated  with  pastoral  life,  Gen  4^^.  The  first  tents  were 
covered  with  skins.  Ex  26^*,  but  the  coverings  of  most  of 
those  mentioned  in  Scripture  were  of  goats'  hair,  spun  and 
woven  by  the  women.  Ex  35^° :  hence  their  black  colour, 
Ct  i^ :  tents  of  linen  were  used  only  occasionally,  for 
holiday  or  travelling  purposes.  The  early  tent  was  probably 
such  as  is  still  seen  in  Arabia,  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  eight 
or  ten  feet  high  in  the  middle.  Sometimes  a  person  of 
consequence  had  three  or  four  tents  :  one  for  himself,  another 
for  his  wives,  a  third  and  fourth  for  his  servants  and 
strangers.  Gen  24*^*^ ;  more  commonly,  however,  a  very  large 
tent  was  divided  by  curtains  into  two  or  three  compart- 
ments. The  holy  tabernacle  was  formed  on  this  model, 
Ex  2631-37. 

Of  huts,  the  intermediate  erection  between  the  tent  and  the  house, 
we  read  but  little  in  Scripture.  Jacob  seems  to  have  used  them  to 
shelter  his  cattle,  Gen  33^'^,  and  we  find  them  in  later  times  erected 
in  vineyards  to  protect  those  who  watched  the  ripening  produce. 
Job  27^^  Is  t^. 

The  Israelites  probably  saw  good  houses  in  Egypt ;  on  entering 
Palestine,  however,  they  occupied  the  houses  which  their  predecessors 
had  built,  and  afterwards  constructed  their  own  on  the  same  model. 
Domestic  architecture  must  have  made  progress  during  the  monarchy. 
Solomon's  palace,  built  by  the  aid  of  Phoenicians,  no  doubt  suggested 
improvements.  Jeremiah  (22^*)  indicates  some  grandeur  in  building, 
and  in  the  days  of  our  Lord  the  upper  classes  at  all  events  had 
gathered  instruction  from  the  rules  even  of  Grecian  art. 

The  houses  of  the  poor  in  the  East  were  generally  built  of  mud, 
and  thus  became  appropriate  images  of  the  frailty  of  human  life.    The 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS  337 

walls  were  easily  broken  or  '  digged  '  through,  and  the  houses  as  easily- 
destroyed,  Job  24I6  Eze  12'*  Mt  613. 

The  houses  of  the  rich  were  of  a  different  order.  They  had  generally 
four  sides,  of  which  one  fronted  the  street,  having  only  a  door,  and 
one  or  two  small  windows  above.  The  door  opened  into  a  porch,  and 
the  porch  led  by  a  side  door  into  a  waiting-room,  and  the  waiting- 
room  into  a  four-sided  court,  open  at  the  top,  and  surrounded  by  the 
inner  walls  of  the  house.  There  were  often  covered  walks  by  the 
walls  on  the  ground-floor  ;  while  above  them  was  a  gallery  of  the  same 
dimensions.  Opposite  the  passage  leading  from  the  waiting-room  into 
the  court,  was  the  guest-chamber,  Lu  22^^,  where  the  master  received 
visitors,  and  occasionally  transacted  business.  The  roof  was  flat, 
surrounded  on  the  outside  by  a  breast- work  or  battlement  :  and  on  the 
side  next  the  court,  by  a  balustrade  of  lattice-work.  The  stairs  to  the 
roof,  and  to  each  story  of  the  building,  were  generally  in  a  corner  of 
the  quadrangle  nearest  the  entrance,  so  that  each  visitor  ascended  to 
the  roof,  and  to  each  of  the  rooms,  without  passing  through  the  rooms 
below.  In  summer  the  people  slept  on  the  roof,  and  at  all  times  it 
was  used  as  a  place  of  devotion,  of  mourning,  and  of  rest.  At  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles  tents  were  erected  here,  and  during  festivals  or 
public  rejoicings  the  guests  often  assembled  in  the  square  below,  which 
was  sometimes  covered. 

These  facts  explain  the  following  passages,  and  many  others : 
Dt  228  I  Sa  9-5  2  Sa  ii^  Is  22^  Mk  2*  13^5  Ac  lo^ 

The  doors  of  Eastern  houses  were  double,  and  moved  on  pivots :  they 
were  secured  by  bars  (Dt  3'  Judg  16^)  of  wood,  or  of  metal.  Is  45^^. 
Ancient  locks  were  merely  wooden  slides,  secured  by  teeth  or  catches, 
Ct  5*.  The  street  doors,  as  well  as  the  gates  of  towns,  were  adorned 
with  inscriptions  taken  from  the  Law,  Dt  6^.  The  windows  had 
no  glass,  but  were  latticed  :  in  winter  they  were  covered  with 
thin  veils,  or  with  shutters  having  holes  sufficient  to  admit  light, 
I  Ki  7*  Ct  2\ 

No  ancient  houses  had  chimneys,  though  holes  were  sometimes 
made,  through  which  the  smoke  escaped.  Ho  13^.  In  the  better  class 
of  houses  the  rooms  were  warmed  by  charcoal,  as  is  still  the  practice 
in  the  East,  Jer  3622  Jn  18I8. 

rurnitnre. — The  articles  of  household  furniture  in  use 
in  the  East  have  always  been  few  and  small.  In  sitting- 
rooms,  little  chairs  or  seats  and  sometimes  tables  appear, 
Mk  14^*.  The  seat  was  either  a  rug  or  mat,  on  which  the 
people  sat  cross-legged,  or  with  their  knees  bent  under  them, 
or  a  legged  seat,  such  as  chairs  and  stools,  i  Sa  i^  i  Ki  2^^ 

z 


338     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

Pr  9^*^  Mt  21^-.  The  beds  consisted  generally  of  mattresses 
and  quilted  coverlets ;  sheets,  blankets,  and  bedsteads  were 
not  known,  though  on  the  house-tops  a  settee  of  wood,  or 
a  legged  frame  of  palm  branches  or,  in  some  cases,  of  ivory, 
was  used,  on  which  to  place  the  bed,  Ps  132'^  Am  6*. 

The  common  domestic  utensils  were  of  earthenware,  or  of  copper, 
and  a  few  were  of  leather  :  they  consisted  of  pots,  kettles,  leather 
bottles  ('wine-skins,'  R.V.),  plates,  cups,  &c.  ;  lamps  fed  with  olive 
oil  were  used  for  giving  light  at  night,  and  were  of  earth  or  of  metal : 
in  the  houses  of  the  rich  they  were  placed  upon  stands  (called  in  the 
A.  V.  candlesticks),  and  these  had  occasionally  branches  for  several 
lamps,  Gen  15^'^  Ex  25^^"*'^.  A  lamp  was  always  kept  burning  at  night, 
Job  i8«  Pr  20^0.  The  bushel  (note  the  def.  article)  or  cphah  (§  212) 
was  a  customary  piece  of  furniture  in  the  house,  Lu  11^^,  &c. 

207.  Cities  and  Towns. — The  towns  of  Palestine  were 
small  in  size,  but  very  numerous.  Jerusalem,  Samaria,  and 
afterwards  Caesarea,  seem  to  have  been  the  only  exceptions : 
from  the  want  of  temples  and  jDublic  buildings  (except  at 
Jerusalem),  they  must  have  had  but  a  mean  appearance,  the 
streets  being  narrow,  dull,  and  unpaved.  Gates,  implying 
walls,  are  mentioned  as  early  as  the  days  of  Abraham, 
Gen  19^.  At  the  gates  most  of  the  public  business  was 
transacted,  Gen  23^^-^^  Dt  21^'^  Ru  4^ :  there  also  the  markets 
were  held  so  long  as  the  business  of  the  Israelites  was  confined 
chiefly  to  the  sale  of  their  produce  or  flocks,  2  Ch  18^ 
Ne  8^*^ ;  but  afterwards  they  had,  in  the  large  towns,  bazaars, 
or  covered  streets  of  shops,  such  as  are  now  usual  in  the 
East. 

208.  Dress. — The  dress  of  the  Jews  consisted  commonly 
of  two  garments:  the  one  a  close-bodied  frock  or  shirt, 
generally  with  long  sleeves,  and  reaching  to  a  little  below 
the  knees,  though  later  to  the  ankle :  and  the  other,  a  loose 
robe  of  some  yards  in  length,  fastened  over  the  shoulders, 
and  thrown  around  the  body.  Within  doors,  the  first  dress 
only  was  often  worn.     It  was  regarded,  however,  as  a  kind 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS:    DRESS  339 

of  undress,  in  which  it  was  not  usual  to  pay  visits,  or  to 
walk  out.  Hence  persons  clothed  in  it  alone  are  said  in 
Scripture  to  be  naked  or  to  have  laid  aside  their  garments, 
Is  2o2-*  Jn  13^  2l"^. 

The  sleeves  were  generally  sufficiently  long  to  cover  the 
hands,  and  were  used  during  visits  of  ceremony  to  conceal 
them.  On  occasions  when  great  or  continued  effort  was 
required  or  implied,  the  arm  was  'made  bare,'  and  the  sleeve 
tucked  up  or  removed.  Is  52^^  Eze  4"^. 

The  outer  garment  (a  kind  of  mantle  or  plaid)  sometimes  sei'\'ed  as 
a  covering  by  night,  or  as  a  bed,  Dt  24I'  Ex  222^.  The  Israelites,  on 
leaving  Egypt,  folded  their  kneading  troughs  in  it.  Prophets  and 
others  wrapped  it  round  their  heads  as  an  expression  of  reverence  or 
of  grief,  I  Ki  19^^  2  Sa  15^°  Est  6^^,  or  sometimes  as  a  protection  from 
the  rain  or  wind.  When  gathered  round  the  middle  of  the  body, 
the  garment  is  called  the  lap,  2  Ki  4^^ ;  when  gathered  round  the 
shoulders,  the  bosom,  Ps  79^^  ^^  6^8  The  skirt  was  used  for  the 
purpose  of  carrying.  Hag  2^"^.  A  considerable  part  of  the  wealth  of 
Eastern  nations  consisted  in  these  garments,  which  were  easily 
exchanged,  and  were  often  given  and  worn  as  expressions  of  affection 
and  respect.  Gen  45^2  2  Ki  s^^^. 

For  a  single  shirt,  the  wealthy  classes  sometimes  substituted  a  shirt 
of  fine  linen  and  an  outer  one  of  coarser  material,  tlie  mantle  being 
worn  as  an  additional  garment.  The  beauty  of  these  garments  con- 
sisted not  in  their  shape,  which  never  varied,  but  in  their  whiteness, 
Eccl  9*,  and  they  were  torn  or  rent  in  token  of  sorrow  or  repentance. 
Gen  373*  Job  i2o. 

The  inner  garment  was  made  of  either  linen  or  cotton,  the  outer 
garment  generally  of  wool,  or  of  wool  and  hair.  The  art  of  embroidery 
was  evidently  known,  Ex  35^5  Judg  ^so.  ^nd  one  family  seems  to 
have  been  peculiarly  famous  in  the  manufacture  of  fine  linen,  i  Ch 
421.  Wh'ite,  blue,  and  various  shades  of  red  and  purple  were  the 
favourite  colours  for  clothes,  and  no  others  indeed  are  mentioned 
in  Scripture. 

Around  the  shirt,  or  inner  garment,  a  girdle  was  sometimes  worn, 
made  of  leather,  fastened  with  clasps,  2  Ki  i^,  or  of  muslin,  wound  in 
many  folds  around  the  waist,  Jer  13^  Mt  3*  ;  and  still  more  commonly 
around  the  mantle.  To  have  the  loins  girt  in  this  way  was  especially 
necessary  in  travelling,  or  when  engaged  in  strenuous  effort  of  any 
kind.  In  tlie  girdle  a  knife  or  sword  was  sometimes  carried,  or  in  the 
case  of  literary  men,   an  inkhorn  and  pens,  2  Sa  20''  Eze  9^  :  other 

Z   2 


340      THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

valuables  were  often  put  into  it  too,  r  Sa  25^^  2  Sa  18^'  Mt  10^ 
(Greek). 

Drawers  were  a  part  of  the  dress  of  the  high-priest,  and  were 
perhaps  used  in  later  times  by  the  people  generally,  Ex  28*^^. 

The  feet  were  covered  with  sandals,  consisting  of  soles  of  leather,  or 
of  vsrood,  bound  to  the  foot  by  thongs  or  latchets,  Mt  3^^.  In  trans- 
ferring land,  or  in  passing  to  the  next  of  kin  any  personal  obligation 
connected  therewith,  it  was  customary  to  deliver  a  sandal,  Ru  4"^,  as 
in  the  Middle  Ages  a  clod  or  piece  of  turf.  To  remove  the  sandals  was 
an  expression  of  reverence.  Ex  3^  Dt  25^  The  operation  being  often 
performed  by  servants,  to  loose  or  to  carry  them  was  a  familiar  symbol 
of  a  servile  or  degraded  condition,  Mk  i*^  Ac  13-^  Mt  3^^  Is  20^ 
Thus,  according  to  many  interpreters  (Perowne,  Driver),  the  casting 
of  the  shoe  to  Edom  (Ps  60^,  see  R.  V.  marg.)  signified  the  reduction 
of  the  people  to  servitude.  Others,  however,  regard  the  phrase  as 
symbolizing  possession.  Stockings  were  never  in  use,  and  the  mass 
of  the  people  went  altogether  barefoot,  except  in  winter,  or  during 
a  journey. 

The  neck  was  generally  left  bare,  and  very  frequently  the  head ; 
when  covered,  it  was  protected  among  the  higher  classes  by  a  kind  of 
turban,  and  among  the  common  people  by  a  piece  of  cloth  confined  by 
a  fillet  around  the  brows  :  in  the  case  of  women,  this  turban  was 
connected  with  a  veil  covering  the  upper  part  of  the  person. 

The  Israelites  allowed  the  hair  of  the  head  and  beard  to  grow ; 
the  former  was  occasionally  cut,  and  the  use  of  the  razor  on 
the  beard  was  not  unlawful.  Baldness  was  rare,  and  was  despised, 
2  Ki  2^3  Is  3^*  Jer  47^.  The  beard,  as  the  sign  of  manhood,  was  much 
respected  ;  to  shave  it,  to  spit  upon  it,  to  pull  it,  even  to  touch  it, 
except  as  a  salutation,  was  a  gross  insult,  2  Sa  io^~«  i  Ch  19'"^  Is?^^, 
and  for  a  man  to  neglect  or  maltreat  his  own  beard  was  a  sign  of 
madness  or  of  extreme  grief,  i  Sa  21^^  2  Sa  ig^*  Is  15-. 

209.  Pood. — All  the  Easterns  generall}^,  and  the  Israelites, 
were  simple  and  plain  in  their  food,  which  consisted  largely 
of  bread,  fruits,  honey,  milk,  butter,  and  cheese.  Meat  was 
but  little  used,  animal  food  being  in  some  degree  restricted 
by  the  Law,  which  allowed  the  flesh  of  no  beasts  to  be  eaten, 
but  such  as  chewed  the  cud  and  parted  the  hoof,  nor  any 
fish  but  such  as  had  both  fins  and  scales,  Lev  11^  "2^. 
It  was  in  this  general  way  that  the  hog  was  forbidden, 
but  as  it  was  eaten  in  other  parts  of  the  East,  this  application 
of  the  prohibition  of  the  Law  attracted  more  attention  than 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS:    FOOD  341 

the  rest.  Blood  and  fat,  the  large  lobe  of  the  liver,  and 
the  kidneys  were  also  forbidden.  Poultry  was  used  but 
sparingly,  pigeons  and  the  common  fowl  being  the  only 
domestic  birds  kept  in  Palestine,  except  'the  fatted  fowl,' 
provided  for  the  tables  of  Solomon  and  Nehemiah,  i  Ki  4^^ 
Ne  5^^.  Eggs  are  only  twice  mentioned  as  articles  of  food. 
Though  fish  with  fins  and  scales  were  allowed,  it  does  not 
seem  that  much  use  was  made  of  this  indulgence:  the 
operations  of  fishing  were,  however,  well  known.  Job  i(f' 
Is  51^0  Job  41^  Is  19^:  fish-ponds  are  mentioned  in  Ct  7*: 
fish  were  even  brought  by  the  Phoenicians  across  the 
country  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Jerusalem,  Ne  13^^, 
and  one  of  the  gates  of  the  city,  called  the  Fish  Gate,  seems 
to  have  been  appropriated  as  the  place  of  sale,  2  Ch  33^* 
Ne  33. 

Among  insects,  it  may  be  noticed  that  locusts  were  per- 
mitted to  be  eaten.  Lev  11-^,  and  were  a  common  article  of 
food  in  the  East,  Mt  3^. 

Bread  was  not  baked,  as  with  us,  in  loaves,  but  in  cakes,  rolls,  and 
large  thin  biscuits,  each  family  baking  its  own,  and  that  daily.  It 
was  baked  outside  the  oven,  not  inside  ;  the  fuel  being  inside,  Mt  6^^. 
The  modes  of  baking  were  various  :  the  thicker  roll  or  cake  was  baked 
upon  the  heated  hearth  ;  the  thin  bread  upon  metal  plates,  or  around 
the  sides  of  earthenware  vessels,  or  of  a  pit  in  the  floor,  Gen  18" 
Lev  2-* ^  This  work,  like  that  of  grinding  corn,  was  at  first  per- 
formed by  the  wives  and  daughters  of  families,  Gen  18^  2  Sa  13^-^ 
Jer  7^^ ;  but  was  in  time  abandoned  in  some  cases  to  servants,  i  Sa  8^'. 
The  bread  in  common  use  was  too  crisp  to  be  cut,  but  was  broken, 
1358^  Lam  4*  Mt  14^9. 

The  Jews  had  generally  two  meals  a  day ;  one  in  the  morning, 
between  the  third  and  sixth  hours,  and  the  other,  their  principal 
meal,  about  the  eleventh  hour,  or  five  o'clock,  in  the  cool  of  the  day. 
At  this  meal,  the  guests  all  reclined  on  their  left  sides  on  couches, 
placed  around  a  circular  table.  In  this  posture,  the  head  of  one  guest 
approached  the  breast  of  his  neighbour,  upon  whose  bosom,  therefore, 
he  was  said  to  lean.  Hence  Christ  told  John  who  was  to  betray  Him, 
without  the  other  disciples  hearing  His  description,  Jn  13"^  Pr  26^^ 
The  feet  were  stretched  out  from  the  table,  and  were  of  course  first 
reached  by  any  one  entering  the  room,  Lu  7^^.     Hence  it  is  said  that 


342      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

the  woman  who  washed  our  Lord's  feet  stood  behind  Him.  This 
practice  was  borrowed  from  the  Persians  :  in  earlier  times  the  Jews 
probably  used  seats,  or  sat,  as  is  the  present  custom  in  the  East,  round 
a  table  raised  only  a  few  inches  from  the  ground. 

The  food  was  taken  by  the  hand,  without  aid  of  knife  or  fork,  and 
hence  the  practice  of  washing  before  and  after  meals,  Mk  7^  In  very 
early  times  each  guest  had  his  own  portion.  Gen  43'*  ;  see  i  Sa  i^  : 
but  later,  all  ate  from  the  same  dish. 

The  ordinary  beverage  taken,  not  during  the  meal,  but  afterwards, 
was  water,  or  wine  diluted  with  water.  A  common  acid  wine  diluted 
in  this  way  is  called  in  our  English  version  *  vinegar/  and  was  the 
usual  drink  of  labourers  and  soldiers,  Ru  2^*  Mt  27*^.  This  was  what 
the  soldiers  gave  our  Lord  when  He  cried,  *  I  thirst.'  The  beverage  pre- 
viously offered  Him,  'vinegar  and  gall,'  or  'wine  and  myrrh,'  Mt  27^* 
Mk  15^^',  was  given  to  persons  about  to  be  executed,  in  order  to  stupefy 
them.  Our  blessed  Lord  refused  to  drink  it.  In  full  consciousness 
He  endured  the  Cross. 

The  beverage  with  which  each  guest  was  supplied  was  in  ancient 
times  handed  to  him  in  a  separate  cup,  ready  mixed  by  the  host :  and 
hence  the  word  '  cup '  is  frequently  used  to  signify  a  man's  lot  or  portion, 
Ps  11'  Is  51^^  Mt  26^^.  'Mixed  wine,'  in  the  English  version,  was  not 
wine  and  water,  but  wine  made  stronger  by  spices,  Pr  23'°.  '  Strong 
drink'  included  a  very  inebriating  liquor  made  from  dates  and 
various  seeds,  Lev  10^  i  Sa  i^''. 

Not  unfrequently,  precious  oils  were  used  at  banquets  for  anointing 
the  guests,  Ps  23*'  45"^  Am  6^.  Christ  was  thus  honoured  by  the 
woman,  Mt  26'^.  She  broke  the  box  or  jar  in  proof  of  the  purity  of  the 
oil  ;  the  neck  being  sealed,  to  show  that  it  was  an  imported  pei-fume, 
Mk  14^ 

Tlie  principal  meal,  being  in  the  evening  of  the  day,  was  generally 
called  supper.  The  light  and  joy  within  the  house  on  such  occasions 
were  often  employed  to  represent  the  happiness  of  heaven,  while  the 
darkness  without,  the  '  outer  darkness,'  was  employed  to  shadow  forth 
the  misery  of  the  lost,  Mt  812. 


Taxation 

210.  Taxation  and  Tribute. — The  system  of  taxation 
employed  in  Palestine  before  the  days  of  the  Romans  is  not 
clearly  defined.  The  royal  revenue,  however,  consisted  in 
part  in  presents,  i  Sa  lo^"^  16-^  2  Ch  17'' ;  in  the  produce  of 
the  royal  flocks,  i  Sa  21"^  2  Ch  26^^  ^^^28.29 .  f^  lands  and 


TAXATION  343 

vineyards  either  confiscated  or  reclaimed  from  a  state  of 
nature  by  the  sovereign,  i  Ki  2i^~^^  i  Ch  2728;  in  tribute, 
probably  a  tenth  of  the  income  of  the  people,  i  Sa  8^^  17^^ 
(see  Gesenius) ;  in  the  plunder  of  conquered  nations,  2  Ch 
27^;  and  in  payments  imposed  upon  merchants  passing 
through  the  territory,  i  Ki  10^^.  Later  still  we  find,  pro- 
bably in  place  of  some  of  the  above,  a  toll  and  a  tax  on 
articles  of  consumption,  corresponding  to  our  excise,  Ezr 
^14.19.20^  Both  these  were  of  Persian  or  Assyrian  origin. 
Of  the  system  of  taxation  prevalent  in  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
we  have  more  accurate  information. 

Soon  after  Judaea  was  reduced  to  a  province  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  an  enrolment  was  made  of  the  names  and  fortunes 
of  the  citizens.  This  enrolment  was  made  by  households, 
after  the  Roman  fashion,  being  prudently  disguised  by 
Herod  by  being  made  tribal  also.  On  this  enrolment  was 
founded  a  capitation  tax  or  '  tribute.'  This  tax  was  levied 
by  the  magistrates  of  each  city.  It  occasioned  much  division 
of  opinion  in  Judaea,  and  gave  rise  to  more  than  one  in- 
surrection, Ac  5^'.  Our  Lord  was  urged  to  identify  Himself 
with  its  advocates  or  opponents,  Mt  22^'^.  The  tax  was  paid 
to  collectors,  either  in  Roman  money  (the  denarius,  or 
penny)  or  in  Grecian  (the  drachma).  If  paid  in  the  latter, 
however,  the  coin  had  to  be  changed  by  the  traders,  or 
'money-changers,'  as  Roman  money  only  was  received  at 
the  Roman  treasury. 

Besides  this  census  or  head  tax,  there  were  customs  duties, 
or  taxes  on  exports  and  imports,  Mt  9^.  These  were  fixed 
by  law,  and  were  levied  by  revenue  farmers  through  their 
servants.  These  servants  are  called  publicans  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  farmers  of  the  revenue,  chiefs  of  the 
publicans.  This  system  of  farming  the  revenue  proved 
a  strong  temptation  to  the  publicans,  who  were  generally 
unpopular. 

The   third   public   tax    in   Judaea   was    the   half- shekel 


344     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTUKE 

required  by  the  Law  to  be  paid  by  every  Jew  into  the  Temple 
treasury  (Ex  30^^).  It  was  always  paid  in  Jewish  money, 
and  by  all  Jews,  even  by  those  who  lived  out  of  Palestine. 
The  money-changers  who  sat  in  the  Temple  provided  this 
Jewish  money  in  exchange  for  Greek  and  Roman  coins, 
Mt  21^2  jn  2^6.  This  tax  was  regarded  as  paid  to  God:  when 
therefore  our  Lord  intimated  to  Peter  that  the  children  of 
kings  are  exempt  from  tribute,  He  implied  that  He  Himself 
was  the  Son  of  the  Father,  Mt  172^. 

This  distinction  between  the  different  kinds  of  taxes  is 
always  observed  in  the  original  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
generally  in  the  English  translations. 

Modes  of  Reckoning 

Jewish  measures  only  approximate. — A  knowledge  of 
the  modes  of  reckoning  employed  in  Biblical  times  will 
illustrate  many  passages.  The  subject,  however,  has  its  un- 
certainties, from  the  want  of  precise  and  permanent  standards, 
from  the  different  usages  of  the  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  and 
Babylonians,  by  all  of  whom  the  Jews  were  in  turns  in- 
fluenced, as  well  as  from  the  various  accounts  given  by  the 
authorities,  as  (e.g.)  by  Josephus  and  the  Rabbins.  The 
following  account,  however,  contains  the  nearest  possible 
approximations. 

211.  Linear  Measure,  i.  Measures  of  Length.  The 
shorter  measures  are  taken  from  the  human  frame  ;  see 
Dt  8^^  'after  the  cubit  of  a  man.'  The  finger  (breadth), 
the  hand-breadth  or  palm,  and  the  span  explain  themselves. 
The  cubit,  which  was  the  general  standard,  represented  the 
length  of  the  arm  from  the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle 
finger,  and  was  therefore  variously  estimated  at  from 
17  to  22  inches.  There  was  an  ancient  cubit,  2  Ch  8^,  and 
in  later  times  an  extended  cubit,  Eze  40^  41^,  but  their 
respective  lengths  are  unknown.     The  Siloam  inscription 


MODES   OF    RECKONING  345 

discovered  in  1880  on  the  wall  of  'Hezekiah's  Tunnel,' 
from  the  Valley  of  Kidron  through  the  cliff  to  the  Fountain 
of  Siloam''*,  appears  to  state  the  length  as  '1,200  cubits.' 
It  has  been  discovered  by  measurement  to  be  1,758  English 
feet.  In  Hezekiah's  day,  therefore,  the  length  of  the  cubit 
was  approximately  17!  inches,  or  450  millimetres.  In 
New  Testament  times  the  cubit  was  certainly  longer — say 
between  20  and  21  inches  or  525  millimetres. 

Table  I. 

The  following  table  shows  the  proportion  between  the  cubit  and 
other  dimensions  : — 

Digit  or  finger-breadth  (Jer  52-^)  =  about  |  inch  or  19  mm. 

PcUm  or  hand-breadth  --=  4  digits  (Ex  252^),  nearly  3^  inches  or  75  mm. 

Span  =  3  palms  (Ex  28^^  i  Sa  17*),  about  10^  inches,  225  mm. 

Cubit  ==i2  spans,  at  various  times  17  to  21  inches,  450-475  mm. 

EzekieVs  reed  (ch.  40  throughout)  =  6  long  cubits,  about  10  feet. 

Fathom^  =  ^  cubits,  between  6  and  7  feet,  or  about  2  metres.  In  New 
Testament  only. 

Furlong  or  stadium  (Lu  24^^  j^^  519  nis^  ^  506  feet. 

Mile  (Mt  5*^)  =  3,000  cubits  or  7 J  furlongs,  about  1,700  yards. 

Sabbath-day  s  journey  (Ac  i^'^  only),  traditionally  2,000  cubits". 

Indeterminate  measures  are  expressed  by  the  phrase  'a  measure  of 
distance'  (Heb.  kibrath),  Gen  35^^  48'^  2  Ki  5^^,  by  some  held  to  be 
definite,  and  to  correspond  to  the  Persian  parasang ;  also  by  the 
designation  '  a  day's  journey '  (Old  Testament  frequent.  New  Testa- 
ment Lu  2**).     This,  no  doubt,  varied  with  the  locality  and  occasion. 

2.  A  measure  of  Area  is  once  mentioned :  the  tsemed, 
I  Sa  14^'*  Is  5^*^,  rendered  '  acre '  A.  V.  and  R.  V.  It  is  defined 
as  the  area  which  could  be  ploughed  by  a  yoke  of  oxen  in 
one  day.     Compare  the  Lat.  iugerum,  acre,  from  iugum,  yoke. 

*  See  Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  i.  (new  series)  p.  168,  and  Sayce's  Fresh 
Light  from  Ancieyxt  Monuments,  p.  82. 

^  Originally  the  length  between  the  extremities  of  the  arm  out- 
stretched at  right  angles  with  the  body. 

"  According  to  the  Rabbins  the  distance  from  the  extremities  of  the 
camp  in  the  wilderness  to  the  tabernacle  in  the  centre.  So  Jerus. 
Targ.  on  Ex  i629,  '  Let  no  man  go  walking  from  this  place  beyond  two 
thousand  cubits  on  the  seventh  day.' 


346     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

The  Latin  acre  was  240  feet  by  120,  or  28,800  square  feet ; 
the  English  acre  measures  43,560  square  feet.  Probably  the 
tsemcd  was  smaller  than  our  acre  in  about  the  same  pro- 
portion ;  but  the  exact  dimensions  are  unknown. 

212.  Measures  of  Capacity. — Dry  and  liquid  measures 
had  some  points  in  common.  In  both  the  standard  was 
equal  in  contents.  In  liquid  measure  the  bath,  in  dry 
the  ephah,  contained  a  little  over  8^  gallons  or  36-36  litres. 
See  Eze  45^^ 

Table  II.    Liquid  Measure. 

Log  (Lev  14  only),  rcather  more  than  f  of  a  pint,  0-505  litre. 
Hin  (often  in  Pent.)  =  12  logs  ;   i  gal.  3  pints,  about  6-6  litres. 
Bath  (i  Ki  7^3  Eze  451^*)  =  6  bins  ;  S^  gals.  ;  3636  litres. 
Firkin  in  New  Testament  (Jn  2^  meiretes)  =  Old  Testament  Bath. 
Pot  (Mk  7*'^),  sexiarius,  nearly  i  pint. 

Table  III.    Dry  Measure. 

It  is  observable  that  in  Is  ^^^  the  Heb.  ephah  is  translated  by  the 
LXX  three  measures.     This  throws  light  upon  Mt  is^^,  as  noticed  below. 
Qab  (2  Ki  6^^  only),  3^  pints  nearly. 

Choenix  (Rev  6^  only,  tr.  '  measure  ')  =  01d  Testament  Qab. 
'Omer  (Ex  16),  tenth  part  of  an  ephah  (see  Lev  14^°,  &c.  R.  V.). 
Seah  (Gen  18^  i  Sa  25^'),  third  part  of  an  ephah. 
Ephah,  the  standard  measure  ;  see  Bath  above,  8^  gals,  nearly. 
Homer  (chomer,  Pent,  and  Eze  45)  =  10  ephahs  ;  82^  gals. ;  363  litres. 
Cor  (I  Ki  5^^),  the  same  with  chomer  :  also  liquid. 

213.  Weights  and  Coins.— Here  the  shekel  [slieqelY  is 
the  standard:  and  payments  were  made  by  weight  long 
before  the  coinage  of  money. 

Aliquot  parts  q/"  the  shekel.  Multiples  qf  the  shekel. 

Gerah  (bean),  one-twentieth.         I       Man  eh  (portion),  fifty. 
Beqa  {cloven),  one-half.  |       Talent  {circle),  three  thousand. 

The  weight  of  the  shekel  varied  at  different  times  from 

"  The  weight  of  the  sacred  shekel,  '  shekel  of  the  sanctuary,'  Ex  30", 
is  variously  understood.  The  best  opinion  seems  to  be,  not  that  it 
was  different  from  the  ordinary  shekel,  but  that  it  was  a  true  standard 
weight,  preserved  in  the  tabernacle  and  certified  by  authority. 


MODES   OF   RECKONING  347 

218  to  224  English  grains,  14-54  grammes.  (The  English 
pound  avoirdupois,  it  will  be  remembered,  contains  7,000 
grains  ;  the  pound  troy,  5,760.)     Hence  the  following  table. 

Table  IV.    Weight. 

Gerah  (Ex  30"  Lev  27-^  Num  3*^  18^®). 

Beqa  (Gen  24^^^  Ex  38'^)  =  ten  gerahs. 

Shekel  (often),  lit.  '  weight  '  =  2  beqas  ;  about  |  oz.  avoird. 

Maneh  (i  Ki  10^'  Eze  45^^)  %  iJ-va,  mina,  'pound '  =  50  shekels. 

Talent  (Ex  382*-^5&c.  2  Ki  5^,  &c.)  =  3,000  shekels. 

Pound  in  New  Testament  (Jn  12'  19'^),  the  Roman  pound,  about 
ri  ounces. 

Talent  in  New  Testament  (Rev  16"^^),  perhaps  the  Attic  talent,  about 
^  cwt. 

Money. 

This  was  reckoned  by  weight,  no  coinage  properly  so 
called  existing  in  Palestine  before  the  Captivity,  In  Hebrew 
the  verb  Ho  pay 'is  literally  Ho  weigh,'  Gen  23^^*^^  33^^ 
Ezr  8^5  Jer  32^.  The  payment  is  called  qesUali  in  Gen  33" 
Jos  24^2  Job  42^\  explained  by  ancient  interpreters  as  laml 
(LXX  and  A.  V.  marg.),  as  though  the  figure  of  a  lamb 
enstamped  upon  the  metal  were  a  sign  of  value  (transition 
from  a  state  of  barter).  But  this  explanation  is  now 
generally  given  up,  and  the  word  is  taken  to  mean  simply 
*a  piece  of  money,'  value  not  stated,  although  sometimes 
estimated  at  4  shekels. 

The  shekel  was  the  standard  of  value,  as  of  weight:  so 
fully  recognized  that  the  word  is  often  omitted,  '■  a  hundred 

*  From  a  comparison  of  i  Ki  iqI"  with  2  Ch  9^^  it  appears  that 
3  manehs  =  300  shekels  ;  hence  i  maneh  =  100  shekels  ;  while  Eze  45^^ 
seems  to  intimate  that  the  maneh  =  20  + 25  +  15,  or  60  shekels.  But 
the  passage,  as  it  stands,  is  obscure,  and  the  Alex.  MS.  of  the  LXX 
reads  the  verse  '  Five  (shekels)  shall  be  five  and  ten  shekels  ten,  and 
fifty  shekels  shall  be  your  maneh ' :  that  is,  all  your  weights  shall  be 
genuine.  Undoubtedly  the  later  Jewish  weight  system  gives  the 
maneh  as  50  shekels. 


348      THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

...  of  silver '  meaning  a  hundred  shekels  of  silver.  It  was 
first  coined,  as  a  mark  of  Jewish  independence,  in  the  time 
of  Simon  Maccabaeus,  about  b.  c.  140.  Shekels,  and  half  and 
quarter  shekels,  &c.,  were  struck  in  gold,  silver,  and  bronze, 
generally  bearing  the  inscription  in  Hebrew  letters,  'The 
Redemption  of  Zion  ^.' 

In  the  New  Testament  the  word  shekel  does  not  occur ; 
but  the  stater  (4  Greek  drachmas)  is  taken  as  the  equivalent 
Mt  17^7.  The  half-shekel,  accordingly  (the  amount  of  the 
Temple  tax.  Ex  30^^),  appears  in  the  Gospel  as  the  '  double 
drachma,'  Mt  17^*.  The  use  of  Greek  and  Roman  with 
Palestinian  coins  occasioned  many  complications ;  and  the 
calling  of  the  money-changer  was  therefore  necessary, 
especially  in  the  precincts  of  the  Temple,  where  the  priests 
could  accept  only  the  native  money.  See  §  210.  (English 
readers  will  note  in  the  table  a  further  slight  confusion 
through  the  rendering  of  two  words  expressing  different 
values  alike  hy  farthing.) 

Table  V. 

Mite  (Mk  12^"^),  one-eighth  of  the  Roman  as. 
'Farthing''  (i)  (Mt  5^6  Mk  12*2^,  quadrans,  2  mites. 

*  Farthing '  (2)  (Mt  i  o'^^  Lu  12®), '  assarion/  the  Roman  as  =  4  farthings  (i ). 
Penny  (often),  Lat.  denarius  =  16  asses. 

'Piece  of  silver^  (Lu  15^*^),  drachma  =  Roman  denarius. 

*  Tribute  money^  (Mt  17^*)  =2  drachmas  (^  shekel). 

^  Piece  0/ money  ^  (Mt  17^^),  a  stater  or  shekel  =  4  drachmas. 

*  Pieces  0/ silver '  (Mt  26^^  27^),  unquestionably  shekels. 

The  monetary  value  of  these  coins  cannot  usefully  be 
expressed  by  modern  standards.  Generally  speaking,  the 
denarius,  drachma,  or  (silver)  '  penny '  is  reckoned  at  about 
8c?.,  the  shekel  or  stater  at  about  half  a  crown;  the  as  there- 
fore at  a  halfpenny,  the  assarion  at  half  a  farthing,  the 
qiiadrans  at  the  eighth  of  a  farthing.     But  this  says  nothing 

*  See  The  Money  of  the  Bible,  by  G.  C.  Williamson,  D.Litt.  ('By-Paths 
of  Bible  Knowledge'  sei'ies,  R.  T.  S.,  1894). 


MODES   OF   RECKONING  349 

as  to  the  purchasing  power  of  these  coins*.      The  table 
shows  only  the  mutual  proportion  of  the  different  moneys. 

214.  The  Lessons  of  the  different  tables  are  manifold : — 

From  Table  V  we  learn  to  admire  the  noble  disinterestedness  of 
Eliaha.  Naaman  offered  him  6,000  pieces  or  shekels  of  gold,  and  ten 
talents  (30,000  shekels)  of  silver,  2  Ki  5^.  This  was  the  temptation 
under  which  Gehazi  fell,  and  yet  it  did  not  excuse  his  guilt. 

The  same  table  illustrates  strikingly  the  unreasonableness  of  an 
unforgiving  spirit  and  the  aggravations  of  our  own  guilt.  The  debtor, 
who  threw  his  fellow-servant  into  prison  because  he  owed  him 
a  hundred  denarii  (25  shekels),  had  himself  been  forgiven  10,000 
talents,  or  thirty  millions  of  shekels,  Mt  iS'-'*. 

How  clearly  does  it  illustrate  the  prophetic  words,  '  He  was  despised 
and  rejected  of  men,'  to  find  that  Judas  betrayed  our  Lord  for  thirty 
shekels,  the  price  paid  for  a  slave  when  killed  by  a  beast,  Ex  21^^. 

We  learn  by  the  aid  of  Tables  II  and  III  the  displeasure  of  God 
against  covetousness. 

*  Ten  acres  of  vineyard  (says  the  prophet)  shall  yield  one  bath,  and 
the  seed  of  an  homer  shall  yield  an  ephah,'  Is  5^°. 

That  is,  one  acre  of  land  shall  yield  less  than  a  gallon  of  wine,  and 
nine-tenths  of  the  seed  shall  perish.  Famine  is  thus  declared  to  be 
among  Divine  judgements  against  sin.  Compare  Rev  6^  with  Tables 
III  and  V,  '  A  measure  (choenix)  of  wheat  for  a  penny  (denarius) ' 
— a  very  small  quantity  purchasable  for  a  whole  day's  wages,  Mt  20^ 

215.  Reckoning  of  Time:  the  Day.— The  natural 
day  with  the  Jews  was  from  sunrise  to  sunset  (as  with  the 
Komans),  and  was  divided  (after  the  Captivity)  into  twelve 
hours  of  unequal  length.  The  civil  day  (the  day  used  in 
common  reckoning)  was  from  six  in  the  evening  to  six 
the  next  evening ;  differing  in  this  respect  from  the  Koman 
civil  day,  which,  like  ours,  was  from  midnight  to  midnight. 
This  was  divided  again  into  night  and  day  of  equal  length. 

The  night  was  divided,  in  very  early  times,  into  three 

*  The  American  Revisers  proposed  to  render  denarius  as  *  shilling,' 
and  assarion  as  'penny,'  and  have  adopted  these  translations  in  their 
edition  of  the  R.  V.  It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  comparison  of 
Mt  526  '  the  uttermost  farthing '  (assarion)  with  Lu  I2'53  <  ^j^q  ^^ry  last 
mite,^  must  not  be  pressed  to  mean  that  the  two  are  identical,  as  some 
interpreters  have  done. 


350     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

watches ;  the  first  (Lam  2}'')  till  twelve  o'clock ;  the 
middle  till  three  in  the  morning,  Judg  7^^  ;  and  the 
morning  watch  till  six,  Ex  14-^*.  In  the  time  of  our  Lord, 
however,  the  night  was  divided,  as  among  the  Romans,  into 
four  watches,  of  three  hours  each,  Mk  13^^ ;  the  third  of 
which  was  called  cock-crowing,  Mt  26'^*.  The  dai/,  properly 
so  called  (from  six  in  the  morning  till  six  at  night),  was 
divided  into  twelve  hours,  of  which  the  third,  the  sixth, 
and  the  ninth  were  devoted  to  the  public  services  of  worship. 
This  division  is  still  retained  among  the  Jews.  In  very 
early  times,  and  till  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  the  day  was 
divided  into  the  following  parts  : — 

The  break  of  day.  Mid-day  at  twelve  o'clock. 

The  morning.  The  cool  of   the  day,   from 

Th'e  heat  of  the  day,  from  nine  three  o'clock  till  six. 

o'clock  till  twelve.  The  evening. 

From  the  sixth  hour  (or  twelve  o'clock)  till  the  close 
of  the  day  was  often  called  evening.  This  part  of  the  day 
was  divided  into  two  portions,  called  evenings.  Ex  12^ 
Lev  23^  (see  margin). 

These  distinctions  explain  several  passages. 

About  the  eleventh  hour,  the  husbandman  said  to  the  labourers. 
Why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day  idle  ? '  Mt  20".  With  us,  the  eleventh 
nour  is  not  yet  noon  :  with  the  Jews,  it  was  about  an  hour  from 
sunset.  Peter's  reasoning  is  rendered  forcible  by  these  facts,  Ac  2^^. 
'It  is  but  the  third  hour  of  the  day'  (nine  o'clock),  the  time  of  the 
morning  sacrifice,  before  which  time  the  Jews  did  not  eat  or  drink. 

On  the  day  of  the  Crucifixion  there  was  darkness  over  all  the  land 
from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  hour,  i.  e.  from  twelve  o'clock  to  three. 
The  Passover  was  always  kept  at  the  full  moon :  this  darkness,  there- 
fore, could  not  have  taken  place  in  the  ordinary  course  of  nature  from 
an  eclipse  of  the  sun.  It  was  at  the  ninth  hour  that  Jesus  cried 
with  a  loud  voice,  and  shortly  afterwards  (or  '  between  the  evenings,' 
the  time  of  offering  the  customary  sacrifice)  He  expired,  John  says 
that  Pilate  brought  Jesus  forth  to  the  people  at  the  sixth  hour  (Jn  19^*), 
probably  reckoning  from  midnight,  the  commencement  of  the  Roman 
civil  day.  After  the  overthrow  of  the  Jewisli  state,  the  adoption  of 
the  civil  day  of  Europe  and  Egypt  for  reckoning  was  the  more  natural. 
If  this  interpretation  be  admitted,  it  will  appear  that  the  hour  when 


MODES   OF   RECKONING  351 

Andrew  and  John  went  home  with  Jesus  (Jn  i'^)  corresponded  to  our 
lo  a.m.,  and  that  *  the  sixth  hour,'  when  the  woman  of  Samaria  went 
to  draw  water  (4®),  was  six  in  the  evening.  See  also  4^^^  Westcott 
{Speaker's  Commentary,  on  Jn  19,  p.  282)  strongly  maintains  this  view  in 
a  note  'on  St.  John's  reckoning  of  hours.' 

It  was  at  the  fourth  watch  of  the  night,  or  about  dawn,  that  Jesus 
went  to  the  disciples  on  the  sea.  He  had  spent  the  whole  night, 
therefore,  in  pi'ayer,  Mk  6*^. 

The  highest  praise  was  bestowed  upon  the  servant  whom  his  lord 
found  watching  in  the  second  or  third  watch,  i.e.  from  nine  till  three, 

LU   1238. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  Jews  and  other  Orientals  generally 
speak  of  any  part  of  a  day,  or  of  a  period  of  time,  as  if  it  were  the 
whole.  In  like  manner,  fractions  of  a  day  are  in  England  treated  as 
legally  whole  days. 

Thus  Jesus  said,  'After  three  days  I  will  rise  again,'  Mt  276^,  though 
He  was  in  the  grave  only  a  day  and  a  half,  from  sunset  on  Friday  to 
the  earliest  morning  on  Sunday.  He  intimated  also,  quoting  from 
Jonah,  that  He  would  be  in  the  grave  three  days  and  three  nights, 
i.e.  part  of  three  separate  civil  days  ;  day  and  night  meaning  a  day  of 
twenty-four  hours,  Mt  12*°  i  Sa  so^--^^.  In  the  same  way,  a  week  is 
called  eight  days  in  Jn  20^^  as  it  often  is  in  German  ;  so  in  French, 
*  quinze  Jours  '  for  a  fortnight. 

216.  The  Jewish  Year. — The  Jews  had  two  years,  the 
sacred  and  the  civil.  The  sacred  began  in  March  or  April 
(according  to  the  moon),  the  month  of  deliverance  of  the 
children  of  Israel  from  Egypt  * ;  and  the  civil  in  September 
or  October,  the  commencement  of  seed-time.  The  prophets 
use  the  former ;  those  engaged  in  civil  and  agricultural 
concerns,  the  latter.  The  year  was  divided  into  twelve 
lunar  months,  with  about  eveiy  third  year  a  thirteenth, 
as  shown  below.  Till  the  return  from  captivity,  these 
months  had  no  separate  name,  except  the  first,  which  was 
called  Abib  (the  month  of  'the  green  ears  of  corn'),  or 
Nisan,  the  month  of  'the  flight,'  Est  3^.  (See  Ex  1223  Heb., 
as  in  the  following  table.) 

"  The  Rabbins  say  that  the  year  began  in  March,  as  did  the  Roman 
year,  and  in  September  ;  but  the  probability  is  that  in  earlier  times  it 
began  with  the  new  moon  of  April  and  October  respectively.  See 
Jahn,  Archceologia  Biblica,  §  103. 


352 


CALENDAR  OF  THE  JEWS,  SHOWING 


Combining  the  mode  of  reckoning  common  among  the  Jews 
for  the  various  annual  feasts,  we  obtain 

The  first  month  of  tlie  sacred  year  was  the  one  whoso  full  moon  followed  next 
sometimes  to  April,  and  sometimes  to  parts  of  both. 


Sacred    Civil 
Year.     Year. 


3rd 


4th 


5th 


7  th 


8th 
9th 


10th 


[ith 


12th 


7th 


9th 


[oth 


nth 


12th 


2nd 


3rd 


4th 


5th 


Abib,  or  Nisan  (30 
days),  Ex  12a  13* 
Ezr79Ne2l  Est  37. 


Ivar  or  Zif  (29  days), 
I  Ki  61. 


Sivan,  or  Siuvan  (30 
days),  Est  89. 


Tammuz  (29  days). 


Ab  (30  days),  Ezr  78. 


Elul  (29  days),    Ne 
615. 


Tis7-i,    or    Ethanim 
(30  days),  1  Ki82. 


Marchesvariy  or  Bui 
(29  days),  I  Ki  6^8. 


Chisleu    (30    dayb), 
Zec7l  Ne  il. 


Tebeth    (29    days), 
Est  2 18. 


Shebat    (30    days), 
Zee  i7. 


Adar  (29  days),  Ezr 
615. 
Ve-Adar  or  and  Adar. 


Answering 

to  the 
Months  of 


Mar. 
Apr. 


Apr. 
May. 


May. 
June. 


June. 
July. 


July. 
Aug. 


Aug. 
Sept. 


Sept. 
Oct. 


Oct. 
Nov. 


Nov. 
Dec. 


Deo. 
Jan. 


Jan. 
Feb. 


Feb. 
Mar. 


Festivals  and  Appointed  Lessons. 


3.  Lev  6  Jer  72I. 

14.  Paschal  lamb  slain.  Th«  Pass- 
over. 

15-21.  Days  of  unleavened  bread. 

16.  The  firstfruits  of  the  barley 
liarvest  presented. 


n.  Lev  16I  Eze  22. 

14.  The    second    Passover    (Num 

9i0.ll)  for  such  as  could  not 

celebrate  the  first. 


6.  Pentecost,  or  Feast  of  Weeks. 
Firstfruits  of  wheat  harvest 
(Lev  23I7.20)  and  firstfruits 
of  all  the  ground,  Ex  23I9 
Dt  262.10. 
10.  Num.  I  Ho  I. 


J.  Num  13I  Jos  2. 
).  Num  22^  Mic  5*^. 


3.  Num  3o2  Jer. 
20.  Dt  I  Is  I. 


3.  Dt  7I2  Is  49U. 
20.  Dti6l8  IS51I2. 


I.  Feast  of  Trumpets,  Lev   232* 

Num  29I. 
10.  Day  of  Atonement,  Lev  2327«28 
15-21.  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  or  of 

Ingatherings,    Ex   23I6    Lev 


230 


Firstfruits    of     wine 


and  oil,  Lev  2339. 
Gen  I  Is  426  (Great  Day  of  the 
Feast). 


8.  Gen  23I  i  Sa  il. 


ID.  Gen  37I  Am  26. 
25.  Feast  of  Dedication. 
452-59  Jn  io22.23. 


25.  Ex  lol  Jer  46I3. 


17.  Ex  21I  Jer  348 


I.  Ex  3821  1  Sa  17I3. 
14,  15.   Feast  of  Purim,  Est  92I.27 
25.  Lev  I  Is.  4321. 


THE  SEASONS  OF  THE  YEAR,  etc. 


353 


with  the  facts  of  physical  geography,  and  the  seasons  fixed 
a  table  of  much  interest  and  value. 

after  the  vernal  equinox,  and  therefore  sometimes  answered  to  March  and 
Names  printed  in  italics  do  not  occur  in  Scripture. 


Seasons  and  Weather. 


Harvest 
begins. 


Summer 
begins. 


Hot 

Season. 


Seed- 
time 
begins. 


Winter 
begins. 


Cold 
season. 


f  The  latter  rain  begins  to  fall,   Dt  ii^ 
Zee  lol. 
The  weather  during  the  rains  chiUy,  Ezr 
I      io9  Jn  i8l8. 
This  rain  prepares  the  corn  for  harvest. 
Great  heat,  especially  in  the  plains. 
The  rivers  swell  from  the  rains,  Jos  3I5 
I  Ch  12I5  Jer  125. 


Tlie  latter  rains  still  frequent. 
These  rains  often  preceded  by  whirlwinds, 
I  Ki  i845  Mt  824. 


Excessive  drought.    From  April  to  Sept. 

no  rain  or  thunder,  i  Sa  lal^  Pr.  26I. 
The  morning  cloud  seen  early,  but  soon 

disappears,  Ho  6*  133. 
Copious  dews  at  niglit,  Job  29I9  Ps  1338. 
North  and  east  winds  increase  drought, 

Gen  416  Jer  4II. 


Heat  intense ;  country  apparently  burned 

up. 
Lebanon  nearly  free  from  snow. 


Heat  still  intense,   2  Ki  419-20  Ps  1216 
Is  499-10  Eev  7I6. 


Heat  in  the  day :  nights  frosty,  Gen  3i40. 
Showers  frequent :    the  former  or  early 

rain. 
Ploughing  and  sowing  begin. 


Sometimes  the  early  rain  begins  now. 
Wheat  and  barley  sown. 


Trees  lose  their  foliage. 
Snow  begins  to  fall  on  the  mountains, 
Jer  3622. 


On  the  mountains  the  cold  is  severe. 
Hail ;  snow,  Jos  iqH  Ps  14716.17. 
Weather  warm  at  intervals,  Eze  3330.3:. 


Corn  still  sown. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  cold  season  the 

weather  cold,   but  gradually  becomes 

warm. 


Thunder  and  hail  frequent. 
Barley  sometimes  sown. 


Productions. 


Barley  ripe  in  lowlands ;  wheat 
partly  in  ear;  fig-tree  blos- 
soms ;  winter-fig  still  on  the 
tree,  Mt  2il9  Mk  iiis. 


Barley  harvest  in 
country,  Ru  i2'2, 
begins  to  ripen. 


the    hill 
Wheat 


Wheat  ripening  on  the  hills 
in  June  ;  in  the  valleys  early 
in  May. 

Grass  in  some  places  a  yard 
high,  Jn  610. 


Early  vintage,  Lev  265. 
and  early  figs  ripen. 


Ripe  figs  at  Jerusalem  ;  olives 
in  the  lowlands;  grapes  ripen. 


Grape  harvest  general. 


Pomegranates  ripen. 


The  latter  grapes  gathered. 
Olives  in  Galilee, 


Grass  and  herbs  spring  up 
after  the  rains.  Wild  flowers 
abundant. 


The  winter-fig  found  on  the 
trees,  though  they  are  strip- 
ped of  their  leaves. 


The  almond-tree  blossoms. 
Oranges  and  lemons  ripen. 


A  a 


354     THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

As  the  Jewish  year  contained  354  days  (in  12  months 
of.  30  and  29  days  alternately)  it  was  too  short,  compared 
with  the  true  or  solar  year,  by  nearly  iij  days,  the  error 
amounting  in  the  lunar  cycle  of  19  years  to  about  213 J 
days.  To  correct  this,  the  intercalary  month  Ve-Adar  (*  the 
second  Adar')  was  added  to  seven  of  the  years  in  the  cycle. 
Thus  March  2-30,  1900,  was  'a  second  Adar.'  The  error 
was  thus  reduced  to  small  dimensions,  but  still  an  additional 
intercalation  was  required  once  in  8  cycles  or  152  years. 
The  appointment  of  the  additional  Adar  was  by  proclamation 
of  the  priests,  whenever  it  was  observed  that  the  firstfruits 
of  the  barley-harvest  would  not  otherwise  be  ready  by  the 
1 6th  of  Nisan.  Thus  in  the  Jewish  Calendar  there  are  six 
kinds  of  years  ;  both  common  and  leap  years  being  either 
irregular,  redundant,  or  defective. 

217.  Seasons  as  a  note  of  time. — In  Scripture,  dates 
are  often  fixed  by  a  reference  to  the  seasons  or  productions, 
2  Sa  21^  Num  13^^ ;  or  by  a  reference  to  the  feasts,  Jn  lo^^^ 

The  fact  recorded  in  Lu  4"  has  been  thought  to  fix  the  time  of  our 
Lord's  visit  to  the  synagogue  at  Nazareth.  The  reading  of  the  Law 
was  completed  in  the  fifty-two  Sabbaths  of  each  year,  and  was  begun 
in  Tisri  (or  Sept.),  a  custom  founded  on  Ne  8^  and  Dt  31^°-^^.  Gen  1-6 
was  read  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles ;  and  on  the  Sabbath  before, 
Dt  29^*',  with  Is  61^  63^^  This  reckoning,  which  is  Lamy's,  fixes  the 
visit  on  the  14th  Tisri.  The  time  seems  from  the  context,  however, 
to  have  been  nearer  Pentecost  ;  and  the  phraseology  of  Luke  rather 
intimates  that  Christ  had  chosen  the  i)assage,  than  that  He  found  it 
in  the  general  order  of  reading.  Lamy  has  given  all  the  lessons 
(Apparatus  Biblicus,  lib.  i,  ch.  5).  The  preceding  table  gives  the 
commencement  of  a  few  only. 

The  zeal  of  the  people  mentioned  in  2  Ch  30^^  becomes  more  obvious, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  they  kept  the  feast  other  seven  days,  in 
the  midst  of  the  harvest. 

Important  lessons  are  often  suggested  by  the  facts  con- 
tained in  the  preceding  table.  Our  Lord,  for  example,  was 
crucified  on  the  day  when  the  Paschal  lamb  was  offered, 
and   rose    on    the   day   when    the   firstfruits    of  the   early 


MISCELLANEOUS   CUSTOMS  355 

harvest  were  presented,  '  the  firstfruits  of  them  that  slept.' 
The  Spirit  was  poured  out  at  Pentecost,  when  the  first- 
fruits  of  the  ground  were  presented  at  the  Temple :  and  on 
that  day  3,000  persons,  *  out  of  every  nation  under  heaven,' 
were  added  to  the  Church,  Ac  2^-*^.  The  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles (when  thanks  were  offered  for  the  ingathering  of  all 
the  fruits  of  the  land)  is  yet  to  come,  Zee  14^^. 

The  language  of  our  Lord  (Mt  232"^),  comparing  the  Pharisees  to 
wliited  sepulchres,  becomes  clearer  from  the  fact  that  it  was  spoken 
just  before  the  Passover  and  after  tlie  winter  rains,  when  the  Jews 
were  busy  whitewashing  the  burial-places  near  Jerusalem,  and  pre- 
paring for  the  feast. 


Miscellaneous  Customs. 

218.  There  are  many  other  customs  referred  to  in 
Scripture,  of  which  the  following  are  examples: — 

In  ancient  Rome  children  were  adopted  at  first  privately;  then  the 
adoption  was  ratified  by  a  public  act ;  and  the  children  so  adopted 
became  the  heirs  of  their  foster-parents.  Hence,  in  Ro  8,  Christians 
are  said  to  be  adopted,  and  yet  to  wait  for  their  adoption,  even  the 
redemption  of  the  body,  i.e.  for  their  public  recognition  at  the 
coming  of  the  Lord,  verse  23. 

Opulent  Jews,  in  ancient  times,  had  their  children  taught  some 
mechanical  art,  to  prepare  them  for  any  reverse  of  fortune  ;  and  so 
St.  Paul  received  a  liberal  education,  and  learned  tent-making,  Ac  i8^ 

Persons  paying  visits  to  a  superior  generally  brought  presents, 
Pr  18^*'  Job  42^^  Kings  and  princes  also  made  piesents  as  marks  of 
distinction.  Gen  45---^'^  i  Sa  18^  Est  8^°.  Not  to  wear  garments  thus 
given  was  a  groat  affront,  Mt  22^^-^  . 

The  common  salutation  in  the  East  was  a  kiss,  sometimes  upon  the 
beard,  2  Sa  20'',  sometimes  upon  the  cheek  :  the  kiss  of  respect  and 
homage  was  upon  the  brow,  Gen  2720  Ex  4-^  i  Sa  lo^  Ps  2^2  Ac  20". 
In  meeting,  the  Jews  used  many  ceremonies,  and  persons  charged 
with  urgent  business,  therefore,  were  forbidden  to  salute  by  the  way, 
2  Ki  4-^  Lu  lo^  The  usual  greeting  was,  'Peace  be  with  thee,' 
Judg  19'-°  I  Sa  258 :  other  forms  may  be  seen  in  Ru  2*  3^°  Ps  129^ 

An  insult  was  shown  by  maltreating  the  beard,  by  spitting  in  the 
face,  by  putting  men  to  degrading  employments,  Judg  1621  Lam  5", 
by  clapping  the  hands,  Job  27^3,  by  casting  contempt  upon  a  man's 

A  a  2 


356     THE  INTERPKETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE 

mother,  i  Sa  ao'^"  2  Sa  3^^  16^0  19-2^  by  dishonouring  the  dead,  Jer  26^' 

At  the  time  of  the  Passover  the  people  of  Jerusalem  prepared  private 
rooms,  in  which  any  stranger  might  celebrate  the  feast ;  and  lience 
Christ  sent  Peter  and  John,  without  any  scruple,  to  seek  an  upper 
room  for  this  purpose,  Mk  14^^ 

At  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  ('on  the  last  day  of  the  feast')  a  priest, 
accompanied  by  a  procession  of  worshippers,  drew  water  in  a  golden 
pitcher,  containing  a  quarter  of  a  hin,  from  the  spring  of  Siloam, 
which  issued  from  a  rock  near  the  Temple.  This  water  was  mingled 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  wine  (see  Ex  29''°)  as  a  special  drink-offering. 
Lev  zs^^-^"^,  the  people  singing  the  words  of  Isaiah,  'With  joy  shall 
they  draw  water  from  the  wells  of  salvation,'  and  was  poured  on 
the  evening  sacrifice  amid  joyful  acclamations  :  see  Jn  7^^*. 

In  the  earliest  times  there  were  no  inns  like  ours,  and  travellers 
generally  waited  in  the  street,  or  at  the  gate,  till  invited  to  some  house, 
Gen  19'-^  Judg  19'^^"^^  In  the  time  of  our  Lord  there  were  places  of 
accommodation  where  lodging  was  provided,  but  where  each  guest 
brought  his  own  provisions,  fuel,  and  bed.  In  the  stable  of  such  an 
inn,  there  being  no  room  in  the  lodging  apartment,  the  Saviour  of  the 
world  was  born.  Places  of  a  similar  kind,  probably  without  resident 
occupants,  were  found  upon  the  main  roads  even  in  the  days  of  the 
Patriarchs,  Gen  42'^'^  43'^!  Ex  4^^.  Both  are  still  found  in  the  East ; 
the  former  called  khans,  and  the  latter,  caravansaries. 

When  a  person  died,  his  relations  rent  their  garments  from  head  to 
foot,  a  smaller  rent  being  made  by  spectators  :  hired  mourners  often 
added  to  the  expressions  of  grief  by  their  lamentations  and  music, 
Jer  917-1'^  Mt  9-^  Ac  9^®.  Emlalming  was  common,  though,  except  in 
Egypt,  the  process  seems  to  have  consisted  of  little  else  than  anointing 
the  body  with  odoriferous  drugs  and  wrapping  it  in  linen.  The 
funeral  followed  death  within  twenty-four  hours,  the  body  not  being 
placed  in  a  coffin,  but  closely  wrapped  from  head  to  foot,  and  borne 
on  an  open  bier  to  the  place  of  burial,  which  was  always,  except  in 
the  case  of  kings  and  distinguished  men,  at  some  distance  from  the 
city.  For  the  poor,  there  was  a  common  burial  ground  ;  but  families 
had  often  their  sepulchres  in  their  own  fields  or  gardens.  There  was 
no  pai  ticular  ceremonial  at  the  grave,  but  the  day  was  concluded  by 
a  funeral  feast,  2  Sa  3^*^  Ho  9*.  Mourning  was  expressed  afterwards 
by  rent  clothes  and  sackcloth  ;  sometimes  by  a  shrouded  face,  and 
sometimes  by  dust  sprinkled  upon  the  head,  2  Sa  3^^  19*  Job  2^-.     The 

*  On  this  custom,  which  we  learn  from  Jewish  tradition,  see 
Westcott's  Commentary  on  Jn  7^^  and  Edorsheim's  Temple,  its  Ministi-y 
and  Services  at  the  Time  qf  Jesus  Christ  (R.  T.  S.),  p.  225. 


MISCELLANEOUS    CUSTOMS  357 

graves  were  generally  excavated  in  the  solid  rock,  with  niches  all  round, 
each  holding  a  corpse,  Job  lo^'-^'-^  33I8  ps  88^  Is  t^^-^^  38^"  Eze  32". 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord  it  was  a  common  practice  for  the  kings  of 
Syria  to  visit  Rome,  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  their  title  from  the 
emperor  and  senate,  or  to  court  their  favour.  Herod  the  Great  went 
to  Augustus  for  this  purpose,  and  his  sons  visited  Kome.  They  went, 
as  our  Lord  expresses  it,  '  to  receive  a  kingdom  and  to  return,'  Lu  19^2^ 
This  practice  explains  the  incidental  allusions  to  the  custom  in  some 
of  the  parables. 

Crucifixion  was  the  punishment  of  slaves  only,  or  of  those  upon  whom 
it  was  intended  to  fix  the  deepest  ignominy.  It  was  not  a  Jewish 
punishment,  nor  was  it  inflicted  upon  a  Roman  citizen.  Thus  Christ 
was  delivered  to  the  Gentiles,  and  numbered  with  the  wicked  in  His 
death,  Mt  20^9. 

Many  customs  were  connected  in  ancient  times  with  sealing ;  the 
seal,  generally  a  signet-ring  bearing  the  name  of  the  owner,  preserved 
the  object,  Job  14^'^,  and  secured  privacy,  Is  29^^.  It  gave  authority 
and  completeness  to  documents,  Ne  9^^  Est  8'*  Dn  6^-^3.17  .  qj.  j^;  marked 
the  object  as  the  peculiar  property  of  him  whose  seal  was  placed  upon 
it,  Ko  4"  2  Tim  a"  Rev  72-3. 


CHAPTER  X 

ON  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES 
IN  RELATION  TO  DOCTRINE  AND 
TO  LIFE 

219.  The  preceding  chapters  will  have  prepared  the  way 
for  a  brief  statement  of  the  methods  in  which  Scripture 
may  be  made  'profitable'  to  ourselves  'for  teaching,  for 
reproof,  for  correction,  for  instruction  which  is  in  righteous- 
ness.' A  deep  conviction  that  the  revelation  is  from  God 
will  enlist  both  heart  and  mind  in  the  endeavour  ;  while 
the  task  can  be  successfully  carried  out  only  as  we  com- 
prehend and  apply  the  laws  of  Interpretation  ^ 

Two  great  purposes  are  accomplished  by  Bible  study 
thus  conducted : — 

First,  a  systematic  knowledge  of  Christian  truth :  Doc- 
trinal Theology. 

Secondly,  the  solution  of  practical  questions  regarding 
life  and  duty :  Christian  Morality. 

L   System  in  Doctrine 

220.  The  value  of  system  is  shown  not  only  in  the  Bible, 
but  in  nature  and  providence.  Facts  and  objects  are  scat- 
tered in  endless  variety,  and  it  is  the  business  of  Science 
to  detect  their  order  and  harmony. 

In  both  cases,  the  same  principle  of  investigation  is  em- 
j^loyed — the  great  principle  of  the  inductive  philosophy. 

•  See  especially  Chs.  VI,  VHI. 


SYSTEM   IN   DOCTRINE  359 

The  revelations  of  Scripture  form  the  basis  of  theology,  as 
the  facts  of  nature  form  the  basis  of  natural  science,  or 
as  the  facts  of  consciousness  form  the  basis  of  mental  philo- 
sophy. In  the  Bible,  however,  we  have  this  advantage, 
that  while  in  nature  facts  are  the  only  data  from  which  we 
gather  general  laws,  in  Scripture  we  find  the  general  laws 
of  truth  and  duty  expressly  stated  for  our  guidance  ^. 

The  systematic  study  of  Scripture  has  been  singularly 
misrepresented.  Some  hold  that  it  is  useless  ;  a  remnant, 
in  fact,  of  scholastic  habits,  which  it  is  the  interest  of 
the  Church  to  destroy.  But  to  repudiate  system  compels 
us  either  to  confine  ourselves  in  statements  of  doctrine  to 
Scripture  language ;  or  it  exposes  us  to  the  risk  of  mis- 
representing one  doctrine  in  enforcing  another;  or,  more 
commonly  still,  it  tempts  us  to  overlook  the  due  proportion 
or  connexion  of  doctrines,  and  so  leads  us  into  error,  the 
more  seductive  that  it  is  founded  partially  on  truth. 
'General  principles  drawn  from  particulars,'  says  Locke,  'are 
the  jewels  of  knowledge,  comprehending  great  store  in  little 
room  :  but  these  are  therefore  to  be  used  with  the  greater 
care  and  caution,  lest,  if  we  take  counterfeit  for  true,  our 
loss  be  the  greater  when  our  stock  comes  to  a  severe 
scrutiny.'  Others,  again,  go  to  the  opposite  extreme,  and 
maintain  that  the  adoption  of  a  system  is  a  necessary 
preliminary  to  the  study  of  Scripture,  a  theory  not  borne 
out  by  facts.  Many  a  reader  who  begins  with  Scripture 
finds  his  way  to  truth,  and  whatever  system  he  attain  is 
the  result  and  not  the  beginning  of  his  prayerful  studies. 
Yet  in  his  search  he  will  already  find  the  elements  of  a 
cieed  in  such  passages  as  Tit  2^^"^*  Eph  2^~'^^  i  Tim  3^^. 

221.  Method  of  investigation.— To  gather  doctrinal 
truth  from  Scripture,  we  bring  together  all  the  passages 
that  refer  to  the  same  subject,  whether  they  be  doctrines, 

*  See  tract  by  Dr.  Angus,  Theology  an  Inductive  and  a  Progressive  Science 
(Present  Day  Tract,  R.  T.  S.,  No.  68,  second  series). 


360  STUDY   OF   THE   SCRIPTURES 

precepts,  promises,  or  examples  ;  impartially  compare  them  ; 
restrict  the  expressions  of  one  passage  by  those  of  another  ; 
and  explain  the  whole  consistently.  When  the  proposition 
which  we  derive  from  such  complete  collection  of  the 
passages  embodies  all  they  contain,  and  no  more,  it  may 
then  be  regarded  as  a  general  Scripture  truth. 

The  following  rules  are  equally  obvious  and  important : — 

1.  We  must  gather  our  views  of  Christian  doctrine 
primarily  from  the  New  Testament,  interpreting  its 
statements  consistently  with  one  another,  and  with  the 
facts  and  clear  revelations  of  the  Old. 

2.  In  carrying  out  this  rule  it  is  necessary  to  explain 
ambiguous  and  figurative  passages  by  those  that  are  clear 
and  literal ;  and  passages  in  which  a  subject  is  briefly 
described  by  those  in  which  it  is  largely  discussed ; 
and  general  assertions  by  others  (if  such  there  be)  which 
treat  of  the  same  truth  with  some  restriction  or  ex- 
cej^tions. 

3.  Not  only  must  the  passages  which  speak  of  the  same 
doctrine  be  explained  consistently  with  one  another,  but  each 
doctrine  must  be  held  consistently  with  other  doctrines. 
See  the  remarks,  in  the  chapter  on  Interpretation,  on  the 
general  scope  of  Scripture  (§§  128,  129). 

The  Scriptures  teach,  for  example,  on  a  comparison  of 

passages,  that  rejDontance,  faith,  and  obedience  are  the  gifts 

of  God^      Do  we  therefore  gather  that  men  are  guiltless 

if   they  do  not  repent,  and  believe,  and  obey  the  gospel  ? 

or  do  we  deem  it  needless  to  exhort  men  to  repentance, 

obedience,  and  faith?      If  so,  our  views  are  unsound,  for 

the  guilt  of  impenitence  is  charged  entirely  upon    man^. 

His  unbelief  is  declared  to  be  his  great  sin  and  the  ground 

of  his  condemnation  «  ;  and  not  to  obey  God  is  everywhere 

condemned.    Men  are  exhorted,  too,  to  repent  <^i,  and  believe, 

'  Jn  is'^  Ac  531  Eph  2«  Phil  i"  2^3  I  Pet  i^. 

*>  Mt  II20-21  Rev  2'0-''\  o  Jn  3"  j6\  d  jyjj^  jie^ 


SYSTEM   IN   DOCTRINE  361 

and  obey.  So  Samuel  taught  the  Israelites,  and  John  the 
Baptist  taught  the  Jews.  Thus  also  spoke  our  Lord  and 
His  Apostles  continually*. 

Though  truths  may  be  revealed  in  Scripture  which  it 
is  difficult  for  us  to  harmonize,  yet  one  truth  so  held  as 
to  contradict  another  is  not  held  as  the  Bible  reveals  it. 

4.  We  should  employ  and  interpret  the  doctrines  of  Scrip- 
ture with  special  regard  to  the  practical  purposes  for  which 
the  Scripture  reveals  them.  Thus,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity 
is  a  revelation  of  God  in  relation  to  man  ;  and,  though 
sometimes  introduced  as  an  article  of  faith  simply  (as  in 
the  rite  of  baptism),  it  is  generally  in  connexion  with 
spiritual  blessings,  and  especially  with  the  scheme  of 
redemption,  2  Cor   13^*. 

The  use  made  in  Scripture,  again,  of  the  doctrine  of 
election  is  highly  instructive.  However  the  doctrine  itself 
be  regarded,  all  agree  in  admitting  that  it  can  involve  no 
capricious  fondness,  without  reason  or  wisdom ;  nor  can  it 
be  regarded  as  affection  founded  upon  our  merit,  or  as 
seeking  for  its  ultimate  end  our  happiness.  It  is  rather 
an  exhibition  of  the  character  of  God,  which  represents 
Him  as  acting  in  pursuance  of  His  own  purpose,  and  while 
securing  that  purpose,  as  displaying  His  glory  and  promoting 
the  general  good.  The  doctrine  is  introduced  in  Scripture, 
moreover,  to  declare  the  source  of  salvation  to  be  the  un- 
deserved favour  of  God,  and  to  cut  off  all  hope  of  acceptance 
by  works,  as  in  Ro  ii^-^  ;  to  account  for  the  unbelief  of  the 
Jews  without  excusing  it,  as  in  Ro  9  ;  or  to  show  the  certain 
success  of  Christ's  kingdom  in  defiance  of  all  hostility,  as 
in  Mt  21*2  Jn  G'"^.  Considered  without  reference  to  these 
facts,  it  might  be  made  the  ground  of  a  charge  of  caprice, 
or  it  might  become  (as  among  the  Jews)  the  nourishment 
of  self-conceit ;  or  it  might  be  used  to  destroy  the  doctrine 
of  human  responsibility  or  the  duty  of  Christian  devotedness. 
*  Mt  3-  Lu  133  Ac  319  822,  &c. 


362  STUDY   OF   THE   SCRIPTURES 

Yet  the  doctrine  systematically  considiTed — viewed,  that 
is,  in  connexion  with  the  truths  among  which  it  stands,  and 
applied  to  the  purposes  for  w^hich  the  inspired  teachers  used 
it — has  a  humbling,  comforting,  and  sanctifying  tendency. 

5.  It  must  be  remembered,  again,  that  deductions  drawn 
by  our  own  reason  from  the  statements  of  Scripture  are 
not  to  be  deemed  inspired  unless  those  deductions  are 
themselves  revealed. 

It  is  certain,  for  example,  that  distinct  acts  of  personal 
agency,  which  are  in  some  passages  ascribed  simply  to  God, 
are  ascribed  elsewhere  to  the  Father,  or  to  the  Son,  or  to 
the  Holy  Ghost,  and  that  worship  and  adoration  are  claimed 
for  each.  We  infer,  therefore,  that  there  are  three  Persons 
in  the  Godhead,  and  but  one  God  ;  or  that  there  is  a  Trinity 
in  Unity.  We  thus  express  Scripture  truth  in  a  convenient 
form.  But  if  we  attempt  further  to  explain  this  truth,  or 
to  draw  from  the  phraseology  employed  other  remote  con- 
clusions, we  may  either  darken  counsel  by  words  without 
knowledge,  or  gather  lessons  which  God  has  not  taught. 

'  No  man,'  says  Jeremy  Taylor,  *  is  to  be  pressed  with 
consequences  drawn  from  thence,  unless  the  transcript  be 
drawn  by  the  same  hand  that  wrote  the  original.  For  we 
are  sure  it  came,  in  the  simplicity  of  it,  from  an  infaUible 
Spirit ;  but  he  that  bids  me  believe  his  deductions  bids  me 
believe  that  he  is  an  unerring  logician  ;  for  which  God  has 
given  me  no  command,  and  himself  can  give  me  no 
security"^.' 

Concerning  all  doctrines,  indeed,  which  are  peculiar  to 
Scripture,  the  rule  of  the  martyr  Ridley  is  as  Christian  as  it 
is  philosophical.  'In  these  matters,'  says  he,  'I  am  so 
fearful  that  I  dare  not  speak  further,  yea,  almost  none  other- 
wise than  the  text  doth  as  it  were  lead  me  by  the  hand.' 

222.  Relative  Importance  of  Truths.  But  besides 
ascertaining  the  truths  of  the  gospel,  it  is  not  less  important 
*  Dissuasives  against  Popery, 


SYSTEM   IN   DOCTRINE  363 

in  framing  a  system  of  truth  to  ascertain  their  relative 
importance ;  and  if  possible,  the  order  in  which  Scripture 
reveals  them.  With  this  view  consider  especially  three 
rules : — 

i.  Mark  the  subjects  which  are  oftenest  recommended  to 
attention  by  our  Lord,  and  by  His  Apostles. 

If  it  be  asked,  for  example,  what  is  the  most  memorable 
circumstance  in  the  institution  of  the  Last  Supper,  the  reply 
is,  its  commemorative  character:  for  this  peculiarity  is 
thrice   mentioned  in  the  words  of  the  institution,   i   Cor 


II 


24.25.26 


ii.  Observe  carefully  what  is  common  to  the  two  dispensa- 
tions, the  Christian  and  the  Jewish. 

In  both,  the  unity  and  spirituality  of  God,  His  power  and 
truthfulness  are  frequently  revealed.  So  among  our  first 
duties  are  gratitude  and  love.  The  numerous  injunctions 
in  the  Law  respecting  sacrifices,  and  the  prominence  given 
to  the  truth  that  Christ  was  '  once  off'ered  to  bear  the  sins 
of  many,'  illustrate  the  paramount  importance  both  of  the 
doctrine,  and  of  appropriate  feelings  in  reference  to  it, 
Heb  928. 

iii.  Observe  the  value  ascribed  in  Scripture  itself  to  any 
truth  or  precept  which  it  contains.  Sometimes  a  quality  is 
set  forth  as  essential,  '  Without  faith  it  is  impossible  to 
please  God.'  Sometimes  one  quality  is  preferred  to  another, 
as  love  to  both  faith  and  hope,  i  Cor  13.  Doctrines  also 
have  their  relative  as  well  as  their  absolute  importance. 
Thus,  the  fact  of  the  resurrection  and  ascension  of  our  Lord, 
as  an  evidence  of  the  completion  and  acceptance  of  His 
work,  and  as  a  pledge  of  the  resurrection  of  His  people, 
is  mentioned  in  the  Epistles  alone  more  than  fifty  times. 
Any  view  of  the  gospel  message,  therefore,  which  gives  to 
these  doctrines  a  second  place  i§  clearly  not  the  gospel  of 
Scripture, 


364  STUDY   OF   THE  SCRIPTUKES 

223.  How  to  apply  these  Rules. — One  or  two  general 
principles  may  be  laid  down  to  aid  in  the  application  of 
these  rules. 

(a)  Nothing  must  be  made  a  matter  of  necessary  faith 
which  is  not  a  matter  of  revelation. 

(b)  In  studying  the  Bible,  there  must  be  a  suspense  of 
judgement  till  the  Word  itself  decides.  Allow  no  bias  but 
what  is  received  from  the  Scriptures  themselves  ;  otherwise 
our  belief  will  be  only  inclination  and  fancy. 

(c)  The  same  relative  prominence  should  be  given  to  each 
doctrine  as  is  given  to  it  in  Scripture. 

(d)  Where  the  doctrine  of  Scripture  is  important  and 
necessary,  the  Scripture  will  be  found  full  and  clear.  Where 
Scripture  is  not  full  and  clear,  the  doctrine  is  either  in 
itself  not  important,  or  the  certain  knowledge  of  it  is  un- 
attainable in  our  present  state. 

(e)  The  Bible  does  not  contradict  itself.  Of  apparent 
contradictions,  some  are  merely  verbal,  and  the  right  inter- 
pretation of  the  words  removes  the  difficulty.  Others, 
pertaining  to  the  doctrines  themselves,  may  be  solved  by 
one  or  other  of  the  three  following  rules. 

1.  When  the  same  action  is  affirmed  of  different  persons, 
there  is  a  sense  in  which  it  is  true  of  both. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  ten  times  that  Pharaoh  hardened 
his  heart,  and  ten  times  that  God  hardened  Pharaoh's 
heart ;    and  both  statements  are  in  a  sense  true. 

Again,  the  same  act  is  ascribed  in  Scripture  to  diff*erent 
persons,  as  in  Ex  iS^'^^^e  j)^  i^-'^'\  in  relation  to  the  appoint- 
ment of  judges  ;  Num  13I--20  Dt  122^  on  sending  the  spies ; 
2  Sa  24I  I  Ch  21^,  in  the  numbering  of  the  people  by  David. 

2.  When  apparently  contradictory  qualities  are  ascribed 
in  Scripture  to  the  same  person  or  object,  there  is  a  sense  in 
which  both  assertions  are  true. 

Thus,  God  visits  the  sins  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children, 
and  yet  the  children  do  not  bear  the  sins  of  the  fathers. 


THE   GUIDANCE   OF   LIFE  365 

Ex  2o5  Eze  1 820.  Either  the  effects  of  the  father's  sin  fall 
temporarily  upon  his  children,  though  each  man's  final 
destiny  is  the  result  of  his  own  conduct,  or  the  former 
passage  may  be  limited  to  those  who  hate  him :  m  their 
case  there  is  an  accumulation  of  punishment. 

3.  When  one  thing  is  said  in  Scripture  to  secure  salvation, 
and  the  want  of  another  thing  is  said  to  exclude  from  it,  the 
existence  of  the  one  necessarily  implies  the  existence  of  the 
other. 

It  is  said,  for  example,  that  faith  saves  us,  and  yet  no  one 
can  be  saved  who  hates  his  brother.  Both  statements  are 
true ;  and,  in  fact,  we  find  that  faith  and  love  are  never 
disjoined. 

This  is  the  canon  that  reconciles  the  prerogatives  of  faith 
with  the  promises  made  to  character,  as  in  the  Sermon  on 
the  Mount.  It  is  not  meant  that  such  characters,  if  they 
have  faith,  are  blessed,  for  the  promise  is  absolute  ;  but 
it  is  implied  that  faith  forms  such  characters,  and  brings  the 
believer  within  the  range  of  the  promise. 

IL   The  Guidance  of  Life 

224.  Doctrine  and  Practice. — Here  also  the  principles 
and  rules  of  conduct  are  part  of  the  great  system  of  revela- 
tion. Scripture  doctrine  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  true 
morality  ^. 

The  gospel  begins  its  message  with  the  '  story  of  peace,' 
unfolding  the  pardoning  mercy  of  God  through  the  death 
of  His  Son.  It  then  exhibits  its  truths  as  motives  to 
lioliness.  When  these  truths  have  taken  possession  of  the 
heart,  they  teach  us  to  perceive  in  Scripture  the  require- 
ments of  a  high  and  spiritual  obedience:  and  under  their 
influence  we  learn  to  serve  *  in  newness  of  spirit,  and  not 

*  See,  on  the  subject  of  this  paragraph.  Dean  Wace's  Lectures  on 
Christianity  and  Morality. 


366  STUDY   OF  THE   SCRIPTUKES 

in  the  oldness  of  the  letter.'  This  is  the  order,  therefore,  of 
human  experience  ;  knowledge  in  the  heart,  or  truth,  pre- 
cedes knowledge  in  practice,  or  goodness :  or,  in  simple 
Scripture  language,  man  is  sanctilied  by  faith,  through  the 
operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

1.  When  the  reader  of  the  Bible  has  examined  and  classified  its 
precepts,  he  will  find  that  it  is  rather  a  book  of  principles  than  of 
directions.  And  of  principles  in  a  double  sense  :  its  precepts  refer 
rather  to  motives  than  to  actions,  which  motives  are  called  the  prin- 
ciples or  beginnings  of  action  :  and  moreover,  its  precepts  are  compre- 
hensive maxims,  and  are  therefore  rather  principles  of  morality  than 
specific  rules.  When  it  speaks  of  holiness,  it  means  fiiith,  well- 
regulated  affection,  inward  purity,  and  moral  rectitude  of  disposition  ; 
and  these  it  represents,  not  as  the  ground  of  our  salvation,  but  as  its 
evidence  and  result.  The  law  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  which 
seems  at  first  to  refer  to  practice  only,  is  summed  up  by  our  Lord  in 
the  form  of  love  to  God  and  to  man  ;  humility  and  evangelic  faith 
towards  God,  and  all  holy  conduct  towards  our  fellows,  being  the 
appropriate  utterance  of  these  inward  feelings.  This  apparent 
peculiarity  of  the  gospel  scheme  was  the  more  striking  in  the  time  of 
our  Lord  from  the  fact  that  Jewish  tradition  had  given  undue  im- 
portance to  ritual  zeal  and  punctiliousness  :  and  it  accounts  for  much 
of  the  opposition  which  the  first  teachers  of  the  truth  encountered. 
That  it  is  a  peculiarity  also  of  the  Law  is  plain,  both  from  the  nature 
of  its  precepts  and  from  the  teaching  of  our  Lord  ;  for  although  in  im- 
pressing upon  His  hearers  the  importance  of  inward  dispositions  He 
may  seem  to  speak  of  the  Law  as  faulty,  He  is  in  reality  setting  free 
its  moral  significance  from  the  bondage  of  a  perverted  literalism. 
See  also  Mk  i2.^-~^^, 

2.  Even  when  the  precepts  of  the  gospel  are  given  in  a  specific 
form,  they  are  often  intended  as  descriptive  rather  of  character  than 
of  specific  acts.  The  command  of  our  Lord,  *  If  any  man  will  sue 
thee  at  the  law  to  take  away  thy  coat,  let  him  have  thy  cloak  also,'  is 
an  instance,  Mt  5**^.  A  literal  compliance  with  the  precept  would  be 
seldom  practicable.  To  wait  for  the  occasion  when  it  can  be  applied 
would  be  of  little  service  ;  but  to  cherish  the  disposition  at  which  it 
aims  is  to  walk  daily  on  the  path  that  leads  to  holiness. 

3.  It  is  another  peculiarity  of  the  precepts  of  the  gospel  that  they 
are  generally  expressed  in  compreliensive  terms,  and  that  the  appli- 
cation of  them,  and  the  distinctions  that  attend  it,  are  left  to  the 
reason  of  the  reader.  It  is  true  that  the  laws  are  so  plain  as  to  leave 
a  conscientious  and  teachable  mind  in  little  danger  of  mistake.     Still, 


THE   GUIDANCE   OF   LIFE  367 

it  is  part  of  our  discipline  that  we  are  left  to  apply  them.  Such 
possibilities  of  error  in  applying  them  remain,  as  prove  God  to  be 
testing  '  what  is  in  our  hearts,  and  whether  we  will  keep  His  com- 
mandments ov  not.' 

225.  Moral  and  Positive  Precepts. — Keeping  in  mind 
that  the  precepts  of  Scripture  refer  chiefly  to  the  dispositions 
of  the  soul,  that  they  are  expressed  for  the  most  part  in 
general  terms,  and  that  the  application  of  them  is  left  to 
the  reader,  we  need  still  to  notice  an  important  distinction 
between  these  precepts  themselves. 

Some  are  called  moral  and  others  positive,  and  the  distinc- 
tion is  founded  on  Scripture.  Bishop  Jeremy  Ta^dor  defines 
moral  precepts  as  having  their  measure  in  natural  reason, 
while  in  positive  precepts  the  reasons  and  measure  are 
incidental,  economical,  or  political.  The  reason  of  the  first 
is  eternal,  the  reason  of  the  second  temporary.  Bishop 
Butler  and  Dr.  Doddridge  define  the  first  as  precepts 
the  reasons  for  which  we  see,  and  the  second  as  precepts 
the  reasons  for  which  we  do  not  see.  By  combining  these 
definitions,  we  may,  perhaps,  obtain  one  more  comprehensive 
than  either.  Of  the  former  class  of  precej^ts  we  discern  the 
place  in  the  moral  system  to  which  they  essentially  belong : 
for  the  latter  we  are  content  to  rest  upon  the  enactment  of 
an  all- wise  and  all-loving  Creator.  Both  are,  within  certain 
limits,  obligatory,  and  the  neglect  of  either  has  its  peculiar 
aggravations.  To  violate  moral  laws  is  to  disobey  our 
reason  and  God.  To  violate  positive  laws  is  to  sin  where 
temptation  is  commonly  feeblest,  and  where  disobedience 
involves  a  direct  denial  of  Divine  authority. 

Some  precepts  (it  is  obvious)  are  7nixed  in  their  nature, 
being  partly  moral  and  partly  positive.  Such  is  the  law  of 
the  Sabbath.  That  creatures,  framed  as  man  is,  should 
statedly  rest  from  toil  is  a  physical  necessity  ;  that  they 
should  present  some  united  worship  is  a  moral  duty  ;  but 
whether  that  rest  and  worship  be  presented  on  the  seventh, 


368  STUDY   OF   THE   SCRIPTUKES 

or  eighth,  or  tenth  day  must  be  decided  by  positive  law. 
It  is  obvious,  too,  that  in  the  use  of  the  words  of  this 
distinction  we  are  liable  to  mistake.  Iforal  duties  are 
positive,  in  the  sense  of  being  expressly  commanded  ;  and 
positive  duties  are  moral,  in  the  sense  of  requiring  holy 
motive  in  fulfilling  them :  guilt,  too,  is  incurred,  if  they  be 
regarded  with  indifference  or  contempt. 

Differences  between  the  two, — Six  particulars  may  be  stated  in 
which  positive  laws  differ  from  those  which  are  strictly  moral : 

1.  Their  nature.  The  moral  are  intrinsically  holy  and  immutable  ; 
the  positive  are  indiiferent  till  the  precept  is  given.  Under  the  Law, 
for  example,  to  look  at  the  brazen  serpent,  to  sprinkle  the  door-posts 
with  blood,  were  acts  of  no  obligation  till  God  had  commanded  them, 
and  both  were  temporary  in  their  duration. 

2.  Their  evidence.  The  moral  precept  is  written,  though  often  nearly 
effaced,  in  the  heart ;  but  the  positive  precept  in  the  Bible  only.  In 
reference  to  the  latter,  therefore,  differences  among  Christians  are 
more  easy  and  (may  we  not  say  ?)  less  inexcusable. 

3.  Their  basis.  Moral  precepts  are  founded  in  the  nature  of  God  and 
of  man,  and  in  the  relation  that  subsists  between  them  ;  positive  pre- 
cepts in  God's  will  alone.  That  will  is  doubtless  guided  by  wisdom, 
and  the  general  design  of  many  positive  precepts  is  even  obvious. 
Baptism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  Sabbath,  for  example,  are  all 
adapted  to  a  specific  end  ;  but  why  these  ordinances  only,  and  not 
others,  is  not  revealed. 

4.  The  extent  of  their  obligation.  Moral  precepts  are  universally 
binding.  There  is  no  state  conceivable  to  which  God's  moral  dominion 
does  not  extend.  Positive  precepts,  on  the  other  hand,  are  particular. 
The  ceremonial  law  included  the  Jews,  but  not  the  Gentiles. 
Certain  observances,  again,  were  binding  on  the  priests,  but  not  on 
the  people.  So,  under  the  gospel,  those  only  must  partake  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  on  whom  that  ordinance  is  enjoined. 

5.  The  method  of  their  observance.  Moral  precepts,  inculcating  prin- 
ciples, are  obeyed  by  a  thousand  different  actions.  Positive  precepts, 
controlling  conduct  only,  are  uniform,  and  are  to  be  observed  according 
to  the  prescription  and  letter  of  the  Law. 

6.  Their  connexion.  Moral  precepts  are  necessarily  connected.  Posi- 
tive precepts  may  be  so  by  authority,  but  are  not  so  in  their  nature. 
Faith  is  followed  by  hope,  and  joy,  and  love.  Love  to  God  strengthens 
our  sorrow  for  offending  and  our  fear  to  offend  ;  and  love  to  man, 
fidelity  and  beneficence.     But  circumcision  did  not  imply  lioliness  or 


THE   GUIDANCE   OF  LIFE  369 

ceremonial  purity.     Institutions  may  be  observed  apart,  '  but  virtues 
go  ever,'  says  Bishop  Hall,  *  in  troops.' 

Application  of  both. — In  reference  to  the  application  of 
these  laws,  moral  and  positive,  four  things  must  be  specially 
remembered : — 

1.  Moral  precepts  never  really  contradict  one  another.  If  there  be 
apparent  contradiction,  we  have  misinterpreted  the  meaning  or  the 
limits  of  the  Law. 

2.  Positive  institutions,  being  founded  exclusively  on  the  law  of 
God,  admit  of  no  additions  in  number  to  those  it  reveals.  Institutions 
claiming  Divine  authority  must  not  only  not  be  forbidden  in  Scripture, 
they  must  be  expressly  commanded.  To  increase  the  number  of 
such  institutions,  says  Dr.  Whichcote,  '  lessens  the  number  of  things 
lawful,  brings  the  consciences  of  men  into  bondage,  multiplies  sin 
in  the  world,  makes  the  way  narrower  than  God  has  made  it,  and 
divides  His  Church.' 

3.  When  positive  precepts  interfere  with  the  observance  of  the 
moral  law,  they  must  yield  the  outward  rite  to  the  expression  of  holy 
feeling,  the  offering  of  sacrifice  to  the  dictates  of  mercy,  the  keeping 
of  a  Sabbath  to  the  law  of  love. 

4.  God  rejects  His  own  positive  institutions  when  men  make  them  final 
or  put  them  in  competition  with  holiness,  or  substitute  them  for  it, 
2  Ki  i8<  Is  i"-i7  663  Jer  f-^^  Mic  67-8  Am  521. 

226.  Examples  a  Guide  to  Conduct. — In  considering 
and  applying  the  examples  of  Scripture,  there  are  several 
points  to  which  attention  needs  to  be  directed. 

1.  Many  things  are  recorded  in  Scripture  with  censure. 

There  are  examples  of  injustice  and  idolatry,  which  are  either 
discountenanced  by  the  Law,  or  were  at  the  time  expressly  condemned. 
The  record  of  them  is  not  intended  to  hallow  the  facts,  or  to  justify  us 
in  copying  them,  but  to  illustrate  the  wickedness  of  human  nature 
and  the  justice  of  God. 

2.  Note,  however,  that  the  actions  of  good  men,  which 
were  nevertheless  wrong,  or  which  are  not,  on  other  grounds, 
intended  for  our  imitation,  are  sometimes  recorded  without 
censure. 

To  this  class  belong  the  equivocation  of  Abraham  before  Pharaoh  ; 
the  falsehood  of  Eebekah  and  Jacob  ;  the  dissembled  madness  of  David, 

B    b 


370  STUDY   OF  THE   SCRIPTURES 

r  Sa  2i";  and  the  massacre  at  Jabesh-gilead.  To  this  class,  also, 
belong  such  actions  as  wei'e  allowed  under  the  Law,  but  are  forbidden 
under  the  gospel.  Polygamy,  for  example,  was  only  permitted  to  the 
Jews,  'because  of  the  hardness  of  their  hearts';  never  enjoined.  The 
reasoning  of  our  Lord  condemns  it,  Mk  lo^-^ ;  nor  must  we,  from 
the  pattern  of  children,  learn  the  measure  of  duty  in  men. 

3.  Many  acts  under  the  old  dispensation  were  done  hy 
express  command. 

Abraham  at  least  understood  God  as  commanding  him  to  slay  his 
son  ;  Joshua  destroyed  the  Canaanites  ;  the  Levites  put  to  death  tlie 
idolaters  in  the  camp  ;  Jehu  rebelled  against  the  house  of  Ahab, 
2  Ki  9^1-^*  :  but  each  of  those  acts  was  performed  under  the  authority 
of  a  peculiar  and  positive  precept.  The  fact  that  God  expressly  com- 
manded them  takes  them  out  of  the  list  of  imitable  actions.  To 
make  similar  actions  commendable,  we  must  have  similar  authority. 

It  may  be  observed  that,  when  a  peculiar  command  was  given,  the 
reason  is  generally  appended,  showing  the  command  to  bo  but  tem- 
porary. Abraham  was  commanded  to  offer  up  his  son,  to  test  his 
faith  ;  Joshua  destro3^ed  the  Canaanites  because  the  time  of  their 
probation  was  past,  and  they  had  proved  irretrievably  idolatrous  ; 
idolaters  in  Judaea  were  put  to  death  because,  there,  idolatry  was 
treason  against  the  supreme  authority  of  the  invisible  King. 

4.  In  judging  of  Old  Testament  examples,  we  must  ascer- 
tain the  principle  on  which  the  actions  were  performed.  This 
is  the  rule  suggested  by  Heb  11,  where  some  acts  are 
recorded  as  imitable  only  in  the  principle  of  faith  from 
which  they  sprang. 

Without  this  rule,  Scripture  may  be  made  to  sanction  the  most  con- 
tradictory acts.  In  Gen  21^,  for  example,  Ishmael  mocked  Isaac,  and 
from  Gal  4^^  we  learn  that  this  mockery  was  the  expression  of  a  per- 
secuting spirit,  and  of  contempt  of  God's  promises.  Elijah,  on  the 
other  hand,  mocked  the  priests  of  Baal  to  prove  the  folly  and  wicked- 
ness of  idolatry.  Elijah's  conduct  in  calling  fire  from  heaven,  2  Ki  i^o-i'^, 
was  not  the  result  of  angry  feeling,  but  of  a  desire  to  convince  a  wicked 
prince  and  an  idolatrous  people ;  when  James  and  John  wished  to 
exercise  the  same  power,  however,  our  Lord  rebuked  them  ;  partly 
because  His  kingdom  forbade  such  agency,  and  partly  because  the 
temper  in  which  they  spoke  was  passionate  and  revengeful. 

General  Bule. — All  these  considerations  may  bo  expressed  in  the 
form  of  rules:  and  it  follows  that  we  are  not  to  copy  tlio  practices 
which  Scripture  records  and  condemns  ;  nor  practices  whicli  it  records 


THE   GUIDANCE   OF   LIFE  371 

without  censure,  unless  those  practices  were  holy  as  well  as  lawful ; 
nor  what  was  done  under  specific  and  temporary  command  ;  nor  what 
was  done  in  consequence  of  inferior  knowledge  :  nor  must  we  copy  or 
judge  the  good  acts  of  even  a  good  man,  without  considering  their 
motives  and  end. 

Or  the  whole  may  be  summed  up  in  one  principle.  In  relation  to 
Old  Testament  examples,  the  rule  of  judgement  is,  that  we  estimate 
each  act  as  the  individual  who  performed  it  was  bound  to  estimate  it 
by  the  law  under  which  he  lived,  and  the  rule  of  imitation  is,  that  we 
are  to  copy  it  only  if  it  be  consistent  with  the  precepts  of  the  New 
Testament.     The  positive  rule  of  imitation  will  be  found  below. 

Value  of  Examples. — Ot  what  use,  then,  are  the  examples 
of  Scripture,  and  how  are  we  to  employ  them  ?  They  are 
of  great  use  : — 

I.  In  interpreting  the  rules  of  Scripture  where  the 
sense  is  questioned.  If  the  example  be  set  by  inspired 
men,  and  that  example  be  in  obedience  to  a  rule,  we  have 
then  an  inspired  interpretation  of  its  meaning. 

The  conduct  of  Paul  in  opposing  Petor  on  the  question  of  circum- 
cision, and  the  practice  of  the  Apostles  generally,  decide  the  significa- 
tion of  many  passages  of  Scripture.  In  such  cases  we  copy  the 
example,  not  because  good  men  have  set  it,  but  because,  under  the 
circumstances,  it  proves  to  us  what  is  the  mind  of  Christ. 

We  may  thus  often  find  an  explanation  of  the  meaning  of  Scripture 
in  the  examples  which  inspired  men  have  left  us.  '  Swear  not  at  all,' 
for  instance,  is  one  of  the  commands  of  our  Lord,  Mt  5'^^"^^.  In  the 
same  chapter  He  tells  us  that  He  came  not  to  destroy  the  Law  (verses 
17,  18),  and  as  the  Law  permitted  oaths,  it  may  be  presumed  that  all 
oaths  for  all  purposes  are  not  forbidden  in  this  prohibition.  On 
referring  to  2  Cor  n^i-s:'  Ro  i^  it  becomes  plain  that  the  precept 
refers  to  our  ordinary  communications,  which  should  be  yea,  yea, 
nay,  nay.  The  vice  which  is  thus  condemned  was  very  common 
among  the  Jews.  '  Resist  not  him  that  is  evil '  (R.  V.)  will  be  found 
by  the  same  reasoning  to  mean  '  Cherish  not  a  spirit  of  retaliation 
and  revenge.'  Our  Lord  did  not  complain  of  the  Law  in  the  hands 
of  the  magistrate,  nor  did  He  forbid  His  disciples  appealing  to  it 
where  public  justice  was  concerned.  He  Himself  remonstrated  against 
unjust  smiting,  Jn  iS^S;  and  Paul  so  far  resisted  evil  as  to  protest 
against  cruel  indignities  offered  him,  and  on  another  occasion  to 
appeal  to  Caesar,  Ac  25^^.  The  meaning  of  the  precept  therefore  is, 
*  rather  suffer  injury  than  avenge  yourselves.' 

B   b   2 


372  STUDY   OF   THE   SCRIPTURES 

2.  In  teaching  us  to  apply  the  rules  of  Scripture  to  par- 
ticular cases.  The  New  Testament  is,  in  a  great  degree, 
a  book  of  principles,  not  of  specific  directions,  and  it  requires 
great  wisdom  to  apply  them. 

The  value  of  examples  for  this  purpose  may  be  well  illustrated  by 
comparing  the  moral  principles  laid  down  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
with  the  application  of  them  in  the  different  characters  mentioned 
in  Scripture.  It  is  said,  for  example,  ^There  is  that  maketh  himself 
rich,  yet  hath  nothing ;  there  is  that  maketh  himself  poor,  yet  hath 
great  riches.'     Of  the  first  principle  we  have  illustrations,  in  Ahab, 

1  Ki  2r*-^6-22;  in  Haman,  Est  5""^^;  in  the  self-righteous  Pharisee, 
Lu  i8^^~i*  ;  in  the  self-conceited  Corinthians,  i  Cor  4^  ;  in  the  false 
teachers  referred  to  by  Peter,  2  Pet  2^^-^^ :  and  of  the  second,  in 
Matthew,  Lu  527.28  ;  Zacchaeus,  Lu  ip^-^  ;  Paul,  2  Cor  6^0  Phil  3^ ;  the 
Ephesian  converts,  Ac  19^^  ;  and  in  the  church  of  Smyrna,  Rev  2®, 
compared  with  the  church  at  Laodicea,  Rev  3^^, 

3.  The  great  use  of  Scripture  examples,  however,  is  not 
for  purposes  of  interpretation,  but  for  the  increase  of 
holiness.  They  illustrate  Divine  truth  and  human  duty — 
they  show  the  possibility  of  obedience— they  rebuke  our 
imperfections,  and,  by  exhibiting  the  sins  of  good  men, 
excite  our  watchfulness  and  charity. 

Does  the  Christian  ask,  for  instance,  whether  it  is  possible  for  him 
to  serve  God  in  the  business  of  the  world,  as  well  as  in  retirement, 
or  in  the  public  service  of  religion?  let  him  remember  that  Enoch, 
who  walked  with  God,  had  sons  and  daughters,  that  Abraham  had 
great  possessions,  that  Joseph  was  governor  of  Egypt,  that  Moses  was 
king  in  Jeshurun  (Dt  33°),  that  Isaiah  was  a  statesman  and  counsellor 
in  the  days  of  King  Ahaz,  that  Jeremiah  dwelt  in  royal  courts,  that 
Daniel  was  third  ruler  in  the  kingdom  of  Babylon,  that  there  were 
saints  in  Caesar's  household,  and  that  our  blessed  Lord  Himself  was 
not  less  holy  as  the  carpenter  than  when  engaged  in  His  public 
ministry,  or  when  offering  the  great  sacrifice  of  the  Cross. 

Do  we  wish  to  test  our  repentance,  and  ascertain  whether  it  i» 
worldly  or  spiritual  ?  We  may  examine  its  fruits,  or  we  may  compare 
it  with  Scripture  examples.      We  have    true   repentance   in   David, 

2  Sa  12"  and  Ps  51  ;  in  Manassch,  2  Ch  33^'--^^ ;  in  Job,  42^  ;  in  Nine- 
veh, Jon  3^~8  ;  in  Peter,  Mt  26"^^ ;  and  in  the  publican,  Lu  i8^^.  We 
have  worldly  repentance  in  Pharaoh,  Ex  lo^^'^'^ ;  in  Saul,  i  Sa  15'-^* ; 
in  Ahab,  i  Ki  ai'^^ ;  and  in  Judas,  Mt  27^"^ 


THE   GUIDANCE   OF   LIFE  373 

Do  we  watch  with  most  care  against  our  easily  besetting  sins,  and 
feel  secure  against  others  to  which  we  are  less  prone?  We  may,  with 
advantage,  remember  that  Abraham,  the  father  of  the  faithful,  dis- 
trusted the  providence  of  God  ;  that  Moses,  the  meekest  of  men,  spoke 
unadvisedly  with  his  lips  ;  that  Job  murmured.  Job  3,  6,  &c.  ;  and 
that  the  boldest  of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord  swore,  through  fear,  that 
he  knew  Him  not. 

The  value  of  such  examples  is  not  to  be  lightly 
esteemed.  'All  that  philosophy,  wise  men,  and  general 
reason  can  teach,'  says  Luther,  Hhat  is  profitable  for  good 
life,  history  presents  by  examples  and  cases.  And  when 
we  look  at  it  deeply,  we  find  that  thence  have  flowed  almost 
all  rights,  art,  good  counsel,  warning,  threatening,  terror, 
consolation,  strengthening,  instruction,  and  prudence,  as 
out  of  a  living  spring.'  Examples  thus  become  morality 
taught  in  facts,  '  Christ  and  His  gospel  preached  from  the 
annals  of  His  own  kingdom*,' and  from  the  experience  of 
His  Church. 

Examples  apply  in  similar  cases. — It  may  be  remarked, 
generally,  that  if  the  matter  to  which  the  example  refers  is 
of  a  moral  nature,  we  are  to  copy  the  example  of  inspired 
men,  so  far  as  the  reason  of  the  practice  is  the  same  in  their 
case  and  in  ours.  If  the  cases  are  not  similar,  we  then  obey 
the  command  by  cherishing  the  spirit  which  their  example 
embodied,  without  copying  the  example  itself. 

It  is  a  principle,  for  instance,  that  Christians  are  '  by  love  to  serve 
one  another,'  and  if  the  churches  of  one  district  have  abundance,  and 
those  of  another  district  are  suffering  from  poverty,  the  churches  in 
the  former  case  are  to  obey  the  command  by  collecting  for  theii* 
poorer  brethren,  as  the  early  churches  did,  Ac  n^s-so  j  Qqj.  j^\  They 
apply  the  rule  in  the  same  way.  But  if  it  be  said  to  follow  from  this 
principle,  that  we  should  copy  the  example  of  early  Christians  in 
washing  one  another's  feet,  we  then  apply  the  exceptive  principle  just 
named.  That  custom  was  in  Eastern  countries  a  common  and  necessary 
refreshment ;  but  to  observe  it  here  would  defeat  the  design  of  the 
observance.  A  kiss  was  the  common  form  of  Eastern  salutation,  and 
was  designed  to  express  affectionate   regard ;   the  principle  of  that 

*  Neander. 


374  STUDY   OF   THE   SCRIPTUKES 

practice,  the  exercise  and  expression  of  affectionate  feeling,  is  still 
binding,  but  we  cease  to  copy  the  example,  or  to  express  the  principle 
in  that  form.  The  primitive  Church,  it  is  evident  from  the  New 
Testament,  had  its  love-feasts  ;  we  have  no  record  of  their  being  a 
Divine  ajopointment,  but  they  were  probably  the  spontaneous  expres- 
sion of  mutual  affection.  Hence,  when  they  were  abused,  the  Apostles 
condemned  them.  'These  are  spots,'  said  Jude,  'in  your  love-feasts.' 
In  the  case  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  abuse  was  condemned  also,  but 
the  ordinance  was  re-inculcated.  The  observance  of  such  feasts, 
therefore,  is  allowable,  if  they  tend  to  deepen  the  feelings  they  are 
designed  to  express,  but  the  example  is  plainly  not  of  binding 
authority. 

Inapplicable  Precedents. — If  the  matter  to  which  the 
example  refers  is  a  positive  institution,  the  precedent  is  of  no 
force  in  regard  to  its  merely  accidental  circumstances. 

In  relation,  for  example,  to  the  Lord's  Supper  ; — it  was  celebrated 
in  an  upper  room,  with  unleavened  bread,  the  guests  reclining  at  the 
table,  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  and  in  the  evening  of  the  day. 
Three  of  these  facts  are  expressly  mentioned,  and  the  others  are 
undoubted  ;  yet  none  is  deemed  essential  to  the  due  observance  of  the 
ordinance.  Most  of  the  meetings  of  believers  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  were  held  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  Ac  26^  i  Cor  11'^°. 
Most  of  the  preaching  to  the  Jews  and  others  who  worshipped  with 
them  was  on  the  seventh  day,  Ac  13*2  18*  i6^^  To  frame  our 
practice  in  this  case  after  apostolic  example,  without  considering  the 
reason  of  their  conduct,  is  plainly  to  confound  the  essential  and 
accidental  characteristics  of  their  obedience.  They  exhorted  Christians 
principally  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  because  this  day  had 
already  become  recognized  as  the  weekly  festival  of  the  Resurrection. 
They  preached  on  the  Saturday  because  the  people  whom  they  sought 
to  reach  were  then  most  accessible.  It  follows  that  there  is  a  reason 
for  the  service  of  the  first  day,  which  does  not  now  exist  in  the  case 
of  the  seventh. 

True  Basis  of  Obedience. — It  is  important  to  observe 
that,  in  all  these  cases  (both  those  that  refer  to  moral  precepts 
and  those  that  refer  to  positive  institutions),  the  duty  of 
obedience  is  founded  on  the  command,  the  application  and 
extent  of  the  command  being  fixed  by  the  phraseology 
employed,  and  by  the  example  of  inspired  men,  subject  only 
to  the  rules  just  given. 


THE   GUIDANCE   OF   LIFE  375 

Promises  and  their  Application. — Faith  in  the  promises 
of  the  gospel  is,  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  a 
great  medium  of  man's  renewal  and  holiness.  When  born 
again,  that  is,  restored  to  the  condition  and  character  of 
chiklren,  it  is,  under  the  operation  of  the  same  Holy  Spirit, 
by  the  incorruptible  seed  of  the  Divine  Word,  received  into 
the  heart.  When  justified,  it  is  by  faith  ;  and  by  faith  they 
are  made  holy  :  faith  is  our  '  shield,'  our '  work,'  our  '  victory,' 
our  'life.' 

227.  Characteristics  of  Divine  Promises. — In  study- 
ing and  applying  the  promises  of  the  Bible,  it  is  important 
that  we  remember  the  following  particulars  : — 

1.  The  general  promises  of  the  Bible  are  the  expression 
of  (jrod's  immutable  counsel. 

Men  have  often  attached  this  idea  of  counsel  to  the  secret  purposes 
of  God  only,  as  if  those  purposes  contradicted  His  Word,  or  were 
intended  to  nullify  and  frustrate  its  statements.  But  in  Scripture  the 
promises  are  always  spoken  of  as  the  revelation  of  His  purpose,  and 
the  violation  of  His  promise  as  the  denial,  not  of  His  Word  only,  but 
of  Himself.  He  had  promised  'before  the  world  began,'  Tit  i^  ;  and 
the  promises  are  quoted  in  proof  of  His  immutability,  Heb  6^^.^^ 

2.  Some  of  the  promises  are  universal,  and  others  peculiar 
and  temporary;  and  it  is  important  to  distinguish  between 
them. 

There  are  promises  made  to  Noah,  to  Moses,  to  David,  to  Peter, 
which  cannot  apply  to  us.  The  promise  to  the  Israelites  of  outward 
prosperity  was  temporary,  being  suited  to  their  dispensation,  and 
adapted  (in  a  state  where  eternal  things  were  less  clearly  revealed) 
to  secure  obedience.  So  the  gift  of  miracles,  and  of  infallibility  for 
writing  or  confirming  the  Scriptures,  was  promised  to  the  first  age 
of  the  Church  only,  but  is  now  withdrawn.  The  gospel  is  the  universal 
promise,  and  the  only  one.  It  is,  therefore,  the  ground  and  measure 
of  our  faith.  Many  promises,  however,  made  to  individual  believers 
are  branches  of  the  universal  promise,  and  are,  as  such,  to  be  applied 
to  believers  still.  The  promise  of  God  to  Joshua,  for  example,  '  I  will 
never  leave  thee,'  is  applied  to  the  Hebrew  Christians  ;  and  Nehemiah 
prayed  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  given  to  Moses,  Jos  i°  Heb  i^^ 
Ne  1 5-". 


376  STUDY  OF   THE   SCRIPTUKES 

There  is  nothing  in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  which 
needs  more  discrimination  than  the  degree  in  which  promises 
made  to  particular  persons  or  communities,  or  under  special 
circumstances,  may  be  appropriated  by  others.  Often  these 
promises  are  evidently  intended  to  apply  generally,  but 
sometimes  they  are  applied  without  warrant.  Satan  at- 
tempted this  perversion  of  Scripture  promise  in  the  case 
of  our  Lord,  Ps  91^^  Mt  4^. 

The  following  remarks  are  therefore  of  special  im- 
portance : — 

Promises  tluit  refer  to  the  present  life,  especially  those  that  are  con- 
tained in  the  Old  Testament,  applied  to  a  consistent  Christian,  embody 
a  general  truth,  namely,  that  religion,  by  making  men  honest,  and 
sober,  and  industrious,  has  a  constant  tendency  to  secure  temporal 
blessing.  The  hand  of  the  diligent  maketh  rich,  and  diligence  is 
enforced  by  the  gospel.  But  the  constancy  of  this  law  is  corrected  by 
three  considerations,  (i)  Persecution  and  suffering  are  expressly 
foretold,  of  the  Church,  and  for  Christ's  sake  ;  and  such  suffering  is 
itself  the  theme  of  a  promise.  (2)  The  temporal  promises  of  the  Old 
Testament  have  a  limit  in  the  very  character  of  the  later  dispensation. 
It  is  one  of  faith  rather  than  of  sight.  (3)  And  besides,  temporal 
mercies  are  now  employed  to  promote  the  Christian's  spiritual  welfare, 
and  are  given  or  withheld,  as  may  prove  most  for  his  highest  good. 
Under  the  Law,  *  the  rod  of  the  wicked  '  less  frequently  rested  upon  the 
'lot  of  the  righteous,'  because  the  lessons  of  Providence  were  among 
the  grand  teachers  both  of  the  Church  and  of  the  world.  Now, 
however,  the  Bible  is  complete  ;  and  God  is  free  (so  to  speak)  to  adapt 
His  discipline  to  the  wants  of  each  of  His  childi-en.  In  asking,  therefore, 
for  the  fulfilment  of  temporal  promises,  even  when  universal,  we  must 
remember  that  prosperity  has  ceased  to  be  the  uniform  expression 
of  Divine  favour,  and  that  Providence  is  now  administered  in  sub- 
servience to  the  spiritual  discipline  of  the  Church. 

3.  Some  of  the  promises  are  absolute,  and  otliers  are 
conditional. 

The  promises  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  and  of  the  call  of  the 
Gentiles  were  absolute.  The  promise  of  pardon  and  of  blessings 
essential  to  salvation  is  conditional  on  our  faith.  The  Christian's 
progress,  again,  in  holiness,  and  his  freedom  from  chastisement,  are 
dependent  upon  his  diligence,  and  obedience,  and  prayer. 


THE    GUIDANCE   OF   LIFE  377 

It  may  be  said  generally  that  every  promise  of  spiritual 
blessing  to  individual  Christians  is  given  to  character,  and 
on  conditions. 

See  I  Sa  a'o  i  Ch  28^  i^  Eze  33"  Jas  i^-t  Rq  4»-12  Heb  4I.  These 
promises  are  made  to  character ;  sincerity  and  faith  are  always  required. 
If  we  seek  Abraham's  blessing,  we  must  walk  in  Abraham's  steps. 
If  we  wish  for  special  tokens  of  Divine  regard,  we  must  cherish  the 
poor  and  contrite  spirit  with  which  God  is  pleased  to  dwell.  And 
they  are  made  on  conditions.  Further  light  and  richer  gifts  are  ever 
bestowed  in  proportion  to  our  industiy,  and  fervour,  and  fidelity,  and 
prayer. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  any  promise  of  Scripture  is  common,  and  we 
fulfil  its  conditions,  we  may  apply  it  to  ourselves  as  boldly  as  if  our 
name  were  there.  If  even  it  be  a  particular  promise  given  to  one 
saint,  but  a  branch  of  the  universal  promise  of  the  gospel,  and  we  do 
as  he  did  to  whom  it  was  originally  given,  it  becomes  our  own. 

228.  Conditions  of  the  Promises. — This  connexion  of 
the  promises  of  Scripture  and  the  conditions  attached  to 
them  is  often  overlooked.  Men  apply  the  promises  as  if 
they  were  made  to  sorrow  or  distress.  In  fact,  no  promise 
is  given  to  mere  distress,  but  only  to  distress  crying  for 
relief,  and  seeking  it  in  the  way  of  Divine  appointment : 
*  Call  upon  Me  in  the  day  of  trouble :  I  will  deliver  thee, 
and  thou  shalt  glorify  Me,'  is  the  uniform  language  of 
Scripture,  Ps  50^^  In  this  respect,  its  promises  differ  from 
its  invitations.  The  latter  are  commands  addressed  to  all, 
even  to  the  impenitent  and  the  unbelieving  (Mk  i^^);  the 
former  to  the  penitent  and  believing  only,  or  to  the  im- 
penitent, on  the  supposition  that  they  turn  and  believe. 

4.  God  often  promises  a  blessing  without  fixing  the  time 
when  it  is  to  be  bestowed. 

God  will  deliver  the  righteous  out  of  his  troubles,  but  the  time  is 
not  told  us,  Ps  37".  See  40^,  '  I  waited  waitingly'  (Driver).  Christ 
is  to  come  again,  and  to  take  us  to  Himself,  Jn  14^"' ;  but  *  of  that 
day  and  hour  knoweth  no  man.'  To  trust  in  the  promise,  therefore, 
includes  both  patience  and  faith.  He  that  believes  will  not  make 
haste,  Is  aSie  Ro  9^3  2  Th  3^ 


378  STUDY  OF   THE   SCKIPTURES 

5.  Rightly  to  employ  the  promises,  we  must  use  them, 
not  indeed  as  the  ground  or  measure  of  duty,  but  yet  as 
motives  to  exertion  and  prayer. 

God  has  promised  to  deliver  His  Church  and  to  destroy  her  adver- 
saries ;  but  not  so  as  to  supersede  our  own  caution  and  endeavour. 
Paul  had  received  a  promise  that  ho  should  see  Rome,  and  yet,  when 
the  conspiracy  was  framed  to  assassinate  him,  he  immediately  took 
steps  to  protect  his  life,  as  if  no  promise  had  been  given,  Ac  2^'^^~^'^  ; 
compare  27^2.31^  jj^  every  case,  the  precept  is  our  rule,  though  the 
promise  may  influence  our  motives  and  encourage  our  prayers. 

God  promised  David  to  establish  his  house,  and  David  therefore 
pleaded  the  more  earnestly  with  God  to  fulfil  His  promise,  2  Sa  7IG-26. 

God  had  promised,  in  the  days  of  Elijah,  to  '  send  rain  upon  the 
earth,'  i  Ki  18^,  and  yet  Elijah  prays  with  the  greater  earnestness  and 
perseverance,  i  Ki  18* -"■**. 

Daniel  knew  that  the  seventy  years'  captivity  was  expiring  when 
he  set  his  face  by  prayer  to  seek  its  accomplishment,  Dn  g^-^. 

When  our  Lord  had  promised  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the 
disciples  continued  in  prayer  till  the  promise  was  fulfilled,  Ac  i^*. 

Rightly  to  employ  the  promises,  we  must  use  them  to 
promote  holiness.  They  are  given  that  through  their  means 
we  /may  become  partakers  of  a  Divine  nature.'  Nor  is 
the  design  of  God  answered,  unless  they  deepen  our 
thankfulness  and  bind  us  to  a  life  of  holy  and  devoted 
obedience,  2  Pet  i*  2  Cor  7^ 

Collections  of  Scripture  promises,  such  as  are  found  in  many  books, 
may  be  of  great  use,  or  the  reverse,  according  to  the  discrimination 
with  which  they  are  cited  and  applied.  Each  particular  promise  has, 
so  to  speak,  its  own  setting ;  and  this  must  be  carefully  taken  into 
account. 


PART   II 

THE   BOOKS   OF  THE   BIBLE 


*  Though  many  other  books  are  comparable  to  cloth,  in  which,  by 
a  small  pattern,  we  may  safely  judge  of  the  whole  piece,  yet  the 
Bible  is  like  a  fair  suit  of  arras,  of  which,  though  a  shred  may 
assure  you  of  the  fineness  of  the  colours  and  richness  of  the  stuff, 
yet  the  hangings  never  appear  to  their  true  advantage  but  when 
they  are  displayed  to  their  full  dimensions  and  are  seen  together.' — 
Boyle.  On  the  Style  of  Scripture. 


€h  (^00^6  of  t^t  (gim 

CHAPTER  XI 
INTRODUCTORY 

229.  Recapitulation. — We  now  come  to  the  study  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible.     Ah'eady  we  have  considered — 

The  general  divisions  of  Scripture  :  the  two  Testaments : 
the  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Holy  "Writings  of  the  Old  : 
the  Gospels,  Acts,  Epistles,  and  Revelation  of  the  New : 
with  the  history  of  their  transmission  to  modern  times ; 
and  the  laws  and  methods  of  Biblical  criticism: 

The  claims  of  Scripture  as  genuine,  authentic,  and  inspired, 
with  the  evidences  of  its  Divine  origin  : 

The  great  characteristics  of  Scripture  as  a  revelation  of 
God,  of  man,  and  of  the  plan  of  salvation  reconciling  both, 
securing  at  once  peace  and  holiness :  a  revelation  gradually 
communicated,  everywhere  consistent  ;  taught,  however, 
without  a  formally  announced  system,  though  all  centring 
in  the  Cross  of  Christ : 

The  principles  of  interpretation,  their  special  applications, 
and  the  use  of  external  helps  ;  the  spirit,  above  all,  in  which 
inquiries  into  the  meaning  of  Scripture  should  be  conducted  : 

The  systematic  study  of  Scripture  ;  its  applications  to 
practical  life  ;  with  the  difficulties  of  various  kinds  con- 
nected with  all  these  questions. 

Having  thus  viewed  sacred  Scripture  as  a  whole,  we  pro- 
ceed to  examine  its  particular  portions,  and  to  apply  more 
minutely  the  rules  and  principles  already  discussed. 


382  BOOKS   OF   THE   BIBLE 

230.  The  two  parts  of  Scripture. — The  Bible  is  com- 
posed of  two  parts :  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New ;  the 
second  containing  a  full  revelation  of  the  Divine  will,  and 
a  plan  of  salvation  addressed  to  all ;  the  first  containing  not 
all  probably  that  God  revealed  in  early  times  to  our  race, 
but  as  much  as  He  deemed  it  necessary  to  preserve.  Every 
part  of  what  is  thus  revealed  is  *  profitable  for  teaching, 
for  reproof,  for  correction,  for  discipline  which  is  in 
righteousness.' 

231.  Use  of  the  Old  Testament. — The  use  of  the  former 
Testament  is  highly  important :  and  a  simple  statement  of 
this  use  will  show  the  connexion  of  the  two. 

1.  Though  most  of  it  was  addressed  to  one  nation,  yet  it  enjoins 
much  on  man  as  man,  and  contains  principles  of  morality  which  are- 
universal  and  eternal.  The  precepts  which  were  given  to  Adam, 
the  Decalogue,  and  the  appeals  of  the  whole  book  illustrate  and 
enforce  moral  truth. 

2.  Much  of  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  is  the  history  of  God's' 
government.      In   that  government   He  illustrates   His  own  character 
and  ours  ;  and  whatever  advantage  an  inspired  record  of  this  kind 
can  give,  we  derive  from  this  part  of  the  sacred  volume. 

3.  Further,  the  hopelessness  of  salvation  by  laio  is  clearly  taught"* 
in  this  earlier  dispensation.  The  patriarchal  faith,  with  its  imme- 
diate or  traditional  communications,  ended  in  a  corruption  which 
not  even  the  Deluge  could  check.  Solemn  legal  institutes,  with 
rites  and  sanctions  most  instructive  and  awful,  failed  to  preserve 
the  people  from  idolatry,  though  the  great  Legislator  himself  re- 
peatedly interposed ;  and  when,  after  the  Captivity,  idolatry  ceased, 
formalism  and  infidelity  extended  on  every  side,  and  at  length  pre- 
vailed. In  the  meantime,  the  power  of  natural  religion  was  tried 
among  the  heathen  :  and  the  result  of  the  whole,  the  result  of  an 
experiment  carried  on  under  every  form  of  government,  amidst 
different  degrees  of  civilization,  with  traditional  knowledge  and 
immediate  light,  is  a  demonstration  that  in  our  fallen  state  reforma- 
tion by  law  is  hopeless,  and  that,  unless  some  other  plan  be  introduced, 
our  race  must  perish.  The  Old  Testament  was  given,  therefore,  inJl-—> 
part  to  show  us  our  sinful  state,  and  to  shut  us  up  unto  the  faith) 
winch  should  afterwards  be  revealed  (Gal.  3"^). 

4.  To  this  new  faith  it  is  also  an  introdu^^tion,  teaching  to  the 
spiritual  and    humble  under   the   first  dispensation    more  or  loss  of 


INTRODUCTORY  383 

the  plan  of  salvation  to  be  revealed  under  the  second.  Hence  its' 
types,  prophecies,  sacrifices ;  hence  assurances  of  pardon  to  the 
penitent,  and  tlie  revelation  of  a  God  ready  to  forgive  ;  although  the 
procuring  cause  of  pardon,  the  provision  that  was  to  reveal  the  one- 
ness of  justice  with  mercy,  was  not  fully  understood  till  the  remedial 
work  of  Christ  was  accomplished. 

Other  purposes  also  were  no  doubt  answered  by  this  first  dispen- 
sation. A  knowledge  of  the  true  God,  which  might  otherwise  have 
died  away,  was  preserved  ;  and  the  effect  of  true  religion,  even  in  its 
less  perfect  forms,  was  illustrated  ;  but  the  foregoing  are  probably 
the  chief. 

The  relation  of  the  New  Testament  to  these  purposes  of 
the  Old  is  plain.  The  second,  or  new  covenant,  is  a  double 
completion  of  the  first.  As  the  first  was  a  covenant  of 
^  types  and  predictions,  the  second  fulfils  it ;  putting  the 
ftict  in  the  place  of  the  prophecy,  and  in  the  j)lace  of 
the  shadow,  the  substance.  As  under  the  first,  moreover,  the 
revelation  of  God  and  of  duty  was  imperfect,  the  second 
filled  up  the  system  of  truth  and  of  precept  which  was 
thus  but  partially  disclosed,  develoj)ing  and  explaining  it 
with  more  of  spiritual  api3lication,  making  it  universal,  and 
securing  for  it  in  a  richer  degree  the  influence  of  the  Spirit. 
In  a  double  sense,  then,  the  gospel  is  the  completion 
(ttA-t^Pwo-is)  of  the  Law. 

232.  Summary  of  the  whole. — Regarding  the  whole 
Bible  in  its  connexions,  we  are  prepared  to  trace  the 
continual  development  of  Divine  truth  in  its  different  parts. 

In  the  first  eleven  chapters  of  Genesis,  and  in  Job,  we  have  the 
outlines  of  the  patriarchal  religion  ;  in  the  later  chapters  of  Genesis, 
the  history  of  the  transition  from  it  to  the  temporary  and  typical 
dispensation  of  the  Law.  In  the  other  books  of  the  Pentateuch, 
we  have  the  moral  law,  illustrative  at  once  of  God's  character,  and 
of  human  duty ;  the  ceremonial,  with  its  foreshadowings  of  the  great 
atonement  ;  and  the  civil,  the  means  of  the  preservation  of  the  other 
two.  In  the  settlement  of  the  Jews  under  Joshua,  whether  con- 
sidered in  itself,  or  as  an  emblem  of  the  future  ;  in  the  apostasy  of 
the  Jews,  their  punishment  and  deliverance  under  the  Judges  ;  in 
the   establishment    of    the    prophetic   and    kingly    offices  of    later 


384  BOOKS   OF   THE   BIBLE 

BOOKS,  in  addition  to  the  priestly  ;  and  in  the  unchanging  yet  diver- 
sified tenor  of  God's  providence  to  His  separated  people,  we  have 
our  knowledge  of  the  Divine  character  and  purpose  varied  and  aug- 
mented. In  the  Psalms  we  have  the  utterances  of  devout  hearts, 
touched  and  inspired  by  the  Divine  Spirit,  through  many  generations  ; 
witli  much  that  is  predictive  of  Him  in  Whom  all  devout  hearts  trust. 
In  the  WORDS  of  Solomon,  as  well  as  of  other  sages,  we  learn  both  the 
wisdom  and  the  vanity  of  the  world,  and  are  at  the  same  time  con- 
ducted beyond  the  maxims  of  worldly  prudence,  to  Him  Who  is  the 
Eternal  Wisdom.  In  the  Book  of  Isaiah  we  discern  the  Messiah, 
as  Prophet,  Sacrifice,  and  King ;  and  ai*e  led,  from  scenes  of  the 
Captivity,  to  the  forecast  of  the  greater  deliverance.  In  Jeremiah 
the  same  scenes  are  revealed,  though  dimly,  and  as  ina  cloudy  and 
dark  day.  In  Ezekiel  the  shadowy  priesthood  of  the  Jews  is  enlarged 
into  a  more  glorious,  and  spiritual  worship  :  and  in  Daniel  we  see 
the  termination  of  all  kingly  power  in  the  never-ending  empire 
of  the  Messiah.  The  minor  prophets  present  the  same  views  of  the 
Divine  government,  either  in  providence  or  in  grace ;  and  Malachi 
closes  the  old  revelation  with  predictions  of  the  coming  appearance 
of  the  Sun  of  righteousness. 

'  In  the  New  Testament,  Matthew,  after  a  silence  of  the  prophetic 
spirit  for  400  years,  connects  the  ancient  Scriptures  with  the  more 
recent,  and  completes  prophecy  by  pointing  out  its  fulfilment  in 
Christ.  Luke  reveals  Him  as  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles ; 
Mark  as  the  mighty  God  ;  John  as  the  everlasting  Father,  and  as  the 
Prince  of  peace.  The  Acts  continues  the  illustration  of  the  fulfilment 
of  ancient  predictions,  and  connects  the  facts  of  the  gospel  history 
with  the  Epistles.  Each  epistle,  while  giving  most  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  gospel,  embodies  distinctly  some  particular  truth.  The 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  exhibit  the  self-evidencing  power  of 
the  gospel  in  the  hearts  of  believers,  and  set  forth  the  antecedents 
and  result  of  the  Second  Coming.  The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians 
explain  Christian  unity,  set  forth  the  application  of  Christian  prin- 
ciples to  difficult  problems  of  life,  and  declare  the  doctrine  of  the 
Eesurrection.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  gives  to  those  whom  Paul 
had  not  then  visited  a  full  view  of  the  gospel  without  reference  to 
any  previous  communication,  enlarging  most  on  the  great  truth  of 
justification  by  faith.  The  simplicity  of  that  faith,  and  its  inde- 
pendence of  the  Law,  in  opposition  to  the  legalism  of  Judaizing 
teachers,  is  maintained  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  ;  while  that 
to  the  CoLOSSiANS  points  out  the  contrast  between  the  principles  of 
the  gospel  and  the  tenets  of  a  false  philosophy,  and  that  to  the 
Ephesians  shows  that  language  is  inadequate  to  express  the  fullness 
which  ifl  communicated  in  all-abounding  grace,  from  the  Head  to  the 


INTRODUCTORY  385 

body  ;  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  shows  the  connexion  between  the 
Christian  faith  and  its  Old  Testament  foreshadowings  ;  that  of  James 
exhibits  the  connexion  between  the  Christian  faith  and  practical 
holiness ;  the  First  Epistle  of  John  dwells  upon  the  doctrine  of  the 
Divine  Love,  and  its  influence  upon  human  life  ;  and  the  First 
Epistle  of  Peter  sets  foi-th  the  glory  of  the  Christian,  calling  in 
allusions  taken  from  the  ancient  Scriptures.  Other  epistles  treat  of 
specific  duties  or  truths,  and  the  system  of  revelation  is  completed 
by  the  Apocalypse,  which  unites  and  closes  the  prophecies  that  go 
before,  and  introduces  the  Church,  after  all  her  trials  and  changes, 
to  victory  and  rest  on  earth,  and  then  into  never-ending  blessedness 
in  heaven. 

The  volume  that  speaks  of  these  topics  may  be  described 
as  consisting  of  two  parts  ;  but  they  form  really  one  hook ; 
and  the  truths  it  reveals  are  ever  the  same,  dimly  seen  or 
fully  disclosed,  according  to  their  position  in  relation  to  the 
advent  and  work  of  the  Christ. 

233.  True  place  of  the  Old  Testament. — It  becomes 
us,  then,  duly  to  appreciate  both  Testaments.  Study  the  Old 
to  see  what  God  has  done,  and  what  therefore  He  is.  See 
in  it  a  solemn  protest  against  idolatry ;  a  proof  that  none 
can  be  justified  by  the  deeds  of  the  Law ;  a  gradual  dis- 
closure of  the  Divine  will  and  of  the  plan  of  redemption. 
Prize  it  for  these  reasons,  but  remember  also  that,  in  com- 
parison with  the  Netv,  inspired  writers  speak  of  it  in 
depreciating  terms.  The  old  dispensation,  apart  from  its 
fulfilment  in  the  new,  is  'darkness,*  'flesh,'  'letter,' 
*  bondage, ' '  the  elements  of  the  world '  (Gal.  4^) ;  while  in  the 
gospel  there  is  'light,'  'spirit,'  'liberty,'  'a  heavenly  kingdom.' 
Important  principles  of  interpretation  are  thus  suggested, 
nor  less  the  peculiar  obligations  of  our  position.  It  is  now 
doubly  binding  upon  us  to  be  complete  in  all  His  will. 
Our  dispensation  is  light,  let  us  be  wise  :  it  is  spirit,  let  us 
be  holy  :  it  is  power,  let  us  be  strong. 

234.  Classification  of  Old  Testament    Books.— The 

thirty-nine  books  of  the  Old  Testament  may  be  arranged  on 

c  c 


386  BOOKS  OF  THE  BIBLE 

different  principles.  Sometimes  they  are  classed  according 
to  their  contents :  the  Pentateuch,  the  historical  books,  the 
poetical  books,  the  'wisdom-literature,'  and  the  Prophets. 
This  division  is  sufficiently  accurate,  though  several  of  the 
books  belong  to  two  or  more  classes,  and  the  division  has 
not  been  uniformly  observed.  Sometimes  they  are  classed 
in  the  order  of  time  ;  and  as  much  of  the  meaning  of 
Scripture  is  elicited  by  the  chronological  study  of  the 
different  books,  we  shall  throughout  indicate  this  order  ; 
while  regarding,  in  the  general  arrangement,  their  difference 
in  object  and  contents. 

The  importance  of  specific  introductions  to  each  of  the 
books  of  the  Bible  must  not  be  disregarded.  Such  intro- 
ductions will  often  prove,  as  Bishop  Percy  has  observed, 
'the  best  of  commentaries,  and  frequently  supersede  the 
want  of  any.  Like  an  intelligent  guide,  they  direct  the 
reader  right  at  his  first  setting  out,  and  thereby  save  him 
the  trouble  of  much  after-inquiry ;  or,  like  a  map  of  the 
country  through  which  he  is  to  travel,  they  give  him  a 
general  view  of  his  journey,  and  prevent  his  being  after- 
wards bewildered  and  lost.' 

We  begin  witli  the  Pentateuch. 


^ 


CHAPTEE  XII 

THE  PENTATEUCH 

Its  Genuineness,  Unity,  and  Authenticity 

235.  The  Five  Books. — All  complete  copies  of  Holy 
Scripture  begin  with  the  Pentateuch.  It  was  called  by 
the  Jews  '  the  Law '  [Torah],  or,  more  fully,  '  the  five-fifths 
of  the  LaW^,'  or  simply  Hhe  fifths';  a  single  book  being 
called  *a  fifth.'  The  whole,  it  is  probable,  was  originally 
one,  divided  into  five  sections,  each  section  taking  as  its 
title  its  first  word  or  words.  For  the  smaller  divisions 
{Parashioth)  see  Part  I,  §  119. 

The  separation  of  the  books  into  five  (Gr.  TreVre)  is  thought 
by  many  due  to  the  Alexandrian  translators ;  although 
such  facts  as  the  Jewish  arrangement  of  the  Psalter  in  five 
books,  and  the  collection  of  the  five  'Megilloth,'  or  rolls, 
seem  to  indicate  an  early  tradition  in  regard  to  this  special 
number.  The  names  by  which  the  several  books  are  now 
known,  as  well  as  the  word  Pentateuch  itself  ^\  are  from  the 
Greek  of  Alexandria. 

The  *  Hexateuch.' — Some  modern  critics «  have  proposed 
to  amend  this  arrangement  by  including  the  Book  of  Joshua, 
which  has  several  points  in  common  with  the  Five.     Hence 

•  Rabbinical:  niinn  ^KT)in  ni5^Dn 

T  -  ...  T       .    _.    . 

^  The  word  revxos  ordinarily  means  an  implement,  hence,  in  Alexan- 
drian Greek,  a  volume. 

'^  In  fact,  the  Book  of  Joshua  so  plainly  presupposes  the  Law  of 
Moses,  that  the  only  resort  for  those  who  denied  the  Mosaic  author- 
ship of  the  Five  Books  was  to  make  a  sixth  of  this  in  the  same  series. 

C  C  2 


388  THE  PENTATEUCH 

the  appellation  Hexateuch  (Gr.  c^,  six),  'the  Six  Volumes ".' 
There  appears,  however,  no  adequate  reason  for  abandoning 
the  ancient  and  familiar  division,  according  to  which  the  Book 
of  the  Law  naturally  closes  with  the  record  of  the  great 
Lawgiver's  death.  These  Five  Books,  moreover,  stand  apart 
from  the  rest,  as  pre-eminently  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew 
Theocracy. 

Mosaic   Origin 

236.    Difficulties  at  the  outset;   how  met. — Certain 

preliminary  difficulties  have  been  urged  against  the  Mosaic 
authorship  of  these  books. 

1.  It  was  long  maintained  that  the  arts  of  writing  and 
of  literary  composition  were  not  sufficiently  advanced  in 
the  time  of  Moses  to  allow  of  such  productions. 

The  futility  of  this  objection  has  been  abundantly  shown  by  the 
testimony  of  the  monuments.  In  paiHicular,  the  Tel  el-Amarna 
tablets,  discovered  in  1887  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  royal  city  in 
Middle  Egypt,  have  yielded  to  explorers  a  long  series  of  inscriptions 
belonging  to  about  the  fifteenth  century  b.  c.^ 

Still  earlier  are  the  Babylonian  tablets  of  the  reign  of  Khammurabi 
(now  identified  with  Amraphel,  King  of  Shinar,  Gen  14^),  showing 
that  writing  and  literature  existed  in  the  days  of  Abraham.  One 
of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  recently  discovered  monuments  of 
jintiquity  is  the  code  of  laws  promulgated  by  this  king,  centuries 
before  the  time  of  Moses.  This  code  has  been  made  accessible  to 
English  readers  in  a  small  volume  edited  by  C.  H.  W.  Johns,  M.A., 
under  the  title  of  The  Oldest  Code  of  Laws  in  the  World  (T.  &  T.  Clark, 
1903).  This  work  performs  a  double  service — first,  by  decisively 
refuting  the  above  objection  ;  and,  secondly,  by  showing  that  the 
Mosaic  code  could  not  (as  some  critics  assert)  have  been  derived  from 
the  Babylonian. 

2.  It  has  been  alleged  that  the  books  imply  a  state   of 

'  Kuenen  (who  seems  to  have  originated  the  term),  Wellhausen, 
Robertson  Smith,  Driver,  and  their  followers. 

^  A  lively  description  of  the  contents  of  these  documents  is  given 
in  a  tract  by  Carl  Niebuhr  (1901).  See  albo  Sayce's  Higher  Criticism  and 
the  Verdict  oj  the  Monuments  (1895). 


MOSAIC   ORIGIN  389 

religious  culture  inconsistent  with  the  early  date  claimed 
for  them. 

This  is  a  mere  assumption,  without  evidence  ;  arbitrarily  setting 
aside  not  only  the  internal  marks  of  authenticity  which  the  history 
contains,  but  its  confirmation  from  the  Israelite  religion  in  subsequent 
ages.  That  religion  has  its  manifest  basis  in  an  early  monotheism, 
such  as  the  patriarchal  annals  portray.  The  Pentateuch  accounts  foi- 
the  mighty  fabric  of  the  .Jewish  faith — without  it,  the  whole  system 
becomes  confused  and  unintelligible  *. 

237.  Moses  the  author. — The  way  is  then  open  to  con- 
sider the  positive  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  the  Five 
Books.  That  they  emanated  from  Moses  is  attested  by 
considerations  such  as  the  following  :  — 

1.  Tradition. — Universal  ancient  tradition,  both  Jewish 
and  heathen,  assigns  it  to  him. 

The  conviction  of  the  .Jewish  people  was  uniform  and  unquestioning 
from  the  first.  Throughout  the  Old  Testament,  the  fact  is  taken  for 
granted  as  indisputable.  See  Jos  i'^-"  8^^-^*  23®  i  Ki  2^  2  Ki  ii^^ 
(Hhe  Testimony'  :  see  reff.  R.V.)  14^  23-^5  j  ch  22'^--'^  2  Ch  25*  33^ 
Ezr3--«6'8Ne  i^-8and8. 

Heathen  testimonies  naturally  follow  the  .Jewish,  which  are  ac- 
cepted without  question  by  Tacitus,  Juvenal,  and  Strabo  ;  also  by 
Longinus,  Porphyrj',  and  the  Emperor  .Julian.  Mohammed  explicitly 
recognizes  the  inspiration  of  Moses  and  the  Divine  origin  of  the 
Jewish  Law. 

2.  Traces  in  the  Books. — This  testimony  is  sustained 
by  the  record  itself. 

The  references  in  the  Pentateuch  to  '  a  book,'  or  to  '  the  book  ' 
which  was  in  course  of  preparation,  are  repeated  and  explicit.  See 
Ex  17'*  24^"'^  Num  33-  Dt  285*'^i  2j9-]2.24_  ^t  is  noteworthy,  however, 
that  none  of  the  books,  excepting  Deuteronomy,  directly  claims 
Mosaic  authorship. 

3.  Testimony  of  other  Scriptures. — The  remaining  Old 
Testament  hooks,  especially  the  Prophets,  abound  in  references, 
more  or  less  explicit,  to  these  Five  Books.     The  laws,  the 

*  On  the  whole  subject,  see  Prof.  James  Robertson's  Early  Religion  of 
Israel,  *  Baird  Lectures  '  for  1889  ;  also  Dr.  E.  C.  Bissell's  The  Pentateuch, 
its  Origin  and  Structure  (1885),  Introduction. 


390  THE   PENTATEUCH 

histories,  the  very  phraseology  of  the  Pentateuch,  were 
evidently  in  the  minds  of  the  sacred  writers,  as  familiar  and 
authoritative.  'The  Torah  was  a  book  so  well  known  that 
its  words  had  become  household  words  among  the  people ' 
{Perowne). 

A  small  selection  of  instances  must  suffice.  The  evidence,  it 
must  be  remembered,  is  cumulative.  A  few  coincidences  might  con- 
ceivably be  accidental  ;  many,  taken  separately,  would  be  of  little 
force  ;  but,  combined,  tliey  are  irresistible*. 

From  Prophets  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  the  following  references 
may  be  given  :  — 

HosEA  rio  (Gen  221^)  4I0  (Lev  262")  4^^  ,  L>t  ^2'')  5«  (Ex  10'')  8^2,  a 
remarkable  passage,  which  may  be  rendered  (as  R.V.  marg.)  '  I  wrote 
for  him  the  ten  thousand  things  of  My  law,  but'  &c.,  11^  (Ex  4^2)  n' 
(Dt  i-^i)  118    (Dt  2922-23)  12S  (Gen  2526   322*-28)    la^    (Ex  s^^'j   i3^  (I>t 

Amos  22  (Num  2128)  2'  (Ex  23^,  &c.)  4*  (Num  283)  ^is  (^ev  265). 

From  Prophets  of  the  Southern  Kingdom  : — 

Joel  2^  (Ex  10^*)  223-'6--t  (Lev  ae*-"^-!'"!-^). 

Isaiah  ii*  (Num  14^^)  12^  (Ex  15^)  34'^  and  Jeremiah  4^' 
(Gen  i2)  4110  (Dt  31^-8)  44'^  (Dt  32^5  33.^.26)  5312  (Ex  i2^3.3f  ^^ig-,  ^qu 
(Dt  32"). 

See  also  Micah  5"^  and  Habakkuk  3^^  (Dt  328-13^  Mic  6^  (Num  22^^) 
Zephaniah  3^^  (Lev  26'^''^. 

This  array  of  passages,  to  which  many  others  might  have 
been  added  ^\  are  evident  references  to  an  earlier  literature. 
Especially  is  it  observable  that  those  quoted  from  Hosea 
and  Isaiah  prove  Deuteronomy  to  have  been  known  to  these 
prophets  ;  while  those  from  Hosea  and  Amos  show  that  the 
Five  Books  were  recognized  in  the  Northern  Kingdom  — 
a  fact  of  prime  importance.  That  Jeremiah  also  abounds 
in  references  to  Deuteronomy  is  admitted  by  all. 

4.  New  Testament  witness. — Our  Lord  and  His  Apostles 
consistently  assume  and  refer  to  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the 
Pentateuch. 

*  See,  for  a  full  display  of  this  argument,  Hengstenberg,  Die  Authmtie 
des  Pentateuchs ;  also  Stanley  Leathes,  The  Law  in  the  Prophets  (,1891). 
^  See  a  fairly  complete  list  in  Leathes,  as  quoted  above. 


MOSAIC    ORIGIN  391 

It  is  impossible  here  to  enter  on  the  profound  and  difficult 
subject  of  our  Lord's  knowledge  as  man,  or  to  discuss  the 
likelihood  of  His  adopting,  without  endorsing,  the  current 
notions  of  His  time  in  regard  to  the  Old  Testament  Canon. 
But  it  is  impossible  to  read  such  passages  as  Jn  i^"^  5*"^~*'  y^ 
^19-23  without  feeling  that  the  whole  weight  of  New*^ 
Testament  authority  is  on  the  '  traditional '  side. 

5.  Archaisms. — There  are  indications  of  early  origin  in 
the  use  of  certain  words  and  Hebreiv  forms  ^vhich  do  not 
occur  in  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

To  trace  these  archaisms  adequately  requires  a  knowledge  of  the 
language.  The  following  are  especially  noticeable.  The  feminine 
demonstrative  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  hi  (wn)  is  almost 
invariably*  written  Nin  in  the  Pentateuch  (like  the  masculine)  in- 
cluding Deuteronomy,  and  nowhere  else.  Again,  the  masculine  form 
naar  (^r:)  is  used  for  girl  as  well  as  hoy  in  the  Five  Books'*,  the  femi- 
nine, a  later  form,  being  employed  elsewhere.  So  with  several  other 
words,  of  which  older  forms  attest  the  early  origin  of  the  Pentateuch*^. 

6.  Internal  Evidence.  —  The  contents  are  throughout 
consistent  with  Mosaic  authorship,  (i)  The  books  w^ere 
written  by  a  Hebrew  speaking  the  language  and  cherishing 
the  sentiments  of  his  nation.  (2)  They  were  written  by  a 
Hebrew  acquainted  with  Egypt  and  Arabia,  their  customs 
and  learning  f^.  But  Egyptian  learning  Avas  carefully  con- 
cealed from  foreigners.  The  priests  alone,  and  the  royal 
family,  who  were  reckoned  as  priests,  had  access  to  it 
(see  Herodotus,  ii.  3,  164.  168,  &c.).  To  this  class,  therefore, 
the  writer  must  have  belonged.  (3)  There  is,  moreover,  an 
exact  correspondence  between  the  narrative  and  the  institu- 
tions, showing  that  both  had  one  author.  The  laws  are 
not  given    in    the  form    of  statutes,   but   are   mixed   with 

*  There  are  only  eleven  exceptions. 

*  The  only  exception  is  in  Dt  22^^. 

"  See  the  list  given  by  Bp.  Perowne  in  Smith's  Diet  Bible,  ii.  783. 
Observe  that  the  usage  in  Deuteronomy  is  specially  included. 

Dtiii^ 


302  THE   PENTATEUCH 

narrative,  and  are  inserted  as  the  exigencies  requiring  them 
arose.  They  are  often  briefly  sketched,  and  afterwards 
repeated  at  greater  length,  with  such  modifications  as 
were  demanded  by  altered  circumstances  ^  (4)  No  less 
remarkable  is  the  agreement  between  the  style  of  the 
different  books  and  the  circumstances  of  Moses,  as  depicted. 
In  the  earlier  narrative  of  Exodus  and  Numbers,  the  style 
is  broken  and  abrupt,  as  that  of  a  journal  kept  from  time 
to  time,  with  frequent  interruptions.  In  Deuteronomy  it  is 
continuous  and  hortatory.  The  Five  Books,  at  the  same  time, 
exhibit  the  unity  of  design  which  bespeaks  a  single  author. 

7.  Deuteronomy  in  particular*. — The  case  of  Deuteronomy 
is  special.  It  is  supposed,  although  there  is  no  direct  evi- 
dence as  proof,  that  it  was  'the  book'  that  Hilkiah  the 
high-priest  discovered  in  the  Temple  during  the  repairs 
under  King  Josiah,  2  Ki  22^^  2  Ch  34^*.  Hence  it  has 
been  concluded  by  some  critics  that  Hilkiah  himself  pre- 
pared the  book,  while  others,  shrinking  from  this  imputa- 
tion of  literary  forgery,  have  on  various  grounds  referred 
the  book  to  the  time  of  Manasseh  [Ewald,  Driver),  or  the 
early  days  of  Isaiah  {Kuencn,  CJieyne,  Montefiore).  This  view 
has  been  supported  by  the  alleged  differences  in  some 
important  respects  between  the  Deuteronomic  and  the 
Levitical  legislation.  Such  differences  are  noted  in  a  sub- 
section :  it  is  enough  now  to  say  that  they  might  naturally 
arise  from  the  circumstances  in  which  the  great  Lawgiver 
uttered  his  final  charge  to  Israel.  The  desert-wandering 
was  over,  and  the  instructions  now  given  were  adapted  to 
the  new  life  on  which  the  people  were  entering^'.  The 
following  facts  are  of  use  in  determining  the  question : — 

*  Compare  Ex  21''^  and  Dt  15^'^"^'^  ;  Num  ^-^-^^  and  7^"'  ;  Lev  I'f-^ 
and  Dt  i2^-^-"-^ ;  Ex  222«  and  Dt  24«•lo-l^ 

^  It  may  be  further  argued  tliat  the  phrase  '  beyond  Jordan,'  which 
has  been  thought  to  prove  the  book  to  have  been  written  in  western 


MOSAIC   ORIGIN  393 

(r)  The  references  to  Egypt  in  Deuteronomy  are  such  as 
would  be  made  by  one  conversant  with  the  life  of  that 
country,  and  newly  escaped  from  its  bondage. 

(2)  The  language  of  the  book,  in  the  archaic  forms  above 
mentioned,  as  well  as  in  other  respects,  corresponds  with 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  Pentateuch,  rather  than  with  that  of 
other  Old  Testament  books. 

(3)  The  references  already  given  abundantly  prove  that 
Deuteronomy  was  known  to  the  prophets  of  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  Kingdoms. 

(4)  The  whole  tone  of  the  book  is  inconsistent  with  the 
later  date  assigned  to  it.  Had  its  object  been  to  bring  down 
the  provisions  of  the  Law  to  the  later  times  of  the  monarchy 
there  are  omissions  and  insertions  alike  inconceivable  ^. 

Among  the  omissions  may  be  mentioned  that  of  the  Service  of  Song 
in  the  House  of  Jehovah  ;  among  the  insertions,  the  decree  for  the 
utter  extermination  of  the  Canaanites.  Had  the  book  been  written 
several  generations  after  the  disappearance  of  these  tribes,  such 
injunctions  would  have  been,  says  Professor  Green  of  Princeton,  <  as 
utterly  out  of  date  as  a  law  in  New  Jersey  at  the  present  time 
offering  a  bounty  for  killing  wolves,  or  a  royal  proclamation  in  Great 
Britain  ordering  the  expulsion  of  the  Danes.' 

(5)  There  is,  at  the  same  time,  nothing  in  the  Mosaic 
origin  of  the  books  inconsistent  with  the  view  that  it  was 
reduced  to  writing  in  Canaan,  after  the  conquest.  Such  was 
the  later  view  of  that  distinguished  critic  and  expositor  of  the 
Old  Testament,  Bishop  Perowne.  That  it  already  existed, 
and  was  known  when  the  Book  of  Samuel  was  written,  the 
bishop  decisively  proves  ^. 

crossing  of  the  Joi-dan.'  It  is  in  fact  employed  in  the  very  same 
chapter  to  denote  both  the  eastern  and  the  western  territory.  See 
eh.  38-20^     But  compare  (5)  below. 

"  See  an  essay  by  Dr.  A.  Moody  Stuart  in  The  Bible  true  to  Itself  (1885). 

•>  'Hophni  and  Phinehas  break  the  law  by  which  the  priests'  dues 
were  regulated,  and  the  very  phrases  of  i  Sa  2^^  are  borrowed  from 
Pt  i3\'   See  two  papers  by  Bishop  Perowne  (then  Dean  of  Peterborough; 


394  THE   PENTATEUCH 

Unity 

238.  Implied  in  Mosaic  origin. — The  Mosaic  origin  of 
the  Five  Books  implies  their  essential  unity.  Whatever  the 
remoter  or  later  sources  of  this  or  that  part  of  the  annals, 
the  divinely  inspired  historian  and  lawgiver  of  the  Hebrew 
people  fused  them  into  one. 

In  considering  this  point,  two  qualifying  remarks  are  both 
obvious  and  important. 

I.  Earlier  Documents. — The  unity  asserted  does  not  in 
any  way  exclude  the  cmployme^it  of  pre-existing  documents. 
Inspiration  does  not  supersede  the  ordinary  methods  of  the 
historian  ;  and  every  historian  has  recourse  to  his  authorities. 
In  the  present  case,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  previous 
records  would  be  ignored. 

The  great  outstanding  events  of  the  world's  history 
from  the  dawn  of  time  left  their  trace  in  human  memory 
and  gave  rise — we  know  not  how — to  such  traditions  as 
appear  in  monumental  records.  Vitringa  long  ago  remarked 
that  Moses  may  have  had  before  him  '  documents  of  various 
kinds,  coming  down  from  the  times  of  the  Patriarchs,  and 
preserved  among  the  Israelites,  w^iich  ho  collected,  digested, 
and  amj^lified  where  deficient '\'  Such  records,  albeit  in 
strange  and  varied  forms,  are  now  known  to  have  been 
preserved  by  different  nations— Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Baby- 
lonian ;  and  Moses  could  not  have  been  ignorant  of  them. 
Almost  every  j'ear  brings  to  light  some  fresh  tradition,  with 
its  legendary  and  mythological  accretions ;  and  we  cannot 
but  recognize  and  admire  the  Divine  guidance  by  which  the 

in  the  Contemporary  Review  for  January  and  February,  1885,  'The  Age 
of  the  Pentateuch,'  where  the  reasoning  is  mainly  directed  to  show 
that  the  'Priestly  Code'  must  have  preceded  Deuteronomy. 

*  Ohservationea  Sacrce,  1707,  i.  4,  §  23.  This  remark  of  the  famous  Dutch 
divine  has  been  endorsed  by  theologians  of  different  schools,  long 
before  the  era  of  modern  criticism.  See  Calmet,  Home,  Pye  Smith, 
Moses  Stuart,  and  others. 


UNITY  395 

inspired  historian  was  led  through  rcahiis  of  fable  into  the 
region  of  knowledge  and  of  truth  ^. 

2.  Editorial  Revision. — Again,  the  Mosaic  authorship 
does  not  preclude  the  notion  of  editorial  care  in  succeeding 
ages.  We  are  not  to  suppose  that  we  have  in  our  hands  the 
Five  Books,  without  alteration  or  addition,  as  they  were 
written  in  the  wilderness.  Changes  are  not  indeed  to  be 
arbitrarily  assumed  ;  but  the  work  of  later  hands  appears 
upon  the  very  surface. 

Thus,  wliere  we  are  told  (Gen  13")  'The  Canaanite  was  then  in  the 
land,'  we  infer  that  when  that  sentence  was  written  the  Canaanites 
had  been  dispossessed.  In  Gen  36^^  'These  are  the  kings  that 
reigned.  . ..  before  there  reigned  any  king  over  the  children  of  Israel,' 
is  plainly  a  later  addition  to  the  early  text**.  In  Ex  16^''  that  'the 
children  of  Israel  did  eat  manna  forty  years,  until  they  came  unto 
the  borders  of  the  land  of  Canaan/  is  a  remark  most  probably  added 
after  their  entrance  into  Palestine.  See  also  Lev  iS^^,  In  like  manner, 
modern  names  of  places  are  found  in  the  text :  Dan,  Gen  14^*  Dt  34' 
(see  Jos  19*^  Judg  i827.29> .  Hebron.  Gen  13^8  232  (gee  Jos  141'  Judg  i^")  ; 
and  perhaps  Hormah,  Num  14*^  (see  21'"^  Judg  i^^).  Editorial 
parentheses  may  also  have  been  introduced  into  Gen  13^*  14^-*  Dt3''  4*^. 
It  is  perfectly  supposable  that  such  alterations,  with  others,  were  made 
by  Ezra  when  he  issued  'the  Book  of  the  Law'  after  the  Captivity  ; 
but  however  this  may  have  been,  the  isolated  phrases  cannot  be 
suflFered  to  weigh  against  the  abundant  evidence  for  the  earlier  origin 
of  the  hook  that  contains  them.  That  the  last  chapter  of  Deuteronomy 
was  added  after  the  death  of  Moses  is,  of  course,  unquestionable. 

A  threefold  element. — On  the  whole,  we  may  safely 
recognize  in  the  Ptntateuch  a  pre-Mosaic,  a  Mosaic,  and 
a  post-Mosaic  element,  the  second  of  these  being  supreme. 

239.  Critical  Theories.  The  remarks  above  made,  if 
legitimately  applied,  will  lead  to  interesting  and  valuable 

*  See  The  Old  Testament  in  the  Light  of  the  Historical  Records  and  Legends 
of  Assyria  and  Babyloyiia,  by  Dr.  Theophilus  G.  Pinches  (S.P.C.K.,  1902). 
The  Babylonian  tradition  of  the  Creation  and  the  Flood,  as  given  in 
this  volume,  may  be  instructively  compared  with  the  histories  in 
Genesis. 

•*  This  is  found  again  in  i  Ch  f*^'". 


396  THE    PENTATEUCH 

result?,  and  will  be  a  true  help  in  the  interpretation  of 
many  passages.  But  it  is  necessary  to  notice  the  exaggerated 
and  extravagant  use  that  has  been  made  of  these  obvious 
laws  of  criticism  in  modern  times. 

Varied  use  of  the  Divine  Names,  i.  About  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  there  was  published  at  Brussels  a  work  by  Jean 
Astruc,  Professor  of  Medicine  at  Paris,  and  Court  Physician  to 
Louis  XIV,  in  which  the  various  use  of  the  Divine  names  in  Genesis 
and  the  first  six  chapters  in  Exodus  was  made  the  ground  of  '  con- 
"^  joctures*  as  to  the  ^^^'gin^l  dormmcintri  of  which  Moses  apparently 
availed  himself.'  Thus  in  Gen  1^-2^  the  name  Elohhn,  'God,'  is  uni- 
formly employed  ;  in  2* -3  it  is  Jehovah  Elohim  (a  double  appellation,  it 
may  be  remarked,  nowhere  else  occurring  in  the  Pentateuch,  excepting 
Ex  9'°).  In  ch.  5  it  is  Elohim  only,  excepting  in  ver.  29,  where  a 
quotation  is  made.  In  chs.  6-9  Elohim  and  Jehovah  are  used  in- 
discriminately everywhere,  and  in  11^—^  12  13  Jehovahonly.  In  ch.  14 
a  new  name  is  introduced,  El-Elyon  (God  Most  High),  and  is  used 
throughout  the  chapter*. 

Developments  of  the  Theory.  Such  variations  furnished  a  hint 
for  distinguishing  the  documents  employed.  In  the  view  of  Astruc, 
these  were  mainly  two — '  Elohist  '  and  '  Jehovist,'  with  a  few 
unclassed  and  subordinate  sections.  The  clue  was  followed  up  by 
Eichhorn,  Ilgen,  and  others,  before  the  close  of  the  century,  and  by 
a  large  body  of  critics  in  the  nineteenth  ;  of  whom  Kuenen  and 
Wellhausen  rank  among  the  chief.  A  vast  literature  has  grown  up 
around  the  subject.  The  Mosaic  authorship,  which  Astruc,  Eichhorn, 
and  their  immediate  followers  regarded  as  unquestionable,  is  now 
denied  by  the  critics,  while  the  hypothesis  of  various  documents 
has  been  extended  from  Genesis  and  Exodus  to  the  other  books  of  the 
Pentateuch,  and  latterly  to  Joshua. 

Different  Hypotheses.  2.  Further  tests  of  composite  character  in 
the  work  have  been  discovered  or  conjectured.  There  has  been  chrono- 
logical as  well  as  literary  dislocation.  Formerly  the  Deuteronomic 
code  was  regarded  as,   without  doubt,  subsequent  to  the  Levitical ; 

'  To  this  enumeration  it  is  added,  in  the  first  edition  of  this 
Handbook,  that  '  the  errors  and  refinements  of  some  modern  writers 
have  brought  the  theory  ("  documentai-y")  founded  on  the  distinction 
stated  into  perhaps  undeserved  discredit.'  In  view  of  the  present 
state  of  opinion  on  the  subject,  it  seems  advisable  to  go  somewhat  more 
into  detail. 


UNITY  397 

now  the  Levitical  is,  with  the  same  critical  certainty,  placed  after  the 
Deuteronomic*.  Theories  of  construction  have  successively  displaced 
one  another.  The  *  Documentary '  was  followed  by  the  '  Fragmentary  ' 
hypothesis  ;  and  when  the  latter  had  been  universally  discredited, 
a  'Supplementary'  theory  took  its  place.  The  hypothetical  authors, 
too,  are  various.  The  former  '  Eloliist '  has  been  superseded,  so  far  as 
the  first  twenty  chapters  of  Genesis  are  concerned,  by  the  '  priestly 
writer,*  who  also  furnished  the  main  Levitical  code  ;  and  there  is 
a  redactor  or  editor,  who  has  to  bear  much  responsibility  in  com- 
bining and  altering  the  several  accounts.  There  is  no  finality  in  the 
conclusions  reached,  and  some  extravagances  of  the  bolder  theorists 
may  well  make  the  inquirer  pause  \ 

Extreme  theories,  and  reaction.  Among  the  more  recent  is  the 
announcement  that  Israel  as  a  people  was  never  in  Egypt  at  all, 
but  that  the  clan  of  Moses  may  have  settled  in  an  insignificant 
Arabian  district  with  a  similar  name  {Mitzrim  for  Mitzraim).  In 
estimating  the  modern  criticism,  such  indications  of  tendency  are  not 
to  be  overlooked.  If  we  cannot  judge  accurately  of  the  separate  steps, 
it  is  at  least  useful  to  know  whither  they  are  leading  us ;  and  it  is 
not  wonderful  that  in  Germany,  the  home  of  such  theories,  a  healthful 
reaction  has  been  provoked  ". 

'  See  above,  §  237,  7,  on  the  genuineness  of  Deuteronomy.  This 
change  of  front  on  the  part  of  revolutionary  critics  is  very  noticeable. 
By  stress  of  their  own  arguments  they  have  been  compelled  to  assign 
the  Priestly  Code  to  this  later  period,  notwithstanding  both  external 
and  internal  evidence  to  the  contrary. 

^  Thus,  practically,  the  whole  of  Genesis  has  been  reduced  to 
legend.  The  early  religion  of  the  Hebrews  has  been  declared  to  have 
sprung  from  Babylonian  mythology.  The  Patriarchs  and  their  lives 
are  represented  as  mythical.  In  the  Nineteenth  Century  for  December, 
190a,  a  '  hospitable  reception '  is  bespoken  from  the  English  Christian 
public  for  the  views  of  Dr.  Winckler,  the  German  Assyriologist  and 
historian,  to  the  effect  that  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  are  legendary 
heroes  whose  histories  are  derived  from  astronomical  myths  ;  Jacob's 
twelve  sons  representing  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  and  so  on. 
So  with  the  subsequent  history  of  Israel.  Saul  and  Jonathan  are  the 
constellation  Gemini.  David  is  a  solar  hero  ;  his  red  hair  is  an  image 
of  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  he  himself  is  a  reflex  of  the  constellation 
Leo  ;  Goliath  standing  for  Orion.  All  this  would,  of  course,  be  little 
worth  notice,  but  that  it  comes  to  us  with  the  sanction  of  theological 
professors  and  ecclesiastical  dignitaries. 

*  See  especially  an  essay,  entitled  Historisch-kritische  Bedenken  gegen 
die    Oraf-  Wdlhausensche    Uypolhtse ;   von    einem    friihcren    Anhanger 


398  THE    PENTATEUCH 

240.  Proposed  Reconstruction  criticized  ^. — It  is  quite 
impossible,  in  a  work  like  the  present,  fully  to  analyse  the 
proposed  reconstruction  of  the  Pentateuch,  if  indeed,  amid 
conflicting  theories,  it  were  possible  to  decide  what  the  final 
reconstruction  is  to  be.  But  some  general  considerations 
may  be  useful  to  the  student. 

I.  The  Divine  Names. — The  groundwork  of  the  theory 
being  the  various  use  of  the  Divine  names  alleged  to 
distinguish  difi*erent  documents,  it  is  necessary  that  the  facts 
under  this  head  should  be  carefully  scrutinized. 

Tliat  there  are  two  accounts  of  the  Creation,  the  former  characterized 
by  the  name  Elohim,  the  latter  by  that  of  Jehovah-Elohim,  is  in- 
disputable :  that  in  the  narrative  of  the  Deluge  two  narratives  are 

(Wilhelm  Moller),  1899  :  translated  for  the  R.  T.  S.  by  C.  H.  Irwin, 
under  the  title  Are  the  Critics  right? 

*  It  may  be  convenient  here  to  give  the  latest  proposed  arrange- 
ment of  the  legislation.  It  can  hardly  be  regarded,  even  by  its 
supporters,  as  final,  in  view  of  the  many  preceding  schemes  which 
have  had  their  day  and  ceased  to  be.      The  scheme  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  two  so-called  Books  of  the  Covenant,  Ex  20-23  and  34^°-"~26^ 
wrought  together  from  the  original  sources,  J  E  (Jehovist  and  Elohist), 
which  existed  before  the  prophetic  writings. 

2.  Deuteronomy  (D). 

3.  The  Priestly  Code  (P  or  P  C),  which,  besides  a  brief  prefatory 
history,  contains  the  injunctions,  Ex  25-31^^  35-4°  Lev  1-27  Num 
i-io-**  15  18  J9  25^-31  33  36  (only  the  longer  sections  are  enumerated  : 
Moller).     R  stands  for  editor  (redactor)  of  the  whole. 

The  first  of  these  'is  a  brief  code  dating  fi'om  an  early  period,  and 
designed  to  regulate  the  life  of  a  community  living  under  simpla 
conditions  and  devoting  itself  chiefly  to  agriculture.' 

Tlie  second  '  is  without  doubt  the  Book  of  the  Law,  which  was  found 

in  the  Temple  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  King  Josiah,  B.C.  621,  and 

which  formed  the  prime  factor  in  his  great  reformation,  a  Ki  22*- 
2325; 

'  The  last  appears  to  have  grown  up  during  the  Exile,  and  to  have 
attained  its  present  form  probably  in  the  days  of  Ezra,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c'  {Contentio  Veritatis,  essay  by  C.  F. 
Barney,  M.A.,  1902). 

The  value  of  this  and  other  conjectural  scheaies  may  be  judged  in 
the  light  of  the  foregoing  observations. 


UNITY  399 

apparently  interwoven,  may  be  readily  admitted.  How  to  account 
for  these  facts,  much  more  for  others,  where  the  combination  or  inter- 
fusion is  less  traceable,  is  another  question.  And  we  are  led  to  ask 
whether  there  may  not  be  another  reason  than  that  of  double  or  triple 
authorship  to  account  for  the  variation  in  name.  Elohim,  we  know, 
stands  for  God  as  in  Himself  regarded.  Creator  and  Lord  of  the 
universe;  Jehovah,  for  the  Covenant  God,  the  God  of  His  people. 
May  there  not  have  been  a  deep  reason  why  the  same  writer  should 
employ  both  of  these  august  names  ?  On  the  one  hand,  Jehovah 
is  Elohim.  Our  God  it  is  Who  has  made  the  heaven  and  the  earth, 
and  all  that  therein  is.  He  is  no  mere  tutelary  God  like  the  gods 
of  the  nations,  but  omnipotent,  supreme.  On  the  other  hand,  Elohim 
is  Jehovah.  The  God  Who  made  all  things  and  rules  the  universe 
is  the  God,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  of  Israel,  His  chosen  nation. 
And  the  use  of  both  the  names  together  in  '  the  second  account  ot 
the  Creation'  accentuates  the  twofold  fact.  Well  therefore  may  the 
'two  accounts'  (if  originally  two,  as  alleged)  have  been  brought 
together  by  one  inspired  mind  and  pen,  for  the  sake  of  their  com- 
bined lesson.  But  the  case  is  not  one  for  mere  theorizing.  The 
attempt  to  apply  the  critical  canon  of  a  double  origin  breaks  hope- 
lessly down.  When  the  facts  are  against  the  theory,  the  facts  have  to 
be  altered,  that  the  theory  may  stand  !  Not  once  or  twice  merely 
Elohim  is  found  where  the  hypothesis  demands  Jehovah,  and  the 
converse  ;  the  critic's  inference  being  that  the  text  is  corrupt,  or  that 
the  redactor  has  thrown  it  into  confusion.  One  illustration  must 
suffice.  In  the  interview  of  Abraham  with  the  heathen  King 
Abimelech,  resulting  in  the  covenant  of  Beer-sheba  (Gen  21),  the 
name  of  God  employed  is  Elohim  {21"^-'-^),  but  when  Abraham 
worshipped  there  alone,  he  called  upon  Jehovah  (21^^).  But  the 
critics,  ignoring  the  obvious  reason  of  this  interchange  of  names,  tell 
us  that  verse  33  is  'a  fragment  of  J  inserted  by  R  in  a  narrative 
of  E.'     Can  criticism  be  more  inept  than  this?* 

'Nothing,'  writes  Professor  C.  von  Orelli,  'is  more 
astonishing  to  me  than  the  readiness  with  which  even 
diligent  explorers  in  the  field  attach  themselves  to  the 
dominant  theory,  and  repeat  the  most  rash  hypotheses  as 
if  they  were  part  of  an  unquestioned  creed.     Under  these 

*  Professor  W.  H.  Green,  of  Princeton,  has  given  a  long  list  of 
similarly  futile  criticisms  {The  Higher  Criticism  of  the  Pentateuch, 
pp.  92-98). 


400  THE    PENTATEUCH 

circumstances,  the  elements  of  fact  on  the  other  side  must 
be  emphasized  until  they  receive  their  due  weights' 

2.  It  is  too  common  to  give  way  before  an  unquestioned 
difficulty,  only  to  fall  into  another  and  a  greater. 

Signal  examples  are  the  surrender  of  the  Mosaic  origin  of  the 
Levitical  statutes,  because  they  are  not  directly  mentioned  in  the  Books 
of  Samuel ;  or  the  rejection  of  Deuteronomic  institutes  regarding 
priesthood  and  sacrifice,  because  they  seem  to  have  been  occasionally 
ignored  in  the  subsequent  history ''.  With  any  consideration  of  diffi- 
culties, due  weight  should  be  given  to  tlie  positive  evidence  on  the 
other  side. 

3.  Conjectural  criticism  is  suspicious.  Almost  every- 
thing here  depends  on  the  insight  and  judgement  of  the 
individual  critic  ^r  and  that  these  may  often  be  at  fault  is 
proved  by  the  diversity  of  the  conclusions  reached.  Con- 
jecture is  of  little  use,  until  verified  by  showing  that  the 
supposition  meets  all  the  facts  of  the  case. 

A  paragraph  may  here  be  quoted  from  Mr.  E.  H.  Lecky,  who 
approaches  the  subject  from  its  literary  side.  '  I  may  be  pardoned  for 
expressing  my  belief  that  this  kind  of  investigation  is  often  pursued 
with  an  exaggerated  confidence.  Plausible  conjecture  is  too  frequently 
mistaken  for  positive  proof.  Undue  significance  is  attached  to  what 
may  be  mere  casual  coincidences,  and  a  minuteness  of  accuracy  is 
professed  in  discriminating  between  different  elements  in  a  narrative, 
which  cannot  be  attained  by  mere  internal  evidence.  In  all  writings, 
but  especially  in  the  writings  of  an  age  when  criticism  was  unknown, 
there  will  be  repetitions,  contradictions,  inconsistencies,  diversities  of 
style,  which  do  not  necessarily  indicate  different  authorship  or  dates ' 
{The  Forum,  Feb.  1893,  essay  on  *  The  Art  of  Writing  History/  p.  718). 

4.  Moral  difficulties,  although  often  disregarded  in 
speculative  criticism,  are  yet  very  real. 

*  Introduction  to  the  treatise  by  W.  Moller,  cited  above. 

^  Yet  in  both  cases  they  are  implied  in  many  passages  of  the  books. 
See  Hiivernick's  Introduction  to  the  Pentateuch,  p.  376  (Clark's  tr.) ;  also 
Bishop  Harold  Browne  in  Speakers  Comm.,  who  gives  several  instances 
in  proof. 

"  See  an  able  pamphlet,  How  Two  Documents  may  be  found  in  One,  by 
Dean  Carmichuel,  of  Montreal  (1895). 


UNITY  401 

Any  hypothesis  which  attributes  the  origin  of  a  book  of 
Scripture  to  forgery  or  literaiy  fraud  destroys  the  value 
of  that  book  to  us.  '  The  Spirit  of  Truth  cannot  take  into 
His  service  literary  fictions  which  trifle  with  the  law  and  the 
sense  of  truth  ^.' 

5.  Implicit  Canons  of  criticism,  i.e.  such  as  are  not 
openly  expressed,  but  are  tacitly  or,  it  may  be,  unconsciously 
assumed,  often  vitiate  the  conclusion. 

In  the  case  before  us,  many  such  postulates  only  too  evidently 
underlie  the  reasoning.  Thus,  'The  non-obsei\'ance  or  non-mention 
of  a  law  implies  its  non-existence.*  A  critic  would  pause  before 
openly  stating  this,  but  it  is  often  silently  taken  for  granted.  Again, 
'  Miracles  do  not  happen  '  ;  '  The  predictive  element  forms  no  part  of 
prophecy.*  Such  denials  of  the  supernatural  are  not  indeed  as  yet 
so  common  in  Great  Bx-itain  as  in  Germany  and  Holland  ;  but  they  lie 
at  the  root  of  much  modern  criticism.  Happily,  the  old  faith  subsists 
for  a  while  in  many  such  critics,  even  when  its  historic  foundations 
are  removed.     But  how  long  will  this  endure  ? 

6.  The  real  question. — '  In  conclusion,  let  it  be  distinctly 
stated  that  the  true  point  in  dispute  is  the  supernatural 
origin  of  the  Law.  Under  the  disguise  of  a  purely  literary 
investigation,  an  attack  is  really  made  upon  the  Divine 
origin  of  the  religious  dispensation  which  was  to  be  "a  school- 
master to  lead  to  Christ."  Our  moral  instincts  rebel  against 
accepting  a  book  as  Divine  which  is  characterized  by  so-called 
"pious  frauds."  If  the  name  of  Moses  be  used  in  the  Law 
fictitiously,  however  high  the  motive,  men  feel  that  their 
belief  in  its  inspiration  woul-d  be  imperilled.  Unless  Christ 
and  His  Apostles  sanctioned  untruth  and  imposture,  we 
must  believe  that  the  Law  came  by  Moses,  and  had  its 
fulfilment  in  the  grace  and  truth  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ,  to  whom  the  types  and  sacrifices,  as  well  as  the 
prophecies,  naturally  pointed '  (Dr.  Alfred  Cave ;  essay, 
Wlien  teas  the  Fentateuch  written  ?  p.  24,  E.  T.  S.). 

*  Canon  Liddon,  sermon  on  the  Inspiration  0/ Selection  (1890). 
l;d 


402  THE   PENTATEUCH 


Authenticity 

241.  Truth  of  the  record.— The  evidence  of  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  Pentateuch  is  no  less  decisive  ;  though,  as  many 
of  the  events  are  recorded  only  here,  it  is  necessarily  less 
comprehensive  than  similar  evidence  in  the  case  of  ordinary 
history. 

I.  Several  of  the  historical  statements  of  the  Pentateuch 
are  confirmed  by  the  traditions  of  ancient  nations. 

References  to  Egyptian  life. — These  may  be  taken  as 
an  illustration  of  the  ever-accumulating  proof  afforded  from 
many  quarters.  Much  of  this  evidence  has  been  brought 
to  light  in  our  own  days.  It  was  formerly  alleged,  for 
example,  that  the  following  customs,  or  allusions,  are 
Asiatic,  and  not  Egyptian,  or  are  later  than  the  Exodus: 
building  with  bricks  (Ex  i^"^);  keeping  asses — animals 
odious  to  the  Egyptians  ;  the  presence  of  eunuchs,  implied 
in  the  name  given  to  the  captain  of  the  guard  (Gen  37^*) ; 
the  freedom  of  domestic  life  imi^lied  in  Gen  39  ;  the  use 
of  wine,  which  Herodotus  says  was  not  made  in  Egypt ;  of 
rings  and  other  ornaments  (41*^) ;  the  appointment  of 
stewards  (43^^'^'^  44^) ;  the  custom  of  sitting  at  table  (43^"). 
All,  however,  have  been  confirmed  by  the  discovery  of 
ancient  Egyptian  monuments.  Bricks  are  still  found  with 
the  names  of  the  oldest  Egyptian  dynasties  stamped  upon 
them.  To  the  art  of  wine-making  Eosellini  devotes  a  section 
of  his  work ;  and  upon  the  very  monuments  whence  his 
illustrations  are  taken  appear  eunuchs,  stewards,  ornaments, 
and  entertainments,  exhibiting  habits  of  social  intercourse 
and  modes  of  sitting  such  as  the  Pentateuch  implies. 

That  the  Egyptians  shaved  (Gen  41  ^*),  and  carried  burdens, 
not  on  the  shoulder,  but  on  the  head  (40^*^) ;  that  shepherds 
were  treated  with  great  contempt — the  butts  of  Egyptian 
wit  ;    that  caste  existed  ;    tliat  foreigners  were  naturalized 


AUTHENTICITY  403 

by  clothing  them  in  the  celebrated  Egyptian  linen  (Gen 
41*2),  are  facts  confirmed  by  ancient  sculptures,  or  expressly 
mentioned  by  Herodotus  as  peculiar  to  Egypt. 

It  may  be  added,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  Reginald  Stuart 
Poole,  the  eminent  Egyptian  archaeologist,  that  the  references 
to  Egypt  in  Genesis  and  Exodus,  'the  chief  cities  of  the 
frontier,  the  composition  of  the  army,  are  true  of  the  age 
of  the  Ramessides  ;  they  are  not  true  of  the  age  of  the 
Pharaohs  contemporary  with  Solomon  and  his  successors.' 
And,  he  pertinently  asks,  *  If  the  Hebrew  documents  are  of 
the  close  of  the  period  of  the  kings  of  Judah,  how  is  it  that 
they  are  true  of  the  earlier  condition,  not  of  that  which  was 
contemporary  with  those  kings  ?  ^ ' 

2.  Internal  indications. — Independently,  even,  of  ex- 
ternal evidence,  the  internal  is  itself  decisive.  The 
artlessness  of  the  style,  the  frequent  genealogies,  the  impar- 
tiality of  the  author  in  recording  the  faults  of  the  Jews  and 
his  own  ^',  are  all  obvious.  Add  to  this,  that  Judaism  is 
founded  upon  the  supposed  truthfulness  of  these  records. 
They  give  the  history  of  Jewish  institutions,  and  the  reasons 
for  the  observance  of  them.  If  there  be  a  forgery,  when 
could  it  have  been  executed  ?  Not  when  the  LXX  version 
was  made  (b.c.  275).  Not  on  the  return  from  Babylon 
(b.  c.  536,  Ezr  2*^-).  Not  on  the  division  of  the  kingdom 
(b.  c.  975).  Not  in  the  days  of  Samuel  (b.  c.  1095).  Not  in 
the  four  hundred  years  preceding.  For  at  each  successive 
era  there  were  thousands  interested  in  detecting  the  forgery, 
and  in  setting  aside  the  burdensome  and  peculiar  institutions 
founded  upon  it.  To  impose  upon  a  whole  nation  is  not 
easy,  and  to  convince  a  people  like  the  Jews  that  a  law 
for  the  first  time  promulgated  at  any  of  these  epochs  was 
that  under  which  their  forefathers  had  lived  for  centuries 

*  Contemporary  Review,  vol.  xxxiv,  p.  758  ^^March,  1879). 

^  See  history  of  Abraham,    Isaac,   Jacob  ;  also  Dt  26^  Ex  2^*  Num 

ao  >"-'=*. 

D  d    2 


404  THE   PENTATEUCH 

would  have  been  an  impossible  task.  In  fact,  to  suppose 
that  any  man  could  secure  the  observance  of  circumcision, 
of  the  Passover,  of  the  Feust  of  Pentecost,  or  of  Tabernacles, 
on  the  plea  that  these  rules  had  been  observed  from  the  first, 
and  for  the  reasons  assigned,  when  it  must  have  been  known 
that  this  statement  was  untrue,  is  to  suppose  a  greater  miracle 
than  any  the  record  contains.  And  these  institutions  had 
their  origin,  it  will  be  noticed,  not  in  the  ordinary  events  of 
the  history,  but  in  the  miracles :  so  that  by  them  not  only 
the  history,  but  each  miracle,  is  confirmed  ^. 

3.  Historical,  archaeological,  and  scientific  confirma- 
tions.— The  statements  of  the  Pentateuch  are  confirmed, 
moreover,  by  the  facts  of  history,  ethnography,  and  geology, 
so  far  as  these  have  been  clearly  ascertained. 

The  Earth  as  the  dwelling-place  of  man. — In  opposition  to  legends 
ascribing  a  fabulous  antiquity  to  the  habitable  earth,  which  have 
found  an  echo  in  some  modern  speculations,  may  be  placed  the  Avell- 
sustained  conclusion  of  eminent  geologists  that  '  the  last  great 
geological  change,'  adapting  the  earth  for  its  human  inhabitants, 
was  comparatively  recent.  Early  history,  especially  of  Egypt,  requires 
considerable  extension  of  the  traditional  period  of  six  thousand  years  ; 
but  the  main  conclusions  fit  in  well  with  the  records  in  Genesis. 

The  rise  of  Empires. — The  dynasties  of  Egypt,  as  given  by  Manetho 
and  illustrated  by  the  monuments,  seem  to  require  a  date  of  com- 
mencement much  earlier  than  the  popular  chronologies  have  assigned. 
Thus,  the  accession  of  Menes,  founder  of  the  first  dynasty,  is 
placed  by  Brugsch  and  Sayce  at  b.c.  4400,  and  by  Flinders  Petrie 
at  about  4777''.  But  these  dates  are  by  no  means  final,  as  it  is 
possible  that  some  of  these  dynasties  wera  contetnporaneous,  in  different 
parts  of  the  Nile  Valley,  rather  than  successive  (Canon  Rawlinson). 
The  reign  of  Yaon,  the  first  Chinese  emperor  mentioned  by  Confucius 
(B.C.  450),  cannot  be  earlier  than  b.c.  2500*';  nor  is  there  any  liis- 
torical  certainty  till  the  year  b.c.  782  (Klaproth).  The  celebrated 
chronology  of  India  reaches  no  higher  than  b.c.  2256.     Sucli  is  the 

*  Dean  Graves  has  expanded  this  argument  with  great  force  {Lectures 
on  the  Pentateuch,  1829,  Lect.  i,  ii). 

''  See  his  History  0/ Egypt,  vol.  i  (5th  ed.,  1903). 
"  Tile  date  usually  given  is  b.c.  ^356. 


AUTHENTICITY  405 

testimony  of  witnesses  who  have  examined  the  most  ancient  chrono- 
logical systems  avowedly  without  any  leaning  to  the  Pentateuch. 

Ethnog-rapliy  in  its  threefold  division,  philological,  physiological, 
and  ethical, "is  equally  in  favour  of  the  Mosaic  account.  That  the 
cradle  of  the  human  race  was  in  western  Asia  ;  that  mankind  descended 
from  one  pair  ;  that  human  speech  was  originally  one,  being  afterwards 
'confused'  and  subdivided  into  many  languages  ;  and  that  the  main 
division  of  the  human  family  was  threefold,  are  all  among  the  state- 
ments of  Scripture  which  ethnological  science  tends  to  corroborate*. 
All  known  languages,  it  is  admitted,  are  reducible  to  a  few  families, 
the  Aryan,  the  Semitic,  the  Tui-anian,  north  and  south,  chiefly 
monosyllabic ;  the  American,  and  the  African.  Bunsen  traced  the 
Egyptian,  and  several  of  the  African  dialects,  to  a  Semitic  origin. 
The  American  languages  are  proved  to  be  chiefly  Asiatic,  and  the 
ablest  scholars  find,  among  all,  such  affinities  as  bespeak  original  unity^ 
The  words  of  Prof.  Max  Miiller,  in  contending  for  the  original  unity  of 
languages,  may  here  be  quoted.  He  says :  '  I  have  been  accused  of 
having  been  biassed  in  my  researches  by  an  implicit  belief  in  the 
common  origin  of  mankind.  I  do  not  deny  that  I  hold  this  belief; 
and,  if  it  wanted  confirmation,  that  confirmation  has  been  supplied  by 
Darwin's  book  on  The  Origin  of  Species.  .  .  .  Only,  if  I  am  told  that  "no 
quiet  observer  could  ever  have  conceived  the  idea  of  deriving  all 
mankind  from  one  pair,  unless  the  Mosaic  records  had  taught  it," 
I  must  be  allowed  to  say  in  reply,  that  this  idea  on  the  contrary 
is  so  natural,  so  consistent  with  all  human  laws  of  reasoning,  that, 
so  far  as  I  know,  there  has  been  no  nation  upon  earth  which,  if 
it  possessed  any  traditions  on  the  origin  of  mankind,  did  not  deriA'^e 
the  human  race  from  one  pair,  if  not  from  one  person  '  {Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language,  Series  i,  Lect.  8). 

Philologically  and  physiologically,  '  the  human  race,'  says  Herder, 
'is  a  progressive  whole,  dependent  upon  a  common  origin.'  'With 
the  increase  of  knowledge  in  every  direction,'  is  the  last  testimony  of 
Dr.  Prichard,  'we  find  continually  less  and  less  reason  for  believing 
that  the  diversified  races  of  men  are  separated  from  each  other  by 
insuperable  barriers.' 

The  Synchronisms  with  Hebrew  history  in  this  early  period  are  of 

*  See  especially  in  '  By-Paths  of  Bible  Knowledge'  (R.  T.S.),  Sayce, 
The  Races  of  the  Old  Testament  (1893).' 

^  Among  men  of  science  who  have  maintained  the  unity  of  the 
human  race  may  be  mentioned  Linnaeus,  Buffon,  Cuvier,  J.  G.  St.- 
Hilaire,  Rudolph  and  Andreas  Wagner,  A.  von  Humboldt,  Klaproth, 
F.  von  Schlegel,  Herder,  Hugh  Miller,  Sir  .[ohn  Herschel,  Sir  C. 
Lyell.     See  F.  R.  Reusch,  2icUure  and  the  Bible,  ii.  188. 


406  THE   PENTATEUCH 

nerpssity  few.  There  may  bo  noted  in  Gen  14  the  mention  of  Kham- 
mnrabi  (' Amraphel  of  Shinar'),  founder  of  the  Babylonian  empire 
between  b.  c.  2250  and  2000 ;  also  of  Arioch,  King  of  Ellasar,  shown 
to  have  been  Eri-aku  of  Larsa  (Schrader,  Cuneiform  Inscriptions).  The 
references  to  the  Hittites,  the  'children  of  Heth,'  remarkably  fall  in 
with  what  has  of  late  been  brought  to  light  respecting  that  *  forgotten 
empire.'  And  all  through  the  patriarchal  history,  from  Abraham  to 
Joseph,  there  are  indications  obviously  pointing  to  the  contempora- 
neous sovereignty  of  the  Hyksos  in  Egypt.  *  The  substance  and  the 
historical  pith  of  the  oldest  ti'aditions  of  Israel  fit  most  perfectly  into 
the  picture  of  the  general  history  of  the  time,  and  are  completely 
confirmed  by  it'  (C.  H.  Cornill  of  Konigsberg,  History  0/  the  People  of 
Israel). 

The  Separate  Books:   Genesis 

242.  The  First  Book  of  the  Pentateuch  is  named  in 
Hebrew,  from  its  initial  word,  Bereshiih  (p^'^P')^),  '  In  the 
beginning.'  The  word  Genesis  is  from  the  LXX,  in  Greek, 
'Origination.'  The  book  is  one  of  Origins,  and  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts  :  I.  Outline  of  Primaeval  History 
until  the  designation,  in  the  call  of  Abram  the  Chaldaean, 
of  the  Chosen  Kace,  i-ii.  II.  The  Patriarchal  Period  ; 
connected  with  the  lives  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and 
Joseph,  12-50.  There  are  in  Genesis  ten  'Books  of 
Generations '  (toledotli,  Hebrew  for  genealogies)  which  serve 
as  waymarks  in  the  several  sections : — 

Division  I.  i.  The  Heavens  and  the  Earth  (2^  uniting 
the  two  narratives  of  the  Creation,  Delitzsch). 

2.  Posterity  of  Seth  (5)  to  the  renovation  of  the  human 
race  in  Noah. 

3.  Noah  (6"^),  his  sons  the  progenitors  of  the  new  race. 

4.  The  sons  of  Noah  (10).     Early  tribes  and  empires. 

5.  Shem  (ii^°).     First  step  in  the  selection  of  a  people. 

6.  Terah  (11^^).     Second  step  :  Birth  of  Abraham. 
Division  II.     7.  Ishmael  (25^ 2),  the  rejected  line  (Arabs). 
8.  Isaac  (25^^),  the  chosen  offspring. 


GENESIS  407 

9.  Esau  (36^ •^).  a  second  rejection  (Edomites). 

10.  Jacob  (37^),  Israel :  henceforth  God's  Peoj^le. 

The  main  purpose  of  the  history  is  thus  steadily  kept  in 
view,  the  narrative  passing  from  the  universal  to  the  special ; 
while  secondary  lines  branch  off  from  the  main  course. 

243.  First  Division. — Of  Creation  there  are  two  accounts, 
the  one  ending  with  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath  (2^),  the 
other  comprising  the  narrative  of  Eden  and  the  Fall  of 
Man.  With  the  entrance  of  sin  into  the  world  is  connected 
the  promise  of  a  Redeemer,  a  declaration  containing  the 
germ  of  all  Messianic  prophecy.  In  a  measure  it  is  fulfilled 
in  every  phase  of  the  struggle  between  good  and  ill  ;  but  in 
Christ  is  its  consummation. 

Notp.  the  twofold  vieAV  of  Creation.  (1)  Tlie  world  is  made.  Heathen 
philosophers  in  general  maintained  the  eternity  of  matter,  even 
those  who  taught  that  God  (or  the  gods)  moulded  it  into  various 
forms.  The  words  '  God  created '  dispel  such  speculations.  (2)  It  was. 
made  byjGod  only,  '  Elohfm'  in  the  first  account,  '  .Jehovah  Elohim'  in 
the  second.  Thus  is  monotlieism  enstamped  from  the  first  upon  the 
inspired  record :  in  absolute  distinction  from  monolatry  (to  use 
a  modern  word),  which  might  denote  the  worship  of  one  God  without 
denying  the  possible  exisfence  of  others.  The  revelation  is  based  upon 
the  truth  that  .Jehovah  is  the  only  God. 

The  institution  of  Sacrifice  is  indicated,  4^""^.  The  accept- 
ance of  Abel's  offering  foreshadows  the  truths  afterwards 
wrought  out  in  full  detail,  especially  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  The  appointment  of  sacrifice  by  God  Himself  is 
clearly  suggested  by  15^.  (See  below  on  '  The  Design  of  the 
Law,'  §  254  sq.)  The  history  of  Cain  and  his  descendants  in 
the  land  of  Nod  (Wandering),  4^^~22^  throws  light  on  the 
origination  of  arts  and  crafts  by  man's  natural  endeavour. 

The  Deluge  in  its  two  interwoven  accounts,  6^^-91^, 
strikingly  differs,  in  the  absence  of  mythological  details, 
from  the  traditions  of  the  same  event  preserved  in  the 
annals  of  Babylon  and   other  nations.     The  characteristic 


i08  THE    PENTATEUCH 

teaching  of  the  inspired  narrative  is  God's  abhorrence  of  sin. 
Noah  was  eminently  a  '  preacher  of  righteousness,'  2  Pet  2^ 
Compare  Heb  11'  i  Pet  3-^. 

Babel,  in  Hebrew,  is  taken  from  a  verb  which  means  to 
confound,  and  thus  gives  a  fresh  meaning  to  the  name  chosen 
by  the  builders,  Bdb-il,  'Gate  of  a  god.'  On  the  origin  of 
languages  see  §  241,  and  on  the  foundations  of  early  empires, 
Parti,  §  178  sq. 

244.  Second  Division. — Ur  of  the  Clialdees,  whence 
Abraham  was  called  out  of  an  idolatrous  community 
(Jos  24^) ;  on  the  lower  Euphrates  (Erech,  lo^*^,  now  Mugheir). 
The  opinion  which  placed  it  to  the  north,  in  the  Edessa 
region  [Or/a),  is  now  generally  abandoned.  In  his  wander- 
ings, Abraham  would  carry  with  him  the  knowledge  of  God 
and  of  the  true  faith.  Many  peoples  have  accordingly 
regarded  him  as  the  author  of  their  religious  traditions. 

The  successive  Covenants  of  Scripture  are  subjects  of  deep  in- 
terest. The  first  was  made  with  Adam,  the  second  with  Noah, 
and  the  third  with  Abraham.  The  one  with  Adam  required  obedi- 
ence, and  denounced  death — legal,  spiritual,  natural,  and  (without 
penitence)  eternal  —  as  the  consequence  of  sin.  The  second  was 
without  conditions,  and  is  fulfilled  to  this  day,  g^"^*^.  The  third  also 
was  without  conditions,  la^-^-^  13^*"^^  15^'^  28^^"^^  Ac  3^^"-®  Gal  3* 
Rom  4,  though  confirmed  in  consequence  of  Abraham's  faith,  22^^"^^ 
26^~^  This  last  covenant  is  called  by  the  Apostle  the  covenant  of 
promise  in  distinction  from  the  Law,  which  is  called  the  covenant 
of  works.  The  gospel  is  called,  in  distinction  from  both,  truth  and 
grace  ;  that  is,  salvation  realized  and  founded,  not  on  works,  but  on 
unmerited  favour.  That  Abraham  saw  in  the  covenant  made  with 
him  the  promise  of  a  coming  Messiah  is  clear  from  the  reasonings  of 
both  Peter  and  Paul,  Ac  3"6-26  q^I  38.  This  promise  was  frequently 
repeated,  and  formed,  with  the  significant  truths  to  which  it  pointed, 
the  foundation  of  justifying  faith  for  many  ages.  The  expectation 
of  a  coming  Saviour  founded  upon  it  explains  the  value  of  the 
birthright  (25^*),  the  preservation  of  family  records,  and  many  of 
the  institutes  of  patriarchal  religion. 

On  the  remarkable  episode  recorded  in  ch.  14,  see  Part  I, 
§  1 78.    This  exploit  of  Khammurabi  and  his  confederate  chiefs 


GENESIS  409 

forms  the  earliest  synchronism  between  sacred  and 
secular  history.  It  is  connected  with  the  appearance  of  the 
typical  priest-king  Melchizedek,  see  Ps  no*  Heb  7. 

Isaac,  who  appears  to  have  been  of  quiet  disposition  and 
distinguished  character,  forms  a  link  between  his  illustrious 
father  and  his  twin  sons  Jacob  and  Esau.  These  two,  the 
child  of  nature  and  the  child  of  grace,  form  in  their  earlier 
career  a  most  interesting  and  important  study  of  character. 
Each  has  characteristic  faults,  but  in  the  end  Esau  is 
mastered  by  them  ;  Jacob  masters  them,  by  Divine  help,  as 
shown  at  Bethel,  in  Paddan-aram,  and  at  the  brook  Jabbok. 
So  is  he  prepared  for  his  career  as  the  inheritor  of  the 
promises. 

From  ch.  33^^  onwards  to  the  end  of  Genesis  (with  tht 
exception  of  36,  w^hich  is  wholly  devoted  to  the  successors  of 
Esau,  the  Edomites)  the  history  is  occupied  with  the  Family 
Records  of  Jacob — much  diversified,  often  very  melan- 
choly (34,  38)— and  culminating  in  the  wonderful,  familiar 
story  of  Joseph,  through  w^hom  the  way  into  Egypt  was 
prepared,  so  that  this  famous  land  became  the  '  cradle  of  the 
Church.'  The  favourable  reception  of  the  Palestinian 
shepherds  was  no  doubt  due  to  the  occupancy  of  the 
Egyptian  throne  by  the  '  Hyksos  '  (see  Part  I,  §  179).  From 
Joseph's  wise  administration  during  the  famine  he  received 
the  name  of  Zaphenath-paneah  (41*^;  see  K.V.),  a  Coptic 
compound  variously  interpreted :  according  to  Jerome, 
'  Saviour  of  the  world  ' ;  Gesenius,  '  Sustainer  of  the  age ' ; 
Delitzsch,  'Supporter  of  life.'  The  great  prophetic  blessing 
of  Jacob,  his  death,  and  that  of  Joseph  close  the  book. 

*In  the  New  Testament  Joseph  is  only  mentioned  Heb 
jj2i.22^  Yet  the  striking  particulars  of  the  persecution  and 
sale  by  his  brethren,  his  resisting  temptation,  his  degradation 
and  yet  greater  exaltation,  the  saving  of  his  people  by  his 
hand,  and  the  confounding  of  his  enemies,  seem  to  indicate 
that  he  was  a  type  of  our  Lord  '  {E.  Stuart  Poole). 


410  THE   PENTATEUCH 


References  in  the  Neiv  Testament  to  the  Book  of  Genesis, 

245.  The  following  passages  are  cited  with  the  usual  formulas  of 
quotation,  as  '  It  is  written,'  '  The  Lord  said,'  and  the  like  : — 

Gen  i27  Mt  19^  Gen  ai^^-'''  Gnl  4^"  Heb  ii^* 

22  Heb  4*  22"-^7  Heb  6^^'^* 

2^  I  Cor  i5«  22i«-''  Jas  2^3 

12^  Ac  32-^  Gal  38  2523  Ro  9^2 

if  Gal  3^619* 

Incidents  and  personages  in  Genesis  are  frequently  referred  to,  as — 
Gen  3*-5  Eve  beguiled  by  the  serpent,  2  Cor  ii^  i  Tim  2^*. 
4*     Abel's  sacrifice,  Heb  11*. 

52*  Character  and  Translation  of  Enoch,  Heb  ii^-^. 
j^i8-2o  Melchizedek,  Heb  7  passim. 

1924-26  Destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  Lu  1729.32  3  Pet  2^ 
22^  Abraham's  offering  of  Isaac,  Jas  2*. 
2533  Esau's  sale  of  his  birthright,  Heb  12^^, 

47^^  Jacob's  worship,  leaning  on  his  staff  {or  bed),  Heb  1 12'  (see  §  25). 
Add  a  whole  series  of  references  in  Stephen's  address  to 
the  Sanhedrin,  Ac  7. 
The  phrase  'In  the  beginning'  (6^)  is  echoed  with  a  deeper  monning 
in  Jn  i^.     Man  made  in  the  likeness  of  God  (5^  9")  is  a  truth  recognized 
in  I  Cor  11^  Eph  42'' Col  3^^  Jas  3^    Thesanctity  of  the  marriage  relation 
is  enforced  from  Gen  22*  by  our  Lord,  Mt  19'',  and  by  Paul  in  i  Cor  6'" 
Eph  531.     The  faith  of  Abraham  (iS"^-^)  is  repeatedly  used  as  a  fore- 
shadowing of  the  Christian  character,  Ro  4^  Gal  3^  Jas  22".     <  Paradise ' 
carries  the  thought  back  to  '  the  Garden,'  Gen  s"-"^  Rev  2"^  2a'-2,  and 
Jacob's  ladder  is  taken  as  an  expressive  type,  Gen  28^2  Jn  i'^^ 

Many  verbal  accordances  also  show  how  this  book  was  familiar  to 
the  inspired  writers  of  the  New  Testament  as  authoritative  and  Divine. 


Exodus 

246.  The  word  Exodus,  from  the  Greek,  signifies 
Departure  (c^oSos).  The  name  of  the  book  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible  is  V'elleh  shemoth  {nW  n^NI),  'And  these  are  the 
names,'  from  its  initial  words.     It  may  be  divided  into  three 

*  Here  note  the  apostolic  comment  on  'seed';  the  noun  of  *  multi- 
tude' interpreted  as  a  personal  name. 


EXODUS  411 

parts:    I,  The  Oppression,   II.  The  Deliverance,   III.  The 
Giving  of  the  Law. 

I.  The  '  King  which  knew  not  Joseph '  was  not  merely 
another  monarch,  but  the  founder  of  another  royal  line.  He 
may  be  identified  with  Ahmes,  first  king  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  who  overcame  and  expelled  the  Hyksos.  But  the 
cruel  oppression  of  the  Israelites  dates  from  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  under  Eamses  II,  third  monarch  of  this  line,  the 
Sesostris  of  the  Greeks.  His  treasure-city  at  Pithom  (i^^), 
Gr.  Heroopolis,  has  been  discovered  in  modern  times  ^.  The 
son  and  successor  of  Ramses  was  Meneptah  II,  who  con- 
tinued the  oppression,  and  under  whom,  it  is  believed,  the 
Exodus  took  place. 

See  Part  I,  §§  179-181  foV  the  witness  of  the  monuments.  A  granite 
stele  discovered  by  Prof.  Flinders  Petrie,  1896,  commemorating  the 
victories  of  Meneptah  over  Libyan  invaders  states  that  *  the  Israelites 
are  brought  low  so  that  they  have  no  seed.'  This  may  fairly  be  under- 
stood of  their  having  vanished  into  the  desert,  so  as  to  be  no  longer 
counted  among  formidable  foes.  A  statue  of  this  Meneptah  is  in  the 
British  Museum, 

II.  As  a  solemn  preliminary  to  the  series  of  acts  which 
led  to  the  great  Deliverance,  the  God  of  Israel  reveals  His 
Name — known  already  to  tiie  Patriarchs,  but  now  disclosed 
as  that  of  the  Covenant  God,  and  henceforth  to  be  held 
sacred  in  Israel  beyond  all  other  appellations  of  the  Deity. 

The  form  Jehovah  has  become  so  associated  with  our  English  speech 
that  it  seems  advisable  to  adhere  to  its  use.  For  its  explanation,  see 
Parti,  §  115;  slIso  Handbook  to  the  Hebrew  0/ ihe  Old  Testament  (R.T.S.),  §99. 
Scholars  are  mostly  agreed  that  Jahveh,  or  Yahveh^,  would  more 
accurately  represent  the  original  pronunciation  :  but  the  question  is 
one  of  vowels  only,  and  immaterial  to  the  sense. 

The  Ten  Plagues,  which  attested  the  Divine  commission  of  Moses 
and  Aaron,  though  in  part  connected  with  ordinary  phenomena  of 
Egyptian  life,  were  specially  significant  as  proving  the  power  of  God, 

*  See  Part  I,  §  180. 

*>  The  form  Yahwe,  as  printed  in  some  English  books,  is  less  suitable. 


412  THE   PENTATRUCH 

and  rebuking  idolatry.  i.  The  Nile — blood  ;  an  object  of  worship 
turned  into  an  object  of  abhorrence.  2.  The  sacred  frog  itself  their 
plague.  3.  Lice,  which  the  Egyptians  deemed  so  polluting  that  to 
enter  a  temple  with  them  was  a  profanation,  cover  the  country 
like  dust.  4.  The  gadfly  (Zehub),  an  object  of  Egyptian  reverence, 
becomes  their  torture.  5.  The  cattle,  which  were  objects  of  Egyptian 
worship,  fall  dead  before  their  worshippers.  6.  The  ashes,  which 
the  priests  scattered  as  signs  of  blessing,  become  boils.  7.  Isis  and 
Osiris,  the  deities  of  water  and  fire,  are  unable  to  protect  Egypt,  even 
at  a  season  when  storms  and  rain  were  unknown,  from  the  fire  and 
hail  of  God.  8.  Isis  and  Serapis  were  supposed  to  protect  the  country 
from  locusts.  West  winds  might  bring  these  enemies  ;  but  an  east 
wind  the  Egyptian  never  feared,  for  the  Red  Sea  defended  him. 
But  now  Isis  fails  ;  and  the  very  east  wind  he  reverenced  becomes 
his  destruction.  9.  The  heavenly  hosts,  the  objects  of  worship,  are 
themselves  shown  to  be  under  Divine  cgntrol.  10.  The  last  plague 
explains  the  whole.  God's  firstborn  Egypt  had  oppressed  ;  and  now 
the  firstborn  of  Egypt  are  all  destroyed.  The  first  two  plagues,  it 
will  be  noticed,  were  foretold  by  Moses,  and  imitated  by  the  Egyptians. 
The  rest  they  failed  to  copy,  and  confessed  that  they  were  wrought  by 
the  finger  of  God. 

The  Passover  was  now  instituted.  For  the  laws  of  its 
observance,  see  §  259.  On  the  eve  of  the  departure  from 
Egypt  it  was  eaten  in  haste,  with  girded  loins,  as  for 
a  journey.  Afterwards  in  Canaan  the  participants  in  the 
festival  sat  with  robes  ungirt  and  flowing,  in  an  attitude  of 
rest  *.  So  significant  in  all  points  was  the  type.  The  Pass- 
over lamb  was  slain  at  the  very  hour  when  Christ  expired  : 
see  I  Cor  5'. 

The  first  day's  march,  12^"^"^^  ^.  From  Rameses  to 
Succoth  (booths,  encampment)  was  a  distance  of  16  miles. 

*  This  is  the  Jewish  tradition,  Avell  supported. 

*»  Beginning  of  the  Itinerary,  (i)  Rameses  to  Succoth.  (2)  Succoth  to 
Etham.  (3)  Etham  to Pi-hahiroth  ('mouth  of  the  passes  ').  (4)  Three 
days'  march  to  Marah.  (5)  To  Elim.  (6)  *  By  the  Red  Sea.'  (7) 
The  Wilderness  of  Zin  (see  §  172).  (8)  Dophkah.  (9)  Alush.  (10) 
Rephidim.  (n)  Sinai.  Thus  far  the  route  can  be  distinctly  traced  on 
the  map,  or  followed  by  the  aid  of  a  book  like  Palmer's  Desert  qf  the 
Exodua. 


EXODUS  413 

The  next  position,  between  Migdol  (fortress- tower)  and  the 
sea  (14^),  seemed  to  place  the  host  at  the  mercy  of  the  pur- 
suers, when  the  '  strong  east  wind  all  the  night '  miraculously 
drove  back  the  waters  (14-^)  and  opened  a  way  to  the  other 
side.  The  precise  locality  of  this  miracle  is  uncertain. 
Dr.  Edouard  Naville  and  other  explorers  assign  it  to  the 
shallows  now  in  part  covered  by  the  Bitter  Lakes,  formerly, 
as  geologists  attest,  a  part  of  the  sea.  The  triumphal  Song 
of  Moses  is  taken  as  a  type  of  that  which  shall  celebrate  the 
final  victory  of  the  redeemed,  Kev  15^. 

III.  The  emancipated  people,  sustained  by  the  manna 
and  the  water  from  the  rock,  reach  the  appointed  place  (3^^) 
in  seven  more  marches.  Here,  amid  the  solitude,  the  Law 
of  the  Ten  Words  is  given  amid  the  awful  manifestations 
of  a  present  Deity.  Sundry  laws  are  given,  chiefly  judicial : 
the  *  Book  of  the  Covenant '  is  added  ;  and  the  promise  given 
of  the  guiding  Angel  (23^^  "^^j.  A  period  of  mysterious 
communion  with  Jehovah  follows,  in  which  the  pattern  of 
the  tabernacle  is  shown  to  Moses  in  the  mount  (Heb  8^), 
'a  copy  and  a  shadow  of  heavenly  things.'  The  solemnity 
of  the  scene  is  interrupted  by  the  idolatry  of  the  golden  calf 
and  the  consequent  punishment.  God's  glory  is  revealed  to 
Moses  as  a  sign  of  His  forgiving  love  (32,  33).  The  taber- 
nacle is  now  erected  and  consecrated ;  Aaron  and  his  sons 
being  sanctified  for  its  service. 

The  golden  calf  was  avowedly  prepared  as  a  symbol  of  Jehovah,  31*. 
It  was  not  therefox-e  the  First  Commandment,  but  the  Second,  that 
was  violated.  The  whole  transaction  impressively  showed  to  the 
people,  not  only  that  their  God  must  be  exclusively  worshipped,  but 
that  He  must  not  be  worshipped  under  any  such  material  symbol  as 
they  had  been  accustomed  to  see  in  Egypt. 

In  reading  the  subsequent  history,  we  must  divest  our- 
selves of  the  notion  that  the  Israelites  maintained  a  continuous 
march  in  one  compact  host,  from  place  to  place.  Evidently 
they  had  long  halts — continuing,  it  may  be,  for  years — in 


Ex3« 

Mt  22»-^  Mk    12-^8 

9^« 

Rogi^ 

12" 

J  a  19:^6  a 

16I8 

2  Cor  815 

21I7 

Mt  15*  Mk  710 

414  THE   PENTATEUCH 

one  and  another  oasis  of  the  wilderness,  and  were  often 
widely  scattered.  Not  only  liad  they  animals  for  sacrifice, 
but  they  accumulated  flocks  and  herds.  The  manna  com- 
pensated them  for  the  lack  of  corn  harvests,  and  sei-ved  their 
needs  when  other  resources  failed,  as  we  may  gather  from 
Ex  16^^  Jos  5^2.  On  Kadesh,  their  head  quarters,  see  below 
§  250. 

liefcrences  to  Exodus  in  the  New  Testament. 

247.  Quotations  generally  witli  formula,  '  It  is  written,'  &c.  The 
Ten  Commandments,  Ex  20  Mt  521.27.33  j^4.6  j^is  l^  J314  2366  j^^  ^22  ^7 
13^  Eph  6'^-^  Jas  2^1  :  see  also  the  following  : 

Ex  21 '^4  Mt5=*8 

2228  ^g  235 

25*0  Ac  7"  Heb  86 

32*^  I  Cor  10'' 

33'«  Ro  915 

Passages  referring  to  incidents  and  persons  : — 
Ex  6^  Deliverance  from  Egypt,  Ac  13*'^. 
1^12.13  isi-ael  before  Sinai,  Heb  i2'«-2o. 
26^3  Construction  of  tiie  tabernacle,  Heb  9^^-^ 
30I0  The  high  priest  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  Heb  9^ 
34^^  The  veil  on  Moses'  face,  2  Cor  3'^. 
See  also  the  many  references  in  Stephen's  address,  Ac  7. 

Allusions  and  Parallels  : — 3",  the  Divine  Name  I  am,  Jn  8'^  Rev  i*-* 
11"  i6\  Compare  also  4^9  with  Mt  ^-'^  ;  S^^  with  Lu  11-"  'the  finger 
of  God';  12*"  with  Gal  3"  'four  hundred  and  thirty  years';  ig^-'^ 
with  Tit  q}*  I  Pet  2»-9  Rev  i«  5^"  2o« ;  24'^  with  Mt  262s  Heb  g^^-^"  ;  31I8 
with  2  Cor  33  ;  3333  'the  book  of  the  living'  with  Lu  lo^*^  Phil  4^  Heb 
i2"^=*  Rev  36  2219. 
There  are  also  several  verbal  accordances,  as  in  the  case  of  Genesis. 


Leviticus 

248.  This  third  Book  of  the  Pentateuch  takes  its  name 
in  Greek  from  Levi.  In  Hebrew  it  is  ^li?!l  Vayyiqra,  '  And 
[HeJ  called,'  from  its  first  word. 

*  One  of  several  passages  in  this  Gospel  which  connects  the  sacrifice 
of  Christ  with  the  Passover-typo, 


LEVITICUS  416 

Holiness  is  the  great  key-word  of  the  book.  The  people, 
the  priests,  the  tabernacle,  its  vessels,  the  offerings,  the 
very  priests'  garments,  are  all  described  as  'holy,'  i.e. 
separate,  not  only  from  sinful  but  from  common  use.  See, 
among  many  passages,  ch.  2.^-^^  6^^-^^  ^1.6.21  jq3.io.12.i7  ii3-4o 

14''  16^. 

For  a  summary  of  the  Levitical  laws,  see  §§  255-259  of 
the  present  chapter :  and  for  a  comparison  with  the  second 
code,  see  note  under  Deuteronomy. 

The  seventeenth  to  the  twenty-sixth  chapter  inclusive 
forms  a  distinct  section  which,  to  mark  its  special  character, 
has  been  entitled  The  Law  of  Holiness. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  gives  the  Christian  interpre- 
tation of  Leviticus.  The  Levitical  priests  '  served  the  pattern 
and  type  of  heavenly  things';  'the  sacrifices  of  the  Law 
pointed  to  and  found  their  interpretation  in  the  Lamb  of 
God,  and  the  ordinances  of  outward  purification  signified  the 
true  inner  cleansing  of  the  heart  and  conscience  from  dead 
works  to  serve  the  living  God  '  (Perowne). 

The  ceremonial  law  contains  rites  closely  resembling  those 
in  use  among  several  heathen  nations,  but  with  striking 
differences.  Among  the  older  writers,  some  (as  Warburton 
and  Maimonides)  held  the  former  borrowed  from  the  latter  ; 
others  (as  Gale  and  Stillingfleet)  thought  that  the  latter 
borrowed  from  the  former  ;  others  still  (as  Calmet  and  Faber) 
maintained  that  both  were  taken  from  early  patriarchal 
institutes,  which  the  Gentiles  had  corrupted,  and  which  God 
Himself  re-ordained,  to  meet  the  peculiar  condition  of  the 
Jews.  This  last  theory,  the  most  probable  of  the  three,  is 
confirmed  by  the  fact  that  many  primitive  traditions  are 
preserved  in  the  systems,  moral,  religious,  and  philosophical, 
of  several  ancient  nations. 


416  THE   PENTATEUCH 


References  to  Leviticus  in  the  New  Testament. 

249.  The  characteristic  phrase  of  this  book,  '  Holy,  for  I  (Jehovah) 
am  holy  '  (ii''*-'''*  ig"^  zo^-"^^),  is  reproduced  in  i  Pet  i^^  with  the  formula 
*  It  is  written.' 

It  is  here  also  that  the  'royal  law*  is  given  :  19^*  *Thou  shalt  love 
thy  neighbour  as  thyself,'  cited  Mt  19'^  22^'->  Mk  12^1  Lu  10-''  Ro  13^ 
Gal  5"  Jas  28. 

Special  allusions  to  sacrifices  are  to  the  'pair  of  turtledoves'  for 
purification,  12^-*  Lu  2-2-24  .  ^q  ^]^q  sin-offering  of  the  bullock  and  the 
goat,  16^*  27  jjeb  9^2.13  jq4  j^h-^^  .  ^nd  to  the  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving 
(or  *  praise'),  7''^  Heb  I3^^ 

In  Leviticus  also  26^^-^2  jg  ^j^^j  great  promise  of  God  to  His  people  to 
set  His  tabernacle  among  them  (cp.  Eze  37'-')  Jn  i^*  a  Cor  6^^  Rev  7^* 
21^  (see  R.V.  marg.). 


Numbers 

250.  This  fourth  Book  of  the  Pentateuch  is  called 
in  Hebrew,  most  generally,  ">?"!'??,  Bemidhhar,  *  In  the  wilder- 
ness,' from  words  in  the  first  verse.  The  word  Numbers, 
Greek  dpid/jLol^  designates  one  of  its  main  topics. 

Summary. — The  book  begins  witli  a  census  of  Israel  (i,  2),  then 
passes  to  the  law  regarding  the  Levites  (3,  4).  Sundry  ceremonial 
institutes  follow  (5),  particularly  that  concerning  Nazirites  (6).  There 
is  then  a  long  account  of  offerings  for  the  sanctuary  made  by^the  chief 
of  the  people  (7).  Next,  the  duties  of  Levites  are  enjoined  (8),  followed 
by  a  re-institution  of  the  Passover  f9'~^*).  There  is  then  a  series  of 
incidents  connected  with  the  early  part  of  the  journey  *  in  the  wilder- 
ness '  (9^*^-12^^).  The  story  of  the  'spies'  is  further  given  (13,  14^^), 
with  the  doom  of  the  forty  years'  wandering,  as  the  punishment  of  the 
people's  faithlessness.  An  abortive  attempt  to  enter  Canaan  by  force, 
as  if  in  defiance  of  the  Divine  judgement,  leads  to  humiliating  disaster 
(■j^40-4o^  Various  laws  are  then  given  :  the  sanctity  of  the  Sabbath  is 
vindicated  by  a  solemn  judgement  (15).  The  attempted  usurpation  of 
priestly  functions  by  Korah  the  Levite  and  his  company,  and  the 
rebellion  of  certain  Reubenites  against  the  Divine  appointment  of 
Moses  and  Aaron,  are  signally  and  terribly  punished  (16).  The  budding 
of  Aaron's  rod  signifies  his  priestly  commission  from  Jehovah  (16),  and 
sundry  enactments,  civil  and  religious  (17-19),  close  this  preliminary 


NUMBERS  417 

part  of  the  narrative  of  the  wandering.     There  is  now  a  break  in  the 
history  for  thirty-eight  years,  noted  only  in  the  list  of  stations,  ch.  33. 

Throughout  the  thirty-seven  years'  wandering  the  head  quarters 
of  Israel  were  at  Kadesh,  'the  holy  (place)/  probably  from  its  being 
the  locality  of  the  tabernacle.  No  particulars  of  residence  there 
are  given,  nor  is  the  place  decisively  identified.  In  32^  34*  also 
it  is  called  Kaclesh-bamea.  An  earlier  name  for  it  (Gen  14'^)  was 
En-mishpat,  'Fountain  of  judgement,'  probably  as  the  seat  of  some 
tribunal  for  the  desert-dwellers  :  once  also  Rithmah,  'Broom-plant,* 
from  the  vegetation  in  which  it  abounded  (Num  33^^ ;  cf.  12^^  13^®). 
It  was  evidently  a  place  of  note,  near  some  considerable  spring  of 
water  ('Meribah'  27^*  Dt  32^^  £2047^^).  Robinson  and  others  have 
placed  it  at  ' Ain-el-Weiheh,  near  the  Edomite  border,  but  since  the 
researches  of  H.  C.  Trumbull  (1884)  it  is  more  generally  thought  to 
have  been  further  west,  where  indeed  the  name  survives,  'Ain-el- 
Qaclis,  about  fifty  miles  south  of  Beersheba. 

The  final  wandering*. — The  journal  of  the  last  six  months  in  this 
most  eventful  year  is  clear  and  interesting.  Aaron  died  on  the  first 
day  of  the  fifth  month  (20)  ;  and  in  the  eleventh  month  Moses  began 
his  series  of  valedictory  addresses,  Dt  i'.  The  journey  down  the 
Arabah,  thence  to  the  east  through  the  southern  passes  of  Mount  Seir, 
and  turning  to  northward  along  the  eastern  Edomite  frontier  to  the 
valley  of  Zered  (about  220  miles),  would  occupy  a  month.  It  was  the 
beginning  of  this  journey  that  sorely  tried  the  people,  whose  back  for 
a  time  was  to  the  Land  of  Promise.  But  the  miracle  of  deliverance 
from  the  bite  of  the  fiery  serpents  would  reassure  them  ;  they  were 
enabled  on  their  way  to  overcome  '  Sihon  King  of  the  Amorites  and 
Og  King  of  Bashan'  (21) ;  the  thwarted  counsels  of  Balak  and  Balaam 
showed  that  God  was  on  their  side  (22-24).  Yet  they  unhappily 
yielded  to  the  seductions  of  Midian  (25),  and  by  the  discipline  of 
a  brief  and  terrible  conflict  they  won  their  way  at  last  to  the  place 
where  they  were  to  receive  their  great  Lawgiver's  farewell. 

251.     Eeferences  to  Niimlcrs  in  the  Neiv  Testament. 

Num  12^  Moses  faithful  in  all  his  house,  Heb  3^^ 

14^^   Slain  (LXX   *  overthrown ')   in  the  wilderness,    i  Cor  10' 

Heb  3!'^. 
16^5  I  Jehovah  will  show  who  are  His,'  2  Tim  2^^. 
j'f  Aaron's  rod  that  budded,  Heb  9*. 
19^-9  Ordinance  of  the  Eed  Heifer,  Heb  9". 

22^  Balaam,  son  of  Beor  {or  *  Bosor '),  2  Pet  2^^  Ju  verse  1 1  Rev  a*^ 
246   Lign-aloes   (LXX   'tabernacles')    which  Jehovah    planted, 

Heb  82. 

E  e 


418  THE   PENTATEUCH 

The  comparison  '  to  sheep  having  no  shepherd  '  occurs  first  in  Num 
7'^'^.     Compare  i  Ki  22^'^  ( 
Testament  Mt  9^6  Mk  6'*. 


Deuteronomy 

252.  The  name  (derived  from  the  Greek)  of  this  jRnal 
Book  of  the  Pentateuch  means  '  The  Second  Law ' :  in 
Hebrew  it  is  called  0^?^^  ^^^,  Ellch  haddehharlm,  '  These 
(are)  the  words.* 

On  the  genuineness  of  this  book  see  §  237,  7.  It  was  from 
this  part  of  the  Old  Testament  that  our  Lord  thrice  quoted 
the  words  with  which  He  answered  the  Tempter  in  the 
wilderness  (Mt  4*-'^-'^o  compared  with  Dt  8-'  6^^  (^uy 

Summary. —A  comparison  of  this  second  code  with  the  laws  given 
nearly  forty  years  before  should  be  carefully  made  by  the  student.  The 
results  thatsuchcomparisonwillyield,if  rightly  estimated,  will  but  con- 
firm the  authenticity  of  both.  Some  passages  that  at  first  sight  seem  at 
variance  may  refer  to  diiferent  events  ;  as  the  appointment  of  judges, 
113-I8  compared  with  Ex  18  and  Num  11.  Or  a  different  point  of  view 
is  taken,  as  when  in  1^2  the  people  are  said  to  have  urged  the  mission 
of  the  spies,  whereas  in  Num  13^"^  Jehovah  is  said  to  have  given  the 
command  ;  the  request  of  the  people  being  divinely  granted,  as  in 
similar  instances. 

Additions  to  the  history  require  no  explanation  ;  as  *  wept  before 
Jehovah '  i*^,  *  threescore  cities '  3*,  *  wliat  Amalek  did  unto  thee  * 
25I7.18. 

Very  significant  and  important  are  occasional  variations 
in  the  laws.  Some  enactments  given  for  observance  in  the 
wilderness  would  not  apply  to  life  in  Canaan.  Compare, 
e.g.,  Lev  17^**  with  Dt  I2^^  In  other  cases  it  is  less  easy  to 
account  for  the  variations. 

Passover,  Pentateuch,  and  Tabernacles. — The  laws 
relating  to  the  three  great  annual  festivals  are  modified  : 
compare  i6^~^^  with  Lev  23  and  Num  28  29.  In  regard 
again  to  the  offering  of  firstlings,  to  the  position  and  support 


DEUTERONOMY  419 

of  the  Levites,  the  earlier  and  the  later  codes  differ  in  some 
respects  from  each  other.  But  whatever  the  explanation  of 
such  differences,  the  hypothesis  of  a  different  authorship, 
at  an  interval  of  some  hundreds  of  years,  is  both  violent  and 
unnecessary,  while  it  raises  greater  difficulties  than  belong 
to  the  traditional  view. 

Dt  i8^^^®.  This  announcement  of  a  future  prophet  is  twice  applied  to 
Christ  in  the  New  Testament— by  the  Apostle  Peter,  and  by  the  martyr 
Stephen,  Ac  3^^^  7^^.  There  is  also  evidence  that  the  words  were 
regarded  by  the  Jews  as  a  prediction  of  the  coming  Messiah.  See 
Jn  1 30.31.45  514  ^40^  and  compare  5*^"*^.  No  doubt  the  language  of  Moses 
had  a  general  fulfilment  in  the  raising  up  of  a  prophetical  succession, 
culminating  in  the  appearance  and  work  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  Whom 
therefore  it  eminently  refers. 


Refereiiccs  to  Deuteronomy  in  the  Neiv  Testament 

&53.  The  quotations  from  this  book  are  very  numerous.  Our  Lord's 
replies  to  the  Tempter  are  all  taken  from  it  with  the  formula  *  It  is 
written,'  as  noted  above. 

Other  important  passages  are  as  follows  : — 
Dt  i'^  'Bare  thee  as  a  son,'  Ac  13^^,  var.  read,  see  K.  V.  marg. 
4^*  Jehovah  a  consuming  fire,  Heb  122^. 
6*-6  '  Hear,  0  Israel,'  Mt  223--3«  Lu  lo^"^. 
jq17  I  Which  regardeth  not  persons,'  Ac  10^*  Ro  2^^  Gal  2^  Eph  6^ 

Col  325  I  Pet  i". 
18^5  The  prophet  like  unto  Moses.     See  note  above. 
20I1-1*  The  commandment  not  far  off,  Ro  io^~^ 
216-8  ^Ue  will  not  fail  thee  nor  forsake  thee'  (Jos  i^)  Heb  13'. 
Compare  also  4^*^  with  Mk  12'- ;  17^  and  19^^  with  Mt  18^^  2  Cor  13^ 
and  Heb  lo^s ;  ai^s  with  Gal  3"  ;  24I  with  Mt  581  19^  ;  25*  with  i  Cor  9^ 
I  Tim  5^* ;  27^6  with  Gal  3^^  ;  29*  with  Ro  11^  ;  29'^  with  Heb  12}^  ; 
30*  with  Mt  24'^  ;  32"^  with  i  Cor  lo^o  ;  33^^^  with  Ro  10^^  i  Cor  10-'-  ; 
3235.36  ^vith  Heb  lo'" ;  32^^  -  LXX)  with  Heb  i^  Ro  15^0. 

The  number  and  character  of  these  quotations  attest  the  honour 
in  which  this  book  was  held  by  our  Lord  and  the  New  Testament 
writers. 


E  C   2 


420  THE   PENTATEUCH 

Design  of  the  Law — Summary  of  its  Religious 
Institutions 

254.  Hypothetical  methods  of  Revelation. — What,  it 
may  now  be  asked,  was  the  purpose  of  this  ancient  dispensa- 
tion, and  to  what  end  must  we  study  it  ?  Faith  and  piety 
existed  before  it  was  given.  Faith  and  piety  remain,  now 
that  it  is  done  away.  As  an  institute,  it  was  confessedly 
burdensome ;  and  if  its  aim  had  been  simply  to  regulate  the 
worship  of  God,  to  give  a  figurative  representation  of  the 
gospel,  or  to  separate  the  Jews  from  other  nations,  this  aim 
might  have  been  reached  by  less  elaborate  means.  Might 
not  some  points,  moreover,  not  forcibly  impressed  upon 
the  ancient  Jews,  have  been  more  clearly  revealed — the 
spirituality,  for  example,  of  the  coming  dispensation,  and 
the  glories  of  eternal  life  ?  In  reply  to  these  questions,  let 
it  be  remembered  that  man  has  a  strong  tendency  to  forget 
God.  Virtue,  truth,  godliness,  submission  to  the  Divine  will, 
conformity  to  the  Divine  law,  supreme  desire  for  the  Divine 
glory,  are  things  not  only  not  natural — they  are  things  to 
which  man  is  directly  opposed.  Without  successive  revela- 
tions, or  some  such  gradual  provision  as  the  Old  Testament 
intimates,  the  feelings  which  these  terms  describe,  and  the 
truths  on  which  they  are  founded,  must  long  since  have 
perished  from  the  earth.  This  conclusion  is  gained  by  an 
induction  of  particulars  as  sound  as  any  in  science. 

Ends  in  view. — Let  it,  again,  be  supposed  that  God  has 
to  deal  with  men  who  are  ever  prone  to  idolatry  and  bar- 
barism, in  a  condition  of  intellectual  childhood,  with  no 
relish  for  blessings  purely  spiritual,  and  so  earthly  as  to 
be  incapable  of  comprehending  them  ; — that  He  desires  to 
impress  the  minds  of  such  a  race  with  His  own  infinite 
perfections,  and  induce  them  to  worship  Him  with  becoming 
reverence ;  to  prove  to  them  what  is  in  their  heart,  and  so 


DESIGN   OF   THE   LAW  421 

humble  them  for  their  depravity  ;  to  lead  them  to  acknow- 
ledge Him  in  all  their  ways,  that  they  may  fear  His  power 
and  trust  His  love  ;  to  raise  their  confidence  towards  the 
God  of  their  fathers,  their  covenant-God  ;  to  incline  their 
hearts  towards  His  holy  place,  and  the  privilege  of  com- 
munion with  Him  ; — suppose  that  He  wishes  to  distinguish 
them  as  His  iKCidiar  people  (that  is,  both  purchased  and 
separate) ;  to  prevent  needless  intercourse  with  their  idola- 
trous neighbours  ;  to  unite  all  classes  of  Israelites  as  one 
body,  under  one  king ;  to  teach  them  to  love  one  another  as 
brethren ;  to  check  the  tendency,  apparent  in  all  communities, 
to  the  accumulation  of  extreme  wealth  in  the  hands  of  a  few, 
and  to  the  oppression  that  springs  from  such  accumulation  ; 
to  induce  honest  industry  among  the  people ;  to  give  every 
man  the  conviction  that  he  has  a  name  and  a  place  in  his 
country ;  to  secure  competent  provision  for  the  fatherless 
and  the  widow  ;  to  provide  rest  and  moral  training  for  all 
servants ;  to  connect  the  maintenance  of  the  learned  and 
priestly  class,  in  part  at  least,  with  the  obedience  and  piety 
of  the  people,  thus  stimulating  them  to  diligence  in  teaching 
the  Law  ; — suppose  that  He  seeks  to  reveal  Himself  with  new 
claims ;  to  preserve  the  memory  of  what  He  had  done  for 
them  as  a  nation  ;  to  teach  them  implicit  obedience ;  to 
excite  thoughts  and  feelings  in  harmony  with  the  office, 
and  work,  and  reign  of  that  Messiah  Whom  these  various 
institutions  were  to  introduce  ;— and  suppose,  lastly,  that 
owing  to  man's  guilty  depravity,  and  the  powerlessness  of 
ritual  observance  to  cleanse  him  spiritually  from  sin,  these 
precepts  and  riteo  could  not,  Ity  themselves  alone,  secure  more 
than  legal  forgiveness,  or  attain,  in  any  sense,  eternal  life  ; — 
admit  that  these  suppositions  describe  the  end  of  the  Law, 
and  its  adaptation  to  its  end  will  at  once  appear. 

Varied  applications  of  the  Law. — Now,  these  suppo- 
sitions really  do  describe  its  end,  though  they  may  be  stated 


422  THE   PENTATEUCH 

variously.  Is  the  Law  a  moral  code?  It  teaches  us  our 
duty  both  to  man  and  to  God.  Is  it  ritual  observance? 
It  teaches  us  our  faults,  and  God's  holiness,  pointing,  more- 
over, to  the  cross.  Is  it  a  civil  institute?  It  regulates 
the  worship  of  an  invisible  King,  preserves  the  Jews  as 
a  peculiar  people,  and  enforces  brotherly  love.  Kegarded 
as  a  revelation  of  truth  (objective  religion),  all  its  parts  are 
instructive.  Regarded  as  a  shadow  of  truth  afterwards  to 
be  revealed,  it  excites  and  deepens  holy  feeling  (subjective 
religion).  Regarded  chiefly  as  a  treasury  of  earlier  traditional 
knowledge,  that  knowledge  it  preserves,  adding  much  of  its 
own  in  order  to  preserve  it ;  though,  of  course,  a  spiritual 
perception  of  its  truths  is  still,  as  before,  essential  to  salvation. 
However  the  end  of  the  Law  be  defined,  the  chief  facts  remain. 
It  reveals  man's  sin,  God's  holiness  and  love,  forgiveness 
through  sacrifice,  and  sanctification  as  its  result,  Christ's 
work  and  reign;  while  it  provides  for  the  preservation  of 
these  truths  in  a  world  ever  prone  to  forget  what  is  spiritual, 
and  deteriorate  what  is  holy.  The  whole  institute  is  at  once 
a  gospel  and  a  church.  It  preserved  and  guarded  piety, 
union,  and  happiness ;  is  every  way  worthy  of  its  Author, 
and  entitled  to  the  commendations  which  pious  Jews  have 
bestowed  upon  it  in  every  age  (Pss  19,  119). 

255.  Theocracy:  the  Sanctuary. — In  theory,  the  Jewish 
constitution  was  a  Theocracy,  a  visible  representation  of  the 
reign  of  God.  Jehovah  Himself  was  regarded  as  King  ;  the 
laws  were  delivered  by  Him  ;  the  tabernacle  (and  afterwards 
the  Temple)  was  considered  as  His  palace ;  there  He  gave 
visible  manifestations  of  His  glory ;  there  He  revealed  His 
will ;  there  was  offered  '  the  bread  of  the  presence ' ;  there 
He  received  His  ministers,  and  performed  His  functions  as 
Sovereign.  Hence  it  is  that  the  land  of  Palestine  is  ever 
represented  as  held  by  direct  tenure  from  Jehovah  (Lev  '2^^^\ 
To  Him,  peace  and  war,  questions  determined  under  all 


DESIGN   OF   THE   LAW  423 

governments  by  the  supreme  authority,  were  referred  (Dt 
j4i.42  jQg  jq4o  Judg  ji  2  I  Ki  122*) .  ajj^  idolatry  was  treason. 
In  relation,  therefore,  to  the  Jews,  Jehovah  was  both  God  and 
King. 

This  twofold  character  was  preserved  in  all  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  ancient  Law. 

The  Tabernacle,  where  public  worship  was  held  from  the  Exodus 
till  the  reign  of  Solomon,  was  both  the  temple  of  God  and  the 
palace  of  the  invisible  King.  It  was  His  '  holy  habitation.'  It  was 
the  place  where  He  met  the  people  and  communed  with  them — '  the 
tabernacle,'  therefore,  'of  the  congregation.'  It  was  an  oblong, 
rectangular  erection,  55  feet  by  18  feet,  built  of  planks  of  the  acacia, 
overlaid  with  gold,  united  by  poles  of  gold,  and  resting  on  bases  of 
silver  ;  the  whole  shielded  by  four  costly  coverings  (Ex  26^"^*).  The 
eastern  end  was  not  boarded,  but  was  closed  by  a  curtain  of  cotton, 
suspended  from  silver  rods,  that  were  sustained  by  five  pillars  covered 
with  gold.  The  interior  was  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  curtain  or 
veil  made  of  rich  stuff,  and  curiously  embroidered  with  figures  of 
cherubim  and  other  ornaments  (Ex  26^^-^^).  The  first  apartment  was 
the  Holy  Place  (Heb  9^)  ;  the  inner  and  smaller  one,  the  '  Holy  of 
Holies.'  Here  was  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant,  an  oblong  chest  of  wood, 
covered  with  gold,  and  surmounted  by  two  golden  figures  of  cherubim 
with  outstretched  wings.  Above  them  was  '  the  Glory,'  the  symbol 
of  the  Divine  presence.  It  rested  between  them,  and  came  down  to 
the  lid  of  the  ark — '  the  Mercy-seat.'  In  or  near  the  ark  were  the 
tables  of  stone,  the  book  of  the  Law,  a  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron's  rod 
(Ex  25^^  Dt  31^^  Heb  9^).  In  the  first  or  anteroom  were  placed  the 
golden  altar  of  incense  (Ex  30^"^*^),  the  seven-branched  golden  candle- 
stick or  lamp  (Ex  25^'^-^^),  and  the  table  of  wood,  overlaid  with  gold, 
where  the  shewbread  and  wine  were  placed  (Ex  25'^"^*^). 

Around  the  tabernacle  was  an  extensive  court,  about  i5o  feet  by  90, 
formed  by  curtains  of  linen,  suspended  by  silver  hooks  from  rods  of 
silver,  which  reached  from  one  column  to  another.  These  columns 
were  twenty  in  all,  of  acacia,  probably  supported  on  bases  of  brass, 
and  eight  or  nine  feet  (five  cubits)  high.  The  entrance  was  on  the 
east  side,  and  was  closed  by  falling  tapestry,  adorned  with  figures 
in  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet  (Ex  27^"^^).  In  this  court,  which  was 
open  at  the  top,  all  the  public  services  of  religion  were  performed, 
and  all  sacrifices  presented.  Near  the  centre  Avas  the  great  bi-azen 
altar  (five  cubits  square  and  three  high),  with  prominences  at 
the  corners  called  'horns'  (Ex  27^—8  Ps  118^"^).  On  the  south  side 
there  was  an  ascent  to  it  made  of  earth    (Ex   20'^*).      The    various 


424  THE   PENTATEUCH 

instruments  of  this  altar  were  of  brass,  as  those  of  the  altar  of  incense 
were  of  gold  (Ex  27'  38'  25^^— *0).  In  the  court  of  the  tabernacle, 
between  the  brazen  altar  and  the  tabernacle,  stood  the  brazen  laver, 
at  which  the  priests  performed  their  ablutions  before  approaching 
the  altar  (Ex  30^"^—-^).  On  the  altar  a  fire  burnt  continually,  at  first 
miraculously  kindled,  and  afterwards  kept  in  by  the  priests  (Lev  9-* 

The  Temple.  The  Temple  of  Solomon  was  built  after  the  same 
plan,  and  contained  the  same  furniture  ;  but  it  was  much  larger,  and 
the  materials  were  more  costly  and  durable.  Instead  of  one  court 
there  were  three,  the  innermost  corresponding  to  the  court  of  the 
tabernacle.  The  curtains  were  supplied  by  walls  and  colonnades  ; 
the  brazen  laver  being  represented  by  the  brazen  sea  (i  Ki  7^®)  and 
ten  smaller  vessels  (i  Ki  7^""^^).  The  greater  gi-andeur  of  the  Temple 
service  was  in  harmony  both  with  the  extended  power  of  the  nation 
and  with  the  clearer  revelation  which  was  then  given  of  God's 
kingly  authority. 

Synag-ogues.  To  a  much  later  date  belong  the  synagogues  of  the 
Jews.  They  were  plain  and  unpretentious  buildings,  in  which  the 
Jews  met  to  offer  prayers,  to  hear  Moses  and  the  Prophets  read,  and 
to  receive  instruction.  They  are  often  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  seem  to  have  sprung  up  after  the  Captivity. 

256.  The  Priesthood. — As  the  tabernacle  was  both  the 
temple  of  God  and  the  palace  of  the  Great  King,  so  the 
Levites  were  both  priests  and  officers  of  state. 

Under  the  Law,  the  high  priesthood  was  confined  to  the  family  of 
Aaron,  and  during  the  purest  age  of  that  economy  to  the  firstborn 
of  that  house ;  Kadab,  however,  his  eldest  son,  pei'ished  by  his 
impiety  during  the  high  priesthood  of  his  father,  so  that  Eleazar 
succeeded  Aaron,  and  from  him  the  office  passed  in  succession  to 
Eli.  From  him  it  was  transferred  to  the  family  of  Ithamar  (Aaron's 
fourth  son)  ;  but  in  the  days  of  Solomon  it  returned  to  the  family  of 
Eleazar,  where  it  remained  till  the  Captivity.  During  the  Hasmonaean 
dynasty  a  private  Levite  family  held  it,  and  towards  the  close  of  the 
Hebrew  polity  the  right  of  succession  was  wholly  disregarded. 

Aaron  was  consecrated  by  Moses,  and  his  sons  were  priests  under 
him.  Into  the  inner  chamber  of  the  tabernacle  the  high-priest 
alone  entered,  once  a  year,  on  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

In  the  reign  of  David  the  descendants  of  Eleazar  and  Ithamar 
were  so  numerous  that  they  could  not  all  be  employed  at  the  same 
time  in  their  sacred  duties  ;  they  were,  therefore,  divided  into  twenty- 
four  courses,  each  serving  in  weekly  rotation  twice  in  the  lunar  year 


INSTITUTIONS   OF  THE   LAW  425 

(i  Ch  24).  Each  course  had  its  head  or  chief,  and  these  are  probably 
the  '  chief  priests '  so  often  referred  to  in  the  Gospels.  They  had  the 
whole  care  of  the  sacrifices  and  religious  services  of  the  Temple, 
most  of  the  important  functions  of  their  office  being  assigned  to 
each  by  lot. 

Levites.  All  the  priests  were  Levites,  that  is,  descendants  of 
Levi,  through  Kohath  and  Aaron.  Levi,  however,  had  other  sons, 
whose  descendants  were  devoted  to  public  business.  They  assisted 
the  priests,  formed  the  guard  of  the  tabernacle,  and  conveyed  it  from 
place  to  place  (Num  ^^•"'^■^^).  In  David's  time  the  whole  body  was 
divided  into  three  classes,  each  of  which  was  subdivided  into  twenty- 
four  courses.  The  first  class  attended  upon  the  priests  ;  the  second 
formed  the  choir  of  singers  in  the  Temple,  and  the  third  acted  as 
porters  and  guards  (i  Ch  24-26)  in  the  Temple  and  at  the  gates. 

It  seems  probable  that  the  Levites  all  acted,  when  not  engaged 
in  the  Temple  service,  as  instructors  of  the  people  ;  they  formed,  in 
fact,  the  leai-ned  class. 

For  the  support  of  this  large  body  of  men  forty-eight  cities,  with 
a  belt  of  land  round  each,  were  assigned  :  a  tenth  of  all  the  produce 
and  cattle  of  the  country  (Lev  z']^^  Num  35^"*),  of  which  tenth  the 
priests  had  a  tenth :  all  shared  also  in  another  tenth  of  the  produce, 
which  the  people  generally  were  to  expend  in  feast-offerings,  to  which 
the  Levites  were  to  be  invited  (Dt  i^'^'^~'^'^). 

Priestly  Costume.  When  not  engaged  in  their  sacerdotal  duties, 
the  priests  dressed  as  other  men  ;  but  when  so  engaged,  their  tunics, 
girdles,  turbans,  &c.,  were  all  of  white  linen  (Ex  39^'^—'^^).  The  dress 
of  the  high -priest  was  both  splendid  and  significant.  Ov^er  his  white 
tunic  he  wore  a  woollen  robe  of  blue,  having  on  its  hem  small  golden 
bells  (Ex  2831—3*).  Over  this  was  a  short  sleeveless  garment — an 
*ephod'  of  fine  linen,  inwrought  with  gold  and  purple,  and  having 
on  each  shoulder-strap  a  precious  stone,  the  whole  engraven  with  the 
names  of  the  tribes  (Ex  28'— '2).  In  front  was  the  breast-plate  of  judge- 
ment, similarly  adorned,  each  stone  similarly  engraven  (Ex  28^^''^^).  On 
his  head  was  a  kind  of  mitre,  to  the  front  of  which  was  fastened  a 
plate  of  gold,  inscribed  *  Holiness  unto  the  Lord.'  Connected  with 
the  breast-plate  was  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  Might  and  truth,'  by 
which  the  priest  was  enabled  to  ascertain  the  will  of  the  invisible 
King.     How  the  response  was  given  is  not  clearly  known. 

To  their  office  all  the  priests  were  consecrated  with  a  '  holy 
anointing,'  and  the  spiritual  significance  of  the  whole  institute  is 
plain. 

257.  Sacrifices. — Among  the  Jews,  as  among  all  ancient 
pationSj  sacrifices  formed  the  most  essential  part  of  religious 


426  THE   PENTATEUCH 

worship.  The  subject,  therefore,  is  of  great  importance, 
and  as  the  laws  in  relation  to  it  are  scattered  over  the 
various  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  we  give  the  substance  of 
them  in  a  connected  form. 

Their  Material,  (i)  The  things  ofifered  (C^ll')^,  qorhamm,  offerings, 
from  a  word  signifying  to  draw  near :  see  Mk  7^^)  were  taken  from 
both  the  vegetable  and  the  animal  kingdom,  those  from  the  former  called 
the  bloodless  offerings  (HiniD,  minchoth,  gifts),  and  those  from  the 
latter  the  bloody  (DTlDt,  zSbhachhn,  slain  sacrifices).  With  both,  the 
mineral  salt,  an  emblem  of  purity,  was  used. 

From  the  vegetable  kingdom  were  taken  the  meal-offerings  *  (flour, 
cakes,  parched  corn,  frankincense)  and  the  drink-offerings,  or  liba- 
tions (Tjpi  nesek,  anovZ-q,  Phil  z^"^),  of  wine,  either  in  its  natural  or 
fermented  state.  Both  offerings  were  usually  united,  and  were  con- 
sidered as  an  addition  to  the  thank-offerings  made  by  fire  (Num 
135-11  28^-15  Lev  14IO-21). 

The  animals  offered  were  oxen,  goats,  and  sheep  ;  all  were  to  be 
without  blemish,  not  under  eight  days  old,  nor  over  three  years  ^ 
Doves  were  also  offered  in  some  cases  (Ex  22^0  la^  Lev  5^  9^).  Fishes 
were  never  offered,  and  human  sacrifices  were  expressly  forbidden 
(Lev  i82i  20-S). 

Their  Place.  (2)  Offerings  were  presented  only  in  the  front  court  of 
the  sanctuary,  the  tabernacle,  that  is,  and  afterwards  the  Temple 
(Lev  17^—^  Dt  125—"^).  Occasionally,  however,  sacrifices  were  offered 
elsewhere,  without  reprehension  (Judg  2^  626  13I9  ^  ga  7^^  9I2  ii^^ 
16^  I  Ki  iS*^"^'^) ;  while  the  people  evinced  a  frequent  disposition  to 
sacrifice  on  the  *  high  places ' — natural  altars,  to  which  they  had  re- 
course before  the  existence  of  a  permanent  sanctuary  (i  Ki  3^),  and 
afterwards  in  a  schismatic  spirit  (i  Ki  12'^  2  Ch  331"^,  &c.). 

For  certain  sacrifices  there  were  prescribed  times  and  seasons  ; 
others  were  left  to  the  free  will  of  the  worshipper. 

Their  Method.  (3)  In  the  performance  of  the  sacrifice,  the  offerer, 
himself  legally  purified  (Ex  19^*  i  Sa  la'^),  brought  the  victim  to 
the  altar,  and  turning  towards  the  sanctuary  (Lev  3^  17*),  laid  his 

»  «  Meat '  in  Old  English  is  food  generally.  So  A.  V.  The  '  meat- 
offerings'  A.  v.,  *  meal-offerings  '  R.V.,  were  distinct  from  offerings 
of  flesh. 

^  There  is  an  exception,  Judg  6"^^,  '  the  bullock  of  seven  years  old.' 
But  the  meaning  of  the  passage  is  doubtful. 


INSTITUTIONS   OF   THE   LAW  427 

hand  upon  its  head  (Lev  i*  3^  4^3) ^  thus  identifying  it  with  himself, 
and  dedicating  it  to  the  purpose  of  atonement  through  sacrifice.  He 
then  slew  it  (Lev  i^),  an  act,  however,  which  the  priest  might  do, 
and  sometimes  did  (2  Ch  29^*  Ezr  6^°).  As  the  victim  was  slain  the 
priest  received  the  blood,  and  sprinkled  or  poured  it  near  the  different 
offerings,  yet  apart  from  them.  The  victim  was  cut  in  pieces  by  the 
offerer  (Lev  1®),  and  the  fat  was  burnt  by  the  priest.  In  some  sacri- 
fices, before  or  after  the  slaying,  the  victim  was  heaved  or  lifted  up, 
and  waved  towards  heaven,  a  symbol  of  its  presentation  to  Jehovah. 

258.  Kinds  of  Sacrifice. — There  were  various  kinds  of 
sacrifice,  distinguished  from  one  another  in  their  main  idea 
and  purpose ;  while  all,  by  the  shedding  of  blood  (Lev  17^^ 
Heb  9-2),  signified  the  dedication  of  the  life  to  God.  The  three 
great  divisions  of  altar-offerings  thus  expressed  (i) projntiation 
(sin-  and  trespass-offerings),  (2)  consecration  (the  burnt-offer- 
ing), and  (3)  communion  (peace-  and  eucharistic  offerings). 

Sin-  and  Trespass-offeringrs.  In  the  sin-  and  trespass-offerings, 
r\i^^r\,  chashath,  and  Dl^X,  'dsham,  the  fundamental  idea,  symbolized  by 
the  sprinkling  of  the  blood,  generally  upon  the  horns  of  the  altar, 
was  that  of  propitiation,  or  satisfaction  for  guilt.  The  two  classes  are 
not  easily  distinguished.  The  trespass-offering,  it  has  been  thought, 
was  generally  presented  for  a  sin  of  omission,  the  sin-offering  for 
one  of  commission  ;  but  this  distinction  cannot  be  maintained  through- 
out, Lev  5^^~^^  Num  6^^  Lev  152-9.39  ^^^  ji^  more  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  difference  is,  that  the  trespass- offerings  '  were  presented  in 
atonement  for  sins  against  God  or  against  man  which  admitted  of 
compensation.'  The  sin-offering  was  for  'the  expiation  of  sin  by  a 
substituted  life*.'  In  fact,  the  two  are  distinguished  in  Scripture,  and 
the  cases  are  prescribed  in  which  each  is  to  be  offered. 

Trespass-offerings  are  enjoined  in  Lev  v^""^*^,  and  also  in  Num  6^2^  see 
verse  14,  Lev  14^^,  see  verse  19,  Lev  192*^—22  jTjir  10^^.  The  victims  offered 
were  a  ewe  or  she-goat,  doves  or  fine  flour,  a  ram  or  lamb,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  case.  Sin-offerings  were  presented  by  the  high- 
priest  when  he  had  committed  an  offence  and  brought  guilt  upon  the 
nation,  or  when  the  whole  nation  had  sinned  inadvertently  ;  also  by 
individuals  '  who  had  sinned  through  ignorance '  (Lev  482—35^  .  Q,nd, 
more  especially,  on  the  great  Day  of  Atonement.     In  the  first  and 

•  Cave,  The  Scriptural  Doctrine  of  Sacrifice,  p.  109,  It  is  remarkable 
that  the  word  used  Is  53^"  is  'dsh&m. 


428  THE   PENTATEUCH 

last  cases  the  high-priest  laid  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  victim, 
confessing  his  sin.  In  the  second  case  the  elders  laid  their  hand  on 
the  victim,  and  in  the  third  case,  on  the  person  who  brought  the 
offering.  The  transactions  of  the  great  Day  of  Atonement  were 
exceedingly  significant :  see  Num  ap'^—^^  Lev  iS-^-'^'^^'^ ;  the  goat  for 
azazel,  'entire  dismissal*,  carrying  away  the  sins  of  the  people,  and 
forming,  with  the  second  goat,  which  was  sacrificed,  a  single  complete 
type  of  the  work  of  our  Lord,  Sin-oflferings  were  also  presented  on 
various  occasions   of   purification  (Lev  1 5- -i* -15.25-30   Num  6^"^^  Lev 

I4I9.3I    ^22)^ 

The  great  idea  in  all  these  offerings  was  that  the  life  of  the 
victim  was  accepted  for  the  life  of  the  offerer  (Lev  5^*  14^^).  The 
'■  fat '  or  choicest  portions  of  the  victim,  consumed  by  fire,  as  well  as 
the  blood  sprinkled,  either  on  the  horns  of  the  great  altar,  or  in  the 
Holy  Place  towards  the  veil,  indicated  surrender ;  while  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement  this  was  more  impressively  symbolized  by  the  sprinkling 
of  the  blood  before  the  mercy-seat.  The  unconsumed  part  of  the 
animal  victim,  excepting  where  the  blood  had  been  carried  into  the 
Holy  Place,  formed  a  repast  for  the  priests  and  their  sons.  See 
Heb  1310-". 

The  Burnt-oflfering-,  holocaust  (n^y,  'olah,  literally  'that  which 
ascends,'  i.  e.  to  Jehovah),  consisted  in  the  immolation  of  a  male 
victim,  which  was  entirely  consumed  in  the  fire.  The  sacrifice  was 
slain  on  the  north  of  the  altar,  deprived  of  the  skin  (which  belonged 
to  the  priest.  Lev  7^),  and  then  cut  in  pieces  by  the  offerer.  The 
blood  was  sprinkled  around  the  altar,  and  the  parts  of  the  victim 
were  laid  separately  upon  the  fire,  which  the  priests  kept  always 
burning. 

The  main  idea  in  the  burnt-offering  was  that  of  entire  consecration, 
symbolized  by  the  burning  of  the  whole  animal  upon  the  altar.  Hence 
the  daily  presentation  of  this  sacrifice  (morning  and  evening) — a  con- 
stantly renewed  act,  on  behalf  of  the  people,  of  self-dedication  to 
God;  while  the  thought  of  propitiation  was  still  present.  Besides 
the  daily  offerings,  burnt-offerings  were  brought  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (Lev  16^),  and  on  the  three  great  festivals  ;  in  every  case, 
after  the  sin-offering  (consecration  as  the  sequel  to  pardon).  They 
were  also  presented  by  private  persons  Levitically  unclean,  viz.  by 
women    (Lev    12^—^) ;    by  lepers  (Lev  1421—31^  .     \yy   Nazirites  (Num 

•  Such  seems  the  only  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  Hebrew  word 
(derived  from  a  root  meaning  to  send  aivay,  Gesenius).  Many  modern 
expositors,  however,  regard  it  as  a  proper  name,  Azazel,  a  demon 
dwelling  in  the  wilderness,  to  whom  the  goat  was  sent  {Satan,  as 
JJengstenber^  and  others). 


INSTITUTIONS   OF   THE   LAW  429 

6^1-^*)  ;  and  by  those  referred  to  in  Lev  15^"^^  When  two  doves 
were  offered,  one  of  them  was  made  a  burnt-offering  (Lev  5^'^).  Heca- 
tombs of  such  offerings  were  sometimes  presented  (i  Ch  29^1  Ezr  6^''). 

The  Thank-offering  ("Tl^^,  iodhah)  or  Peace-offeringf  (p>^,  shelem) 
consisted  of  the  presentation  of  a  bullock,  sheep,  or  goat.  It  was  brought 
by  the  offerer,  with  laying  on  of  hands,  and  was  slain  by  him  on  the 
south  side  of  the  altar.  The  blood  was  sprinkled  round  the  altar  ;  the 
fat  was  burnt.  The  'heaved'  breast  and  'waved'  shoulder  belonged 
to  the  priest,  and  the  rest  was  used  as  a  sacrificial  feast  (see  i  Cor  lo^^). 
Thank-offerings  for  particular  blessings  were  called  '  sacrifices  of 
praise'  (comp.  Heb  13^^).  Being  mainly  personal,  and  presented  from 
a  feeling  of  pious  devotedness,  they  were  called,  in  an  especial  sense, 
free-will  offerings.  Sometimes  they  were  offered  in  fulfilment  of  a 
vow  (Num  6i*~^'^).  The  thought  of  joyful  communion  with  God  was 
expressively  symbolized  by  the  feast  which  followed  the  sacrifice,  and 
of  which  the  offerer,  with  his  friends  and  the  priests,  partook.  Jehovah 
Himself  was  regarded  as  present,  and  the  act  was  one  of  communion 
with  Him.  'The  peace-offering,  therefore,  stood  in  most  significant 
relationship  to  the  preceding  offerings.  The  sin-offering,  with  the 
trespass-offering,  which  were  closely  related,  came  first,  making 
expiation  for  sin  ;  the  burnt-offering  followed,  for  when  sin  is  atoned, 
the  way  is  opened  for  self-consecration  to  God:  and  that  is  rightly 
and  beautifully  followed  by  sacrifices  of  peace  and  joy  ;  giving  expres- 
sion at  once  to  the  feelings  experienced  and  to  the  peace  of  God  which 
exists '  (Dr.  W.  L.  Alexander).  See  Lev  8  for  detailed  illustration  in 
the  designation-service  of  Aaron  and  his  sons. 

The  Minchah,  or  Meal-offering-,  with  the  Kesek,  or  Drink-offering 
(see  §  257),  was  either  a  subsidiary  accompaniment  to  the  sacrifices 
above  described,  or  in  special  cases  (Lev  5^^~^^)  might  be  accepted  in 
their  stead. 

The  variety  of  other  gifts  brought  for  the  service  of  the  sanctuary, 
as  food,  incense,  money,  &c.,  was  very  great.  These  were  all  recognized 
by  the  common  name  of  'Corban,'  and  alike  regarded  as  offerings 
to  Jehovah. 

259.  Festivals. — The  festivals  of  the  Jews  were  held 
weekly,  monthly,  and  yearly.  Each  seventh  and  fiftieth 
year,  moreover,  was  kept  with  peculiar  solemnities. 

The  weekly  festival  was  the  Sabbath,  a  day  consecrated  to  rest  and 
cheerful  devotion  (Ps  68^5-27^  &c.).  On  this  day  additional  sacrifices 
were  presented  (Lev  24^  Num  28^).  Children  were  instructed  ;  and 
those  who  were  not  far  distant  visited  the  Temple.  Later  than  the 
days  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  people  seem  to  have  visited  the  prophets 


430  THE    PENTATEUCH. 

(2  Ki  4^')  ;  and  after  the  Captivity  synagogues  were  erected  in  raany  of 
the  towns  of  Palestine,  where  the  '  Law  and  the  Prophets '  were  read 
and  expounded  (Ac  13^^). 

The  monthly  festival  was  held  on  the  day  of  the  New  Moon,  and 
was  announced  by  the  sound  of  silver  trumpets  (Num  io^°).  Labour 
was  not  interdicted,  but  additional  sacrifices  were  offered.  The  new 
moon  of  the  seventh  month  (Tisri,  or  Oct.)  commenced  the  civil  year, 
and  was  celebrated  as  the  Peast  of  Trumpets  :  the  Jewish  '  New  Year's 
Day'  (Lev  s^-^--^).  It  was  'a  solemn  rest,'  in  anticipation  of  the  Day 
of  Atonement  nine  days  afterwards.  For  the  special  New  Year's 
service  and  offerings  see  Num  29^"^ 

Annual    Festivals :    their    threefold    meaning.  —  The 

great  annual  festivals  prescribed  by  the  Law  were  three  ;  and 
when  they  were  celebrated,  all  the  adult  males  in  Israel 
were  required  to  appear  at  the  sanctuary  (Ex  23^*^^"^).  They 
were  all  intended  to  be  seasons  of  joyous  thanksgiving,  and 
were  commemorative  of  the  kindness  and  favour  of  God. 
Besides  this  general  purpose,  they  corresponded  with  the 
seasons  of  the  year  in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  needs  of  an 
agricultural  community  ;  they  also  kept  alive  the  memory 
of  great  national  events  ;  and  with  no  uncertain  meaning 
they  prefigured  the  blessings  of  the  gospel.  In  studying 
the  history  of  these  feasts  this  threefold  significance  should 
be  carefully  borne  in  mind. 

The  Passover  was  kept  in  remembrance  of  the  destruction  of  the 
first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  the  sparing  of  the  Israelites,  and  their 
departure  from  Egypt.  It  began  on  the  eve  of  the  14th  of  Abib, 
i.  e.  all  leaven  was  removed  from  the  house  on  the  14th  day,  between 
the  evenings,  the  Feast  ^  of  Unleavened  Bread '  being  reckoned  from 
the  15th  to  the  21st.  Between  the  evenings  the  Paschal  lamb  (a  ram 
or  a  goat  of  a  year  old,  Ex  i2^~^^)  was  slain  before  the  altar  (Dt  16^-8). 
The  blood  was  sprinkled  (originally  on  the  door-posts,  and  later  at 
the  bottom  of  the  altar) ;  the  lamb  itself  was  roasted  whole,  with  two 
spits  thrust  transversely  through  it,  and  was  then  eaten  with  bitter 
herbs  ;  unleavened  bread  was  broken  by  the  master  of  the  family  and 
distributed  to  each,  not  fewer  than  ten  nor  more  than  twenty  being 
admitted  to  the  feast.  After  the  third  cup  (the  *  cup  of  blessing') 
had  been  drunk,  praises  were  sung — generally,  in  later  times,  Pas  115- 
118;  and  sometimes,  in  addition,  Pss  120-137.     It  was  in  connexion 


INSTITUTIONS   OF  THE   LAW  431 

with  this  feast,  and  towards  its  close,  that  our  Lord  instituted  the 
Last  Supper  (Mt26  Mk  14  i  Cor  10).  During  every  day  of  the  festival 
additional  sacrifices  were  offered  ;  and  on  the  i6th  of  Abib  the  first  ripe 
ears  of  corn  were  presented  at  the  sanctuary,  and  then  the  harvest 
commenced  (Ex  i2^~27  Lgy  239-1*). 

The  fiftieth  day  after  the  second  day  of  the  Passover  (the  16th), 
came  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  called  also  the  Feast  of  Weeks  (i.  e.  seven 
clear  weeks  from  the  16th  of  Abib).  This  was  properly  the  feast  of  the 
completed  harvest  of  the  ground.  Unlike  the  two  other  great  festivals, 
it  occupied  but  one  day.  Loaves  made  of  the  new  meal  and  grain 
were  offered  as  firstfruits  (Lev  23^*^).  Many  burnt-offerings  were  now 
presented  (Lev  23^^"^^) ;  and  Jews  residing  out  of  "Palestine  generally 
chose  this  occasion  for  visiting  Jerusalem.  The  later  Jews  associated 
this  feast  with  the  giving  of  the  Law  on  Sinai,  on  the  fiftieth  day  of 
the  departure  from  Egypt.  The  Pentecostal  effusion  of  the  Spirit, 
and  the  gathering  of  the  firstfruits  of  the  Church,  were  thus  happily 
symbolized. 

In  autumn,  from  the  15th  to  the  21st  of  Tisri  (October),  the  Peast  of 
Tabernacles  was  celebrated,  the  21st,  or  according  to  some  the  22nd, 
an  additional  or  eighth  day,  being  the  chief  day  of  the  feast  (Lev 
2334-43  j^g  318  jy^  rjZiy  It  commemorated  the  sojourning  of  the  Israelites 
in  the  wilderness,  and  was  the  Feast  of  the  Ingathering  of  Fruits. 
Booths  were  constructed  of  branches  of  trees  in  all  parts  of  the  city, 
and  here  the  people  resided  for  the  week.  This  feast  was  the  most 
joyous  of  all ;  it  was  called  '  the  Great  Hosanna ' :  and  more  public 
sacrifices  were  offered  than  at  any  other  (Num  29^'-'^).  To  the 
ordinary  legal  services  of  this  festival  later  Jews  added  others.  Water 
was  drawn  daily  from  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  carried  with  great  pomp  to  the 
Temple,  and  poured  before  the  altar  (see  Is  12').  Priests  also  ascended 
the  steps  which  separated  the  Court  of  the  Women  from  the  inner 
court,  singing  the  Psalms  of  Degrees,  Pss  120-134.  These  customs 
illustrate  the  special  appropriateness  of  our  Lord's  words  (Jn  7''^),  and 
indicate  the  spiritual  application  of  the  prophecy  in  Zee  14^®"^^ 

There  were  also  two  annual  feasts,  though  not  appointed  by  law, 
which  require  notice,  as  they  are  often  mentioned  in  Jewish  history. 
The  first  is  the  Feast  of  Purim  (i.  e.  lots).  It  falls  on  the  14th  or  15th 
of  Adar  (March),  and  commemorates  the  defeat  of  Haman's  plot  for 
the  destruction  of  the  Jews  (Est  3"^  9^^).  It  is  also  called  Mordecai's 
day  (2  Mac  15^^).  The  other  is  the  Feast  of  Dedication,  appointed  to 
celebrate  the  re-establishment  of  Divine  worship  in  Jerusalem  after 
Antiochus  Epiphanes  had  been  vanquished  and  the  Temple  purified, 
B.C.  164  (Jn  io''2).  It  was  observed  for  eight  days  from  the  25th  of 
Chisleu  (December),  and  was  sometimes  called  the  Feast  of  Lights,  from 
the  illumination  in  which,  at  that  season,  the  Jews  indulged. 


432  THE   PENTATEUCH 

Fasts :  the  Day  of  Atonement. — The  fifth  day  before 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  loth  of  Tisri  (October),  was 
the  great  Day  of  Atonement ;  the  only  fast  appointed  by  the 
Law  (Lev  2^^"^'-^  Nu  29"^  Ac  27^).  The  people  then  be- 
wailed the  sins  of  the  year,  and  ceremonial  expiation  was 
made  by  the  high-priest,  who  on  that  day  alone  entered  into 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  where  he  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  goat 
which  had  been  sacrificed.  See  above,  on  the  Sin-offering, 
and  note  on  Azazel,  p.  429. 

Other  fasts  were  instituted  in  later  times,  connected  with  the  siege 
0/ Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (loth  of  the  loth  month),  the  capture 
of  the  city  (the  17th  of  the  4th  month),  the  burning  of  the  Temple  (the  9th 
of  the  5th  month),  the  death  of  Gedaliah  (the  3rd  of  the  7th  month):  see 
Jer  52^  ^''-  Zee  -j^-^  8^^     Compare  Jewish  Calendar,  Part  I,  §  216. 

The  Sabbatic  Year. — Every  seventh  year  was  ordained 
to  be  sabbatic  ;  and  during  that  year,  from  the  ist  of  Tisri, 
the  land  was  untilled  and  fruits  ungathered,  except  by  the 
poor ;  the  people,  however,  were  free  to  hunt,  to  feed  their 
flocks,  repair  their  buildings,  and  engage  in  commerce.  The 
institution  was  intended  to  secure  rest  for  the  soil,  to  teach 
economy  and  foresight,  and  to  impress  upon  the  people  their 
dependence  upon  God.  Special  services  were  held  at  the 
Temple  during  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (Dt  31^°^^):  see  Ex 
2^1011  Lev  25^'"'^.  This  institute,  as  Moses  predicted  (Lev 
2534.35^^  was  long  disregarded  (2  Ch  36-^) ;  but  after  the 
Captivity  it  was  observed  more  carefully. 

The  year  after  seven  sabbatic  years,  or  the  fiftieth,  was 
the  Jubilee  (Lev  25^"^^)  ^  This  year  was  announced  on  the 
loth  of  Tisri,  the  great  day  of  propitiation.  In  addition  to 
the  regulations  of  the  sabbatic  year,  there  were  others  quite 
peculiar.  All  servants,  or  slaves,  obtained  their  freedom 
(Lev   2533-'*6   Jer  34^  1*).      All  the   land   throughout  the 

•  It  may  be  noted  that  the  form  juhile  (Lev  25  A.  V.  and  R.  V.)  is 
dissyllabic  ;  a  Hebrew  word,  from  a  root  signifying  a  ram ;  hence 
ram's  horn,  trumpet. 


DESIGN   OF   THE   LAW  433 

country,  and  the  houses  in  the  cities  of  the  Levites,  sold 
during  the  preceding  fifty  years,  were  returned  to  the  sellers, 
except  such  as  had  been  consecrated  to  God,  and  not  redeemed 
(Lev  25^'^-^*"^^  27^^""^^).  All  mortgaged  lands,  too,  were  re- 
leased without  charge. 

The  comiDleteness  of  the  release  secured  by  these  arrange- 
ments makes  the  jubilee  a  type  of  the  gospel  (Is  61  ^  Lu  4^^). 

Objects  of  the  Festivals. — The  moral  and  spiritual 
purpose  of  these  festivals  is  plain.  They  all  tended  to  unite 
the  people  in  a  holy  brotherhood  and  to  separate  them  from 
the  heathen.  They  preserved  the  memory  of  past  mercies. 
They  illustrated  the  Divine  holiness.  They  lightened  the 
load  of  poverty,  checked  oppression  and  covetousness,  and 
were  all  either  types  of  gospel  blessings,  or  suggestive  to 
a  spiritual  mind  of  the  truths  to  be  fully  unveiled  and 
realized  in  Christ. 

Let  the  whole  Law  be  thus  studied  ;  regard  it  as  a  scheme 
intended  to  reveal,  or  suggest,  or  impress,  or  preserve, 
spiritual  truth,  and  not  only  will  objections  be  removed,  but 
the  whole  will  appear  an  elaborate  and  instructive  lesson, 
eminently  suited  to  the  condition  of  the  nation  to  whom  it 
was  addressed. 


pf 


CHAPTER  XIII 

HISTORICAL   BOOKS:    FROM   THE 

ENTRANCE   INTO   CANAAN   TO 

THE  DEATH  OF  SOLOMON" 

TJie  Historical  Books  of  Scripture  generally. 

260.  Historical  Books  enumerated. — The  historical 
books  of  Scripture — from  Joshua  to  Nehemiah — contain  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  Church  and  nation  from  the  first 
settlement  in  Canaan  to  the  return  after  the  Captivity  in 
Babylon. 

The  books,  as  they  are  placed  in  the  English  Bible,  are  twelve  in 
all,  though  the  Jews  reckoned  them  but  six,  uniting  Ruth  with 
Judges,  Nehemiah  with  Ezra,  and  numbering  the  double  Books  of 
Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles,  respectively,  as  one.  The  Books 
of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings  are  reckoned  by  the  Jews 
among  the  Prophets,  and  denominated  'the  earlier,'  being  still  placed 
in  Hebrew  Bibles  in  this  list.  Taking  into  account,  therefore,  the 
fact  that  large  portions  of  the  Pentateuch  and  of  the  later  Prophets 
are  likewise  historical,  the  modern  classification  of  '  historical  books ' 
is  hardly  precise.  It  is  adopted  simply  as  a  general  and  convenient 
distinction. 

261.  Their  Inspiration.  —  The  historical  books  of 
Scripture  claim,  like  the  rest,  inspired  authority.  Some 
of  them  bear  the  names  of  distinguished  prophets,  and  the 
rest  give  evidence  of  a  similar  origin.  The  annals  of  the 
Hebrew  nation  were  kept  only  by  persons  appointed  to  their 

*  For  the  Poetical  Books,  so  far  as  illustrating  this  period,  see 
Ch.  XVI. 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  BIBLE  HISTORY     435 

office,  and  the  writers  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  the  penmen 
of  sacred  history  are  expressly  called  prophets  or  seers. 

The  history  of  David,  for  example,  was  written  by  Samuel,  Nathan, 
and  Gad,  i  Ch  29^9 ;  of  Solomon,  by  Nathan,  Ahijah,  and  Iddo, 
a  Ch  929 ;  of  Rehoboam,  by  Shemaiah  and  Iddo,  2  Ch  12^5 ;  of  Abijah, 
by  Iddo,  2  Ch  13^2  ;  of  Jehoshaphat,  by  Jehu,  2  Ch  20^*  i  Ki  16^;  and 
of  Uzziah  and  Hezekiah  (including  probably  the  two  intermediate 
kings),  by  Isaiah,  2  Ch  26-^  32^^^  Even  in  rebellious  Israel,  we  read 
of  several  prophets,  and  it  was  no  doubt  their  business  to  record  what 
occurred  in  that  country. 

The  narrative  portion  of  Scripture  displays  throughout 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  secret  motives  of  men, 
and  with  the  purposes  of  God  ^ ;  reveals  His  mercy  and 
judgement  in  the  clearest  predictions ;  exhibits  unexampled 
impartiality  ;  and  enforces  everywhere  practical  holiness. 
The  facts  it  records  are  appealed  to  or  quoted  throughout 
the  Bible  ;  the  writings  which  record  them  were  received 
into  the  Hebrew  canon ;  and  they  are  cited  by  Apostles  and 
by  our  Lord.  That  in  these  writings  other  documents  are 
named,  as  the  depositories  of  ampler  information,  and  that 
some  of  the  books  were  written  or  collected  long  after  the 
events  they  describe,  are  facts  which  create  no  difficulty, 
and  are  in  accordance  with  what  we  know  of  the  general 
method  of  revelation.  They  account,  moreover,  for  the 
occasional  blending  of  matter  evidently  contemporaneous 
with  the  events  described  with  other  of  clearly  later  origin. 

262.  Characteristics  of  Bible  History. — The  Bible  is 
(as  we  have  seen)  a  selection  from  the  history  of  the  Church, 
giving  just  so  much  as  was  sufficient  to  inculcate  the 
principles  of  duty,  to  reveal  the  character  of  God,  and  to 
prepare  for  the  coming  of  His  Son.  It  is  a  history  of 
the  Church  onl?j,  or  of  the  heathen  as  connected  with  its 
sufferings  and  destiny  ;  and  nowhere  is  this  peculiarity  of 
the   Bible   more   marked   than  in   the   historical  portions. 

»   I  Ki  1226-28  Est  5  6. 
F  f  2 


436  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

During  the  times  which  are  chronicled,  there  were  mighty 
nations  celebrated  for  learning  and  valour,  for  illustrious 
men  and  illustrious  actions ;  yet  their  records  are  for 
the  most  part  lost  in  silence  or  in  fable,  while  the  history 
of  the  Jews,  who  'dwelt  apart,'  and  were  'not  reckoned 
among  the  nations,'  has  been  cai'efully  preserved.  Such 
concern  has  God  for  His  Church,  and  so  dear  are  its  interests 
to  Him,  Dt  328-0. 

Another  peculiarity  is  no  less  marked.  Political  events 
of  deep  interest  are  passed  over  ;  the  history  of  long  reigns 
is  compressed  into  a  few  sentences ;  national  concerns  give 
place  to  matters  of  private  life,  history  to  biography,  a  mighty 
monarch  to  a  poor  widow  (2  Ki  3  4).  These  omissions 
and  digressions,  however,  are  all  explained  by  the  design  of 
the  Bible.  It  reveals  the  grace  and  providence  of  God, 
shows  the  workings  of  human  nature  and  the  blessedness 
of  obedience ;  throughout  interweaving  lessons  and  truths 
preparatory  to  the  work  and  reign  of  the  Messiah. 

Within  these  limits,  however,  the  completeness  of  Scrip- 
ture history  is  both  characteristic  and  instructive.  It  ex- 
plains at  once  the  Law  and  the  Prophets,  the  Psalms  and 
the  gospel,  the  future  and  the  past.  To  man,  to  nations, 
to  the  Church,  every  chapter  is  a  lesson  ;  and  the  history, 
studied  in  the  light  of  the  Law  and  Prophets,  is  to  be  applied 
under  the  guidance  of  the  gospel. 

263.  Divisions  of  the  History. — The  whole  history 
naturally  falls  into  three  divisions,  the  first  and  second  being 
separated  by  the  disruption  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom  on  the 
death  of  Solomon  ;  the  second  and  third  by  the  Captivity 
of  Judah.  The  third  also  comprises  the  Restoration  of  the 
Jewish  state  to  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  record. 
The  second  and  third  periods  are  largely  illustrated  by 
the  prophetic  writings.  To  the  history  of  these  periods  a 
supplementary  chapter  (XVII)  is  added  in  the  present  work, 


THE   BOOK   OF   JOSHUA  437 

epitomizing  the  Jewish  annals  from  the  close  of  the  Old 
Testament  Canon  to  the  Advent. 

The  first  of  these  periods  is  readily  divisible  into  two 
parts  ;  the  former  comprising  the  history  from  the  entrance 
into  the  land  of  promise  to  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy ;  the  latter  reaching  to  the  death  of  Solomon. 
The  first  part  contains  the  history  of  the  conquest  and 
settlement  of  Canaan,  of  the  decay  of  the  spirit  of  obedience 
after  the  death  of  Joshua,  with  the  subsequent  punishments 
and  restorations  of  the  people ;  the  second  describes  the 
revival  of  that  spirit  under  Samuel  and  David,  with  the 
splendid  but  chequered  reign  of  Solomon.  Joshua,  Judges, 
Kuth,  and  i  Sa  i-io  cover  the  first  series  of  events ;  i  and 
2  Sa,  I  Ki  i-ii,  I  Ch  and  2  Ch  1-9  record  the  remaining 
portion. 

The  Cheonological  Appendix  to  the  present  work  may  be  consulted 
for  the  order  of  the  principal  names  and  occurrences  in  the  history, 
with  the  dates  so  far  as  ascertainable. 


The  Book  of  Joshua 

264.  The  name  of  Joshua  designates  the  hero  rather 
than  the  writer  of  the  narrative,  although  Jewish  tradition 
assigns  to  him  the  authorship,  and  it  is  at  least  probable 
that  he  supplied  the  materials,  to  be  arranged  and  supple- 
mented by  some  later  scribe.  Many  recent  Old  Testament 
critics,  as  already  stated  (see  §  235),  on  account  of  the  con- 
tinuity in  style  and  purpose  of  this  book  with  the  preceding 
five,  associate  it  with  them  under  the  title  of  'the  Hexa- 
teuch.'  In  any  case,  it  bears  decisive  marks  of  being  in 
the  main  the  narrative  of  a  contemporary  and  eye-witness 
of  the  events  described  (5^  6-^) ;  and  Joshua  himself  was  an 
instructor  and  inspired  prophet  (i  Ki  i6'^^,  see  Jos  6^^  and 
cp.  Ecclus  46^).  That  the  book  must  have  been  written 
before  the  days  of  David  or  Solomon  may  be  argued  from 


438  THE   EAKLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

15^^    compared  with    2   Sa  5"^"^  and    from  16^^  compared 
with  I  Ki  9^^. 

Throughout  there  is  no  token  of  the  reign  of  kings,  or  of  the 
division  of  the  country  into  rival  kingdoms.  Additions  to  the 
original  documents  may  be  traced  in  15'*"*^  (Judg  i^O'^^),  also  in 
15^'  (Judg  i*'^^),  19*^  (Judg  18"^),  and  in  24^^"^^  Subsequent  allusions 
to  facts  recorded  in  the  book  are  frequent :  see  i  Ch  2'^  12^^  Ps  44  68 
78  114  Is  2821  Hab  312  Ac  7^  Jas  2"-^  Heb  48  11'"'. 

His  Life. — Joshua  was  an  Ephraimite  (i  Ch  7^"^),  one  of 
the  twelve  spies  (Num  13^),  a  faithful  servant  and  companion 
of  Moses ;  with  him  upon  Sinai  (Ex  24^^  32^"^).  He  seems 
also  to  have  been  entrusted  with  the  special  care  of  the 
Tabernacle  (Ex  33^^).  After  the  death  of  Moses,  he  took 
the  command  of  the  Israelites,  having  been  early  designated 
to  that  office  by  God  Himself  (Dt  31^^-22).  Originally  he  was 
called  Hoshea  (or  Hosea),  '  salvation  '  or  '  welfare ' ;  Jehoshua, 
'Jehovah  is  salvation,'  contracted  to  Joshua;  also  Jeshua 
(Ne  8^"^).  The  Greek  equivalent  is  'Ir^o-ovs,  Jesus,  See  Ac  7*^ 
Heb4MA.V.). 

Considerable  light  will  be  throvim  upon  Joshua  and  Judges,  if  studied 
in  connexion  with  the  Pentateuch.  Between  these  books  there  is 
much  the  same  connexion  as  between  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts. 

The  character  and  history  of  Joshua  are  highly  instructive.  The 
Spirit  was  in  him,  Num  27!^.  Having  a  certain  promise  of  success 
(ch.  i)  he  yet  prudently  used  whatever  means  were  likely  to  secure 
it.  He  sent  spies  and  disciplined  his  forces  ;  not  resting,  however, 
in  these,  but  looking  still  to  God.  Thus  before  attacking  the  Canaanites 
he  solemnly  renewed  the  dedication  of  himself  and  the  people  (5), 
and  in  seasons  of  emergency  sought  by  prayer  special  blessing  and 
help  (iqI'^"!*).  '  Effurt  and  prayer,'  *  zeal  and  dependence '  were 
clearly  his  rule.  His  piety  and  devotion  are  beautifully  displayed 
in  his  closing  appeals,  and  the  spirit  of  affectionate  submission  with 
which  the  people  received  them  gives  us  a  favourable  impression 
of  his  influence  and  of  their  fidelity  (33^).  The  discipline  of  the 
wilderness  had  not  been  unblessed. 

265.  The  book  falls  into  three  main  divisions. 
I.    The   Conquest   of  Canaan. — 1-12  :    including  the 
crossing   of  the  Jordan  ;    the  re- establishment   of  Circum- 


THE   CONQUEST   OF   CANAAN  439 

cision  ;  the  episode  of  Eahab,  who,  although  a  Canaanite, 
entertained  the  Israelite  spies  in  peace,  and  is  commended 
for  the  faith  which  enabled  her  to  recognize  the  power  of 
Jehovah «-  (Heb  ii^^;  cf.  Mt  i^)  ;  the  appearance  to  Joshua 
of  the  '  captain  of  the  host  of  the  Lord  '  to  reassure  him  in 
the  crisis  of  the  enterprise  ;  the  miraculous  fall  of  Jericho  ; 
and,  as  a  darker  shade  in  the  story,  the  sin  and  doom  of 
Achan  before  Ai.  The  rest  of  the  narrative  is  occupied  by 
the  annals  of  a  seven  years'  war,  including  especially  the 
poetic  fragment  that  commemorates  the  victory  over  a  con- 
federacy of  kings  on  a  memorable  day  before  the  sun  went 
down  b.  The  object  attained  was  worthy  of  the  wonder  that 
was  wrought,  as  the  battle  of  Bethhoron  virtually  made 
Joshua  the  master  of  Palestine. 

The  destruction  of  tlie  Canaanites  is  a  fearful  admonition  of  the 
final  issues  of  trnnsgre-sion.  Compared  with  the  Israelites  they 
were  probably  a  disciplined,  raliant  people  ;  but  they  seem  to  have 
made  little  effort  to  repel  the  invaders.  Perhaps  they  trusted  to  the 
'swellings  of  Jordan,'  which  at  the  time  when  Joshua  entered  Canaan 
(the  vernal  equinox)  made  the  stream,  as  they  supposed,  impassable  ; 
or,  perhaps,  as  one  of  their  number  expressed  it,  '  the  terror  of  the 
God  of  the  Hebrews'  had  fallen  upon  them.  They  were  certainly 
fearfully  wicked  (Lev  iS-*-^^  Dt  9*  18^0-12)^  Their  idolatry  had  aug- 
mented, as  idolatry  ever  does,  licentiousness  and  cruelty.  The  Divine 
will  they  had  once  known,  for  from  the  times  of  Noah  the  light  of 
an  early  revelation  had  lingered  among  them  (Gen  14^^"'^°).  They 
might  have  been  warned — by  the  Deluge,  by  the  history  of  the 
cities  of  the  plain,  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh,  the  recent  overthrow 
of  their  eastern  neighbours  the  Amorites,  the  passage  of  the  Jordan, 
the  capture  of  Jericho,  the  preservation  of  Ruhab,  and  the  convic- 
tions of  their  own  conscience.  Their  removal  from  Palestine,  again, 
seems  to  have  been  essential  for  the   preservation  of  the  Israelites 

»  Eahab  became  the  wife  of  Salmon  ;  Boaz  was  their  son,  and  by 
Kuth  became  the  grandfather  of  David  (Ru  4^1  Mt  i^). 

^  It  is  needless  to  inquire  into  the  nature  of  the  miracle  ;  as  by  the 
attempt  to  account  for  the  prolongation  of  daylight  by  supposing  the 
arrest  of  the  earth's  diurnal  motion.  But  see  interesting  articles  by 
E.  W.  Maunder,  of  the  Greenwich  Observatory,  in  the  Sunday  at 
Borne,  February  and  March,  1904. 


440  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

from  the  contaminating  influence  of  idolatry,  and  they  had  the  alter- 
native of  flight.  In  fact,  many  sailed  to  the  distant  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  there  founded  flourishing  colonies,  thus  preserv- 
ing, to  comparatively  modern  times,  records  of  the  God  vs^ho  fought 
against  them. 

Some  may  object  that  the  war  in  which  they  wore  exterminated 
was  cruel.  It  is  perhaps  a  sufficient  reply  that,  the  cruelties 
practised  were  common  to  the  age,  and  that  in  exterminating  a  very 
guilty  people,  the  Divine  purpose  employed  usages  which  generally 
prevailed  (Jos  8).  It  may  be  added  that  by  similar  discipline  the 
Israelites  themselves  were  chastised,  and  the  general  system  involved 
in  these  events  is  strictly  analogous  to  the  course  of  moral  government 
still  exercised  in  the  world  ;  with  this  difference  only,  that  now  men 
act  as  rods  of  God's  anger  by  tacit  permission ;  then,  as  under  His 
immediate  authority. 

As  the  triumphs,  through  faith,  of  the  Israelites  may  be  considered 
typical  of  the  final  triumph  of  the  Church,  and  of  every  Christian, 
through  Jesus,  the  Captain  of  our  salvation,  the  Author  and  Finisher 
of  our  faith  (Heb  2^°  12-),  so  the  destruction  of  the  Canaanites  takes 
its  place  with  the  Deluge,  and  the  final  overthrow  of  Jerusalem,  as 
a  signal  proof  of  God's  displeasure  against  sin,  and  may  be  considered 
as  an  emblem  of  the  Judgement  of  the  Great  Day,  Ps  109  Lu  19. 

II.  Canaan  the  home  of  Israel. — The  second  part  of 
the  book  (13-22)  shows  the  distribution  of  the  conquered 
land  among  the  tribes.  It  is  well  described  as  '  the  Domes- 
day book  of  the  Conquest  of  Palestine.'  It  should  be 
studied  with  a  map.  Note  especially  the  appointment  of 
the  Levitical  cities  and  the  cities  of  refuge  (20,  21) ;  with 
the  settlement  of  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes,  and  the  con- 
secration of  their  altar  (22). 

III.  The  third  part  of  the  book  describes  the  close  of 
the  great  warrior's  life — his  farewell  addresses  (23-24^^), 
the  renewed  pledge  of  the  i:)eople  to  the  service  of  Jehovah 
{24}^'^^),  the  death  and  burial  of  Joshua,  the  interment  of 
the  embalmed  body  of  Joseph  {2^^^~''^^),  with  the  death  of 
Eleazar,  son  of  Aaron  (24^"). 

266.  Fulfilment  of  the  Divine  Purposes. — And,  now, 
God's  promise  has  been  in  part  fulfilled  :  the  Jews  have 
entered  Canaan  ;   the  Tabernacle  of  God  has  been  set  up 


DIVINE   PURPOSE   IN   THE   HISTORY       441 

in  Shiloh  ;  the  Law  has  been  promulgated  and  accepted. 
In  its  morality,  it  is  eminently  holy  ;  in  its  civil  institutes, 
adapted  to  preserve  the  people  peculiar  and  separate,  and 
to  set  forth  the  reality  of  the  Divine  government ;  and  in 
its  ceremonies,  it  is  a  prophetic  symbol  of  the  gospel — 
but  only  in  part.  The  original  promise  of  a  blessing  to  all 
nations,  ratified  to  Abraham,  and  renewed  to  the  other 
patriarchs,  though  it  included  the  possession  of  Canaan, 
seems  too  comprehensive  to  end  there.  The  prediction  of 
the  coming  dignity  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  the  prophecy  of 
Balaam  ;  the  announcement  by  Moses  of  another  greater 
Prophet ;  and,  especially,  the  predictions  of  Dt  31  (see 
also  Lev  26  and  Dt  28),  foretelling  the  sins  of  the  people, 
and  the  consequences  of  them  in  the  dispersion  of  their 
race,  all  seemed  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  Israelite 
to  an  enlarged  dispensation.  They  plainly  forbade  him 
to  rest  altogether  in  Canaan  or  in  the  Law.  Everything 
implied  a  coming  universal  blessing,  a  kingdom,  a  revelation 
not  nigh,  a  Prophet  from  among  the  people,  a  country  whose 
inhabitants  should  no  more  go  out,  even  for  ever. 

The  revelation  of  these  blessings  was  not  always  clear  ;  but 
it  was  clear  enough  to  excite  inquiry  and  justify  faith.  The 
position  of  the  pious  Israelite,  therefore,  was  not  altogether 
unlike  our  own.  From  Canaan  he  looked  back  on  fulfilled 
predictions,  and  forward  to  a  glorious  future.  Much  of  his 
future  is  now  past ;  and  we  also  look  back  on  predictions 
gloriously  fulfilled  ;  others,  again,  and  in  some  sense,  even 
these,  are  unfulfilled.  All  nations  are  not  yet  blessed  in  Ilim. 
A  third  point  of  contemplation  for  pious  Jews  and  devout 
Christians  remains  ;  and  the  certainty  of  the  predictions, 
whose  fulfilment  is  to  intervene,  is  assured  to  us  by  the 
records  ol  the  past. 


442  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

267.  Principal  Quotations  from  and  References  to  the 
Booh  of  Joshua  in  the  New  Testament 

Jos  l' 


I5 

Heb  I3» 

a 

Jas  2'-'^ 

5-20 

Heb  ii^o 

623 

„31 

:4^-^ 

Ac  131^ 

,4^2 

7^6  Heb  ii«2 

The  Book  of  Judges 

268.  The  authorship  of  Judges  is  not  known,  though 
Jewish  tradition  ascribes  it  to  Samuel.  From  the  book 
itself  we  gather  that  it  was  written  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Monarchy,  19^  21^^,  and  before  the  accession 
of  David,  i^i  :  cf.  2  Sa  56-8.  The  'house  of  God'  refers, 
therefore,  as  in  Joshua,  to  the  Tabernacle,  18^^  (Jos  9^^),  and 
the  'captivity '  spoken  of  in  18^^,  to  some  contemporary 
servitude ;  see  Ps  78^^-^^,  where  the  same  phrase  is  em- 
ployed. Many  of  the  sacred  writers  allude  to  or  quote  this 
book,  I  Sa  129-11  2  Sa  ii^i  Ps  68  83^1  Is  9*  io2^  The 
New  Testament  also  refers  to  heroic  names  in  the  annals 
of  the  judges  (Heb  ii^^j. 

Character  of  the  period.— The  Judges  (CD''tpSti^^  shopMtim)  here 
described  were  not  a  regular  succession  of  governors,  but  occa- 
sional deliverers  raised  up  by  God,  to  rescue  Israel  from  oppres- 
sion and  to  administer  justice.  Without  assuming  the  state  of  royal 
authority,  they  acted  for  the  time  as  vicegerents  of  Jehovah,  the 
invisible  King.  Their  power  seems  to  have  been  not  unlike  that  of 
the  Suffetes  of  Carthage  and  Tyre,  or  of  the  Archons  of  Athens.  The 
government  of  the  people  may  be  described  as  a  republican  con- 
federacy, the  elders  and  princes  having  authority  in  their  respective 
tribes. 

The  entire  duration  of  judgeship  in  Israel  cannot  be  learned  from 
the  book  itself;  for  (i)  the  repeated  mention  of  twenties  and  forties 
in  the  enumeration  of  years  seems  to  show  that  chronological  state- 
ments are  given  in  round  numbers  ;    and  (a)  the  oppressions  and 


THE   BOOK   OF  JUDGES  443 

deliverances,  affecting  different  tribes  and  localities,  were  probably 
in  several  instances  contemporaneous.  The  sura-total  of  years,  if 
taken  successively,  covers  a  much  longer  period  than  the  rest  of  the 
history  allows*.     See  Chronological  Appendix. 

The  moral  character  of  the  Israelites,  as  described  in  this  book, 
seems  to  have  greatly  deteriorated.  The  generation  who  were  con- 
temporaries with  Joshua  w^ere  both  courageous  and  faithful,  and  free 
in  a  great  measure  from  the  weakness  and  obstinacy  which  had 
dishonoured  their  fathers  (Judg  2').  Their  first  ardour,  however, 
had  now  somewhat  cooled,  and  more  than  once  they  fell  into  a  state 
of  indifference  which  Joshua  found  it  needful  to  rebuke.  Perhaps 
the  whole  territory  of  Palestine  was  more  than  they  needed  or  could 
usefully  occupy.  As  each  tribe  received  its  portion,  they  became  so 
engrossed  in  cultivating  it,  or  so  much  fonder  of  ease  than  of  war,  that 
they  grew  unwilling  to  help  the  rest.  National  feeling  was  lost  ;  and 
disorders  of  all  kinds  arose  from  the  want  of  settled  rule,  21-^  All 
found  it,  moreover,  more  convenient  to  make  slaves  of  their  subjugated 
nations  than  to  expel  them.  This  policy  was  both  unwise  and  sinful. 
The  results  were  soon  seen.  Another  generation  arose.  Living 
among  idolaters,  the  Israelites  copied  their  example,  intermarried 
with  them,  and  became  contaminated  with  their  abominations,  2'^  ^s. 
The  old  inhabitants  of  the  land,  left  alone,  gathered  strength  to  make 
head  against  the  chosen  race  :  surrounding  nations  and  tribes,  as  the 
Syrians,  Philistines,  Moabites,  and  Midianites,  took  advantage  of 
their  degeneracy  to  attack  them  ;  while  the  licentiousness,  ease,  and 
idolatry,  to  which  the  Hebrews  were  giving  way,  impaired  their 
powers  of  defence.  Especially  does  the  history  of  Samson,  the  last 
judge  in  the  series,  exhibit  the  consequences  of  unbridled  sensuality, 

*  Supposing  the  periods  of  oppressions  and  deliverances  to  have 
been  successive,  affecting  the  whole  land,  we  should  have  the  following 
Table :— 


Ch. 

Oppressions  by 

Yrs. 

Ch. 

Deliverances  by 

Yrs. 

3« 

Cushan-rislu 

ithaim 

8 

3'' 

Otliniel 

40 

3" 

Eglon 

18 

330 

Ehud 

80 

4' 

Jabin 

20 

5'^^ 

Barak 

40 

6^ 

Midianites 

7 

8-28 
I02 
I03 

Gideon 

Tola 

Jair 

40 

23 

22 

[08 

Ammonites 

18 

12^ 
I28.U 

Jephthah 
Ibzan,  &c. 

6 

25 

:3^ 

Philistines 

40 
III 

,520 

Samson 

20 

^6 

giving  a  total  of  407  years,  not  including  Eli's  40  years  :   i  Sa  4^ 


444  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

i3'^*-i63^    The  succession  of  aborigines,  Hindus,  and  Mohammedans 
in  India  affords  an  instructive  parallel. 

269.  Outline. — The  history  of  alternate  oppressions 
and  deliverances,  occupying  sixteen  chapters  of  the  book, 
is  followed  by  two  narratives,  illustrating  the  unsettled  and 
licentious  character  of  the  times:  i.  that  of  Micah  the 
Ephraimite  (i8) ;  2.  that  of  the  Benjamite  in  Gibeah,  an  out- 
rage followed  by  a  fratricidal  war,  and  leading  to  violent 
measures  to  save  the  tribe  from  extermination  (19-21).  It 
is  just,  however,  to  add,  that  the  whole  period  must  not  be 
regarded  as  an  uninterrupted  course  of  apostasy.  Some  of 
the  disorders  mentioned  affected  only  parts  of  the  country, 
while  the  rest  was  in  a  better  state.  The  sins  which  in- 
curred punishment,  and  the  deliverances  which  followed 
repentance,  are  related  at  length ;  while  long  periods,  during 
which  the  judges  governed,  and  the  people  obeyed  God,  are 
described  in  a  single  verse. 

270.  Beferenccs  to  Judges  in  the  New  Testament, 

Judg  2^6  Ac  1320 


4  Barak 
6-8  Gideon 
II,  12  Jephthali 
14  16  Samson 


Heb 


The  Book  of  Ruth 

271.  The  Book  of  Ruth  may  be  considered  as  a  sequel  to 
the  Book  of  Judges,  with  which  it  is  linked  by  its  first 
word,  and  as  an  introduction  to  the  ensuing  history.  In  the 
Jewish  Canon,  it  does  not  immediately  follow  Judges,  but 
forms  part  of  the  Hagiographa ;  being  the  second  of  the 
five  Megilloth  or  Festal  Rolls,  one  of  which  was  publicly 
read  at  each  festival.  Ruth,  on  account  of  its  harvest 
associations,  was  appointed  for  Pentecost.  In  the  LXX  and 
Vulgate,  it  is  placed  next  to  Judges,  as  in  modern  versions. 


THE   BOOK   OF   RUTH  .   445 

The  book  contains  particulars  of  the  family  of  Elimelech, 
and  informs  us  how  Ruth,  a  Moabitess,  became  the  wife  of 
Boaz,  of  Bethlehem-Judah,  an  ancestor  of  David,  and  thus  of 
Christ.  The  authorship  is  unknown ;  it  is  ascribed  by- 
Jewish  tradition  to  Samuel.  There  are  several  phrases  in 
the  original,  identical  with  expressions  which  elsewhere 
occur  only  in  Samuel  and  Kings  (Ru  i^"^  4^  &c.).  It  is 
certain  that  it  was  written  after  the  era  of  the  Judges 
(i^),  when  certain  Israelite  usages  had  become  antiquated, 
4*^  (compare  Dt  25^),  and,  probably,  when  David's  house  was 
established  upon  the  throne,  4'^'^"  22  (although  the  genealogy 
may  have  been  inserted  by  a  subsequent  editor).  There 
seems  no  sufficient  reason  for  placing  it,  with  some  critics, 
at  a  late  period  in  the  history'^. 

Purpose  of  the  "book. — A  chief  design  of  the  book  is  to 
trace  the  descent  of  David,  bringing  out  clearly  the  fact  that 
a  foreigner,  one  of  a  hated  race,  was  in  the  ancestral  line. 
So  Mt  i^,  where  the  further  fact  is  added  that  Boaz,  the 
husband  of  Ruth,  was  a  descendant  of  Rahab.  Thus  does  the 
purpose  of  Jehovah  show  itself  superior  to  positive  command 
(Dt  23^'),  while  the  facts  expressively  indicate  the  catholicity 
of  the  Divine  Kingdom,  and  prefigure  the  calling  of  the 
Gentiles. 

272.  Outline. — The  contents  of  the  book  are,  briefly,  as 
follows :  An  account  of  Naomi,  from  her  departure  with  her 
husband  in  a  time  of  long-continued  famine  ^  from  Canaan 
into  Moab,  to  her  return  into  the  land  of  Israel  with  her 

*  It  has  even  been  attributed  to  the  period  after  the  Captivity,  and 
supposed  to  have  been  written  '  with  a  purpose '  ;  either  to  commend 
the  '  levirate '  marriage-custom  ;  or  else,  to  vindicate  by  the  example 
of  Ruth  the  marriage  with  foreigners,  in  opposition  to  the  legislation 
of  Nehemiah.  On  supposed  Aramaisms  in  the  dialogues,  see  Delitzsch, 
Comm. 

^  Possibly,  as  lias  been  conjectured,  during  the  Midianitish  in- 
vasions, which  lasted  for  seven  years  (Judg  6^"^),  so  that  EuLli  would 
be  a  contemporary  of  Gideon. 


446  THE   EAELY  HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

daughter-in-law  Ruth,  ch.  i.  Interview  of  Boaz  with  Ruth, 
and  their  marriage,  2-4^2^  Birth  of  Obed,  and  genealogy 
of  David,  4I3-22. 

Lessons. —  This  book  is  remarkably  rich  in  examples  of  faith, 
patience,  industry,  and  kindness,  nor  less  so  in  intimations  of  the 
special  care  which  God  takes  of  our  concerns  ;  *  still  out  of  seeming 
ill  educing  good.'  Elimelech's  misfortunes  ;  his  son's  marriage  to  a 
Moabitess  ;  Ruth's  loss  of  her  husband — all  end  in  her  own  conversion, 
and  in  the  honour  of  her  adopted  family.  What  changes  ten  years 
have  produced  !  They  have  turned  Naomi  ('pleasantness')  into  Mara 
('bitter').  She  who  went  out  full  has  come  home  again  empty. 
Her  fortitude  and  faith,  however,  sustain  her ;  and  in  her  trouble  she 
shows  equal  wisdom  and  tenderness.  When  her  daughters  are  told 
what  they  must  expect  if  they  accompany  her  to  Canaan,  Orpah 
weeps,  but  returns  to  her  idols;  Ruth  cleaves  to  her,  indicating 
thereby  depth  of  affection  and  religious  decision,  i^^  2^2  jjgj.  reward 
she  received  'of  Jehovah,  the  God  of  Israel,  under  whose  wings  she 
came  to  trust.* 

Incidentally,  the  book  contains  some  of  the  loveliest  pictures  of 
Israelitish  rural  life  to  be  found  in  Scripture.  Boaz,  the  genial  land- 
owner, his  willing  labourers,  the  gleaners  in  the  harvest-field,  the 
purity  and  simplicity  of  the  family  affections  displayed — all  form 
a  beautiful  contrast  to  the  ruder  scenes  of  conflict  and  passion  which 
marked  the  era,  and  seem  to  single  out  Bethlehem  from  the  rest  of  the 
unquiet  land. 

Buth  in  the  New  Testament 

273.  Ruth  is  one  of  the  four  women  mentioned  in  the  genealogy 
of  the  Messiah,  Mt  i.  The  selection  of  these  names  illustrates  in  a 
marked  degree  the  sovereignty  and  mystery  of  Divine  grace. 


The  Books  of  Samuel 

274.  General  View. — These  two  books  were  in  the  old 
Hebrew  Canon  reckoned  as  one  %  the  present  division  being 
derived  from  the  LXX,  followed  by  the  Vulgate.  In  those 
versions  they  are  called  the  First  and  Second  Books  of 
Kings,  as  they  form  part  of  the  history  of  the  kings    of 

*  Hence  the  heading  in  A.  V.,  otherwise  called  the  First  (or  Second)  Book 
qf  the  Kings :  dropped  in  R.  V. 


THE   FIRST  BOOK  OF  SAMUEL  447 

Israel  and  Judah.  The  place  of  the  books  in  the  Canon, 
the  predictions  they  record  %  the  quotations  from  them  in 
later  books,  and  in  the  N.  T.,  supply  ample  evidence  of 
their  authority. 

The  question  of  authorship  is  not  free  from  diflSculty  ;  but  there 
seems  no  reason  for  rejecting  the  ancient  view  that  Samuel  himself 
wrote  I  Sa  1-24,  and  that  the  rest  was  written  by  Nathan  and  Gad. 
We  know  from  i  Sa  10^^  i  Ch  29^9  that  not  only  'Samuel  the  seer'  but 
'  Nathan  the  prophet '  and  'Gad  the  seer'  were  contemporaneous  autho- 
rities :  reference  is  likewise  made  to  the  Book  of  Jasher,  2  Sa  i^^ 
The  latest  note  of  time  of  composition  is  in  i  Sa  27^,  and  this  may  be 
probably  regarded  as  an  editorial  addition  subsequent  to  the  division 
of  Solomon's  kingdom,  and  before  the  Captivity.  Gad  appears  to  have 
been  one  of  David's  companions  in  the  wilderness,  i  Sa  22'  :  he  was 
a  trusted  counsellor  of  David,  2  Sa  24^^"^*  i  Ch  2i"-i2^  Nathan  was 
prominent  among  David's  advisers,  and  was  repeatedly  commissioned 
to  give  him  Divine  messages,  a  Sa  7'^"^'^  12^  (comp.  Ps  51  title).  His 
intimate  connexion  with  Solomon  should  also  be  noted,  2  Sa  12^5 
I  Ki  i^^~*°.  In  Zee  12^2  j^jg  name  occurs  as  representative  of  the 
great  family  of  the  prophets.  The  two  books  contain  several  odes. 
The  Song  of  Hannah,  i  Sa  a^-^o,  developed  later  into  the  Magnificat  of 
Mary,  Lu  i*6-55.  It  prophetically  refers  to  a  coming  King,  Hhe 
Anointed,'  and  thus  falls  into  the  line  of  the  foreshadowings  of  the 
Messiah.  There  are  also  David's  elegies  on  the  death  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  and  on  that  of  Abner,  2  Sa  i^'"^?  3  33.34^  ^is  ode  of  triumph 
over  his  enemies,  2a  (Ps  18),  and  the  last  song  of  Hhe  sweet  psalmist 
of  Israel'  23^"''^. 

The  Hebrew  text  of  Samuel,  especially  in  the  First  Book,  presents 
some  difficulties  in  regard  to  the  order  of  incidents,  and  to  numerical 
statements,  and  in  several  passages  is  obscure.  It  has  evidently 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  transcribers.  Attention  should  be  given  to 
the  numerous  variations  in  the  LXX  from  the  present  Hebrew. 
Some  of  these  are  noted  below. 

First  Booh:  chs.  1-8. 

275.  The  earlier  part  of  this  book  closes  the  annals  of 
the  Judgeship  and  begins  the  history  of  the  Monarchy 

in  Israel.  The  warrior-line  of  Judges  had  come  to  an  end  ; 
Eli,  high-priest  in  the  line  of  Ithamar,  had  succeeded  to  the 

•  See  I  Sa  2^^  2  Sa  la^o-^''  &c. 


448  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

office,  which  he  administered  from  the  sanctuary  in  Shiloh 
for  forty  years,  being  most  probably  for  part  of  the  time  con- 
temporary with  Samson.  It  was  the  time  of  Philistine 
aggression  and  domination,  brought  to  a  climax  by  the 
capture  of  the  ark  of  God  and  the  death  of  Eli.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Samuel,  descendant  of  Levi,  through  Kohath ; 
though  prophet  yet  not  priest,  although  on  certain  occasions 
he  offered  sacrifice.  So  irregular  was  the  observance  of  the 
Law,  to  which  nevertheless  these  books  have  allusions  which 
decisively  show  that  it  existed  as  the  Divine  rule  for  the 
nation.  See  i  Sa  2'-^-'  3'  4^  f  8  throughout,  lo^^  1522 
2o5  &c.  2  Sa  722--*  157-9  &c. 

Life  and  Calling-  of  Samuel. — Tlio  familiar  history  of  Samuel's 
birth,  his  consecration  to  the  service  of  Jehovah,  and  his  special  call 
from  heaven,  fitly  introduce  the  record  of  his  wonderful  chai-acter 
and  career.  He  was  more  than  a  reformer :  he  restored  the  religion  of 
Israel,  and  established  the  schools  of  the  prophets.  While  yet  a  youth, 
he  rallied  his  countrymen  to  a  stand  against  the  Philistine  hosts, 
which  were  decisively  routed:  and 'Ebenezor,'  'the  stone  of  help,' 
became  the  memorial  of  heaven-sent  victory.  The  position  of  Samuel 
was  unique.  A  direct  Divine  appointment  constituted  him  both 
political  and  spiritual  ruler  of  the  nation,  and  gave  him  a  supremacy 
which  the  king  whom  he  had  designated  held  in  respect,  i  Sa  7^^. 
But  he  is  chiefly  to  be  noted  as  the  head  of  the  great  prophetic  line. 
*  All  the  prophets,  from  Samuel  and  them  that  followed  after,'  is  the 
apostolic  description  of  this  illustrious  succession,  Ac  3^^*.  Through 
him  again  was  given  that  '  open  vision '  long  withdrawn  (ch.  3^,  cp. 
Jer  15^  Ac  1^^^). 

First  Booh  continued :   chs.  9-31. 

276.  Designation  of  Saul  as  King. — The  j^eople  now 
demanded  a  king ;  and  God  gave  them  their  desii-e.  The 
way  in  which  Samuel  made  the  Divine  purpose  known,  and 
carried  it  out,  is  narrated  in  chs.  9,  10,  which  show  among 
other  things  the  simplicity  of  the  great  prophet's  life,  and 
his  condescension  to  the  humblest  functions.  The  appoint- 
ment itself  was  made  with  solemn  ceremony,  and  amid  signs 
of  popular  enthusiasm.     This  part  of  the  history  closes  with 


SAUL   MADE   KING  449 

a  brief  record  of  the  tact  and  moderation  with  which  Saul 
began  his  reign.  He  returned  for  a  while  to  his  own  home, 
and  took  no  notice  of  any  still  existing  disaffection,  lo^^-^^. 

But  these  signs  of  hopefulness  were  soon  overborne  by  the 
display  of  qualities  that  unfitted  him  to  rule  the  Lord's 
people.  His  character,  indeed,  as  portrayed  in  this  book, 
exhibits  a  strange  mingling  of  noble  impulses  with  others 
that  proved  his  ruin.  He  showed  himself  to  be  self-willed 
and  passionate,  meriting  at  once  the  stern  reprehension 
of  Samuel  (15^^"^^)  and  the  exquisite  eulogy  of  David 
(2  Sa  i^^~27j^  jjis  outbreaks  of  jealousy  and  rage  at  times 
were  maniacal.  *  An  evil  spirit  from  Jehovah  troubled 
him'  (i6^4). 

The  accounts  of  the  introduction  of  David  to  Saul  illustrate  the 
sharacter  of  the  king  in  its  several  aspects,  There  is  much  vividness 
in  these  details,  with  some  undoubted  difficulties.  The  shepherd  lad 
who  lays  the  giant  low,  the  minstrel  who  soothes  the  monarch's 
stormy  passions,  the  king's  chosen  armour-bearer,  a  '  mighty  man  of 
valour,'  the  'captain  of  a  thousand,'  and  the  king's  son-in-law,  are 
among  the  characters  in  which  the  son  of  Jesse  is  presented.  It  is 
difficult  to  harmonize  the  earlier  parts  of  this  delineation,  especially 
the  fact  that  the  son  of  Jesse,  the  minstrel  who  calmed  Saul's 
troubled  spirit,  a  favourite  with  the  king,  and  his  armour-bearer 
(i6i5~23),  in  a  subsequent  part  of  the  history  appears  as  a  youth 
unknown  to  him  (17^^"^^).  There  may  have  been  a  transposition 
of  the  several  accounts.  It  is  noticeable  that  the  LXX  omits  17^2-3]^ 
also  17^°  and  i7^''-i8^.  Such  omissions  were  perhaps  by  way  of 
expedient  to  remove  the  difficulty.  Other  solutions  are  proposed  in 
the  Commentaries ;  one  being,  that  two  independent  accounts  have 
been  incorporated. 

277.  Saul  and  David. — On  the  failure  of  Saul,  David 
was  anointed,  by  Divine  direction  to  Samuel,  as  the  future 
King  of  Israel.  '  The  Spirit  of  Jehovah  came  mightily  upon 
David  from  that  day  forward '  (i6^3j^  jje  incurred  the 
jealous  hatred  of  Saul ;  and  the  history  of  his  escapes  from 
the  king's  rage,  and  of  his  many  adventures,  most  vivid  in 
their  interest,  occupies  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  of 


450  THE   EARLY  HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

the  book.  The  friendship  of  David  and  Jonathan,  first  men- 
tioned 1 8^,  is  one  of  the  most  charming  records  of  the  kind 
that  history  contains.  David's  refuge  for  a  time  with  the 
Philistines,  whose  champion  he  had  sLain,  is  remarkable 
and  characteristic  (27^"^  Ps  34  title).  Then  follows  the 
visit  of  the  distracted  king  to  the  witch  at  En-dor  (28), 
and  the  book  closes  with  the  disastrous  battle  at  Mount 
Gilboa  (south  of  the  great  Plain  of  Esdraelon)  in  which 
Saul  and  Jonathan  fell. 

It  is  with  this  battle  that  the  historical  part  of  Chronicles 
begins  (ch.  10).     See  Introduction  to  the  book. 

Second  Boole  of  Samuel. 

278.  This  book,  beginning  with  David's  elegy  on  Saul 
and  Jonathan,  '  the  Song  of  the  Bow  '  i^^,  contains  the  main 
history  of  David's  reign.  He  at  once  laid  claim  to  the 
crown,  according  to  the  Divine  appointment ;  but  was  resisted 
by  the  heir  of  Saul,  Esh-baal  (called  in  derision  Ish-bosheth, 
'the  man  of  shame'},  supported  by  Saul's  general  Abner, 
and  followed  by  the  greater  number  of  the  tribes.  David, 
supported  by  his  own  tribe  of  Judah,  established  his  throne 
at  Hebron  ;  and  a  civil  war  ensued,  in  which  Abner  and 
Ish-bosheth  were  murdered,  to  David's  unaffected  grief. 
Another  scion  of  Saul's  house,  a  grandson,  Merib-baal,  son  of 
Jonathan,  whose  name  was  similarly  altered  toMephi-bosheth, 
excited  no  real  apprehension,  being  a  cripple,  and  was  kindly 
treated  by  David,  whose  power  was  no  longer  seriously 
menaced  from  within.  His  first  great  exploit  was  to  capture 
the  Jebusite  fortress  of  Zion,  up  to  that  time  regarded  as 
impregnable  by  its  heathen  occupants.  The  record  of  its 
successful  assault  is  supplemented  by  the  chronicler 
(i  Ch  ii*~^),  who  relates  that  Joab  was  first  to  enter  the 
stronghold. 

Henceforth  the  fortress  was  known  as  the  City  of  David,  the 
crown  of  the  old  Jerusalem  (Jos  10^  15*^"}.    But  the  exploit, 


THE   SECOND   BOOK   OF   SAMUEL  451 

and  the  growing  power  of  David,  threatened  the  supremacy 
of  the  Philistines,  to  whom,  after  the  battle  of  Gilboa,  Israel 
had  doubtless  been  tributary.  Particulars  are  wanting :  we 
are  only  told  that  David  inflicted  on  these  ancient  foes  of 
Israel  a  series  of  decisive  defeats.  The  chief  of  these  con- 
flicts were  in  the  Vale  of  Kephaim  (the  '  Giants'  Valley '), 
between  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem*.  As  the  result,  the 
Israelites  were  henceforth  virtually  free  from  the  power  of 
their  once  formidable  neighbours.  Other  victories  followed, 
to  the  east  and  the  north  ;  and  the  way  was  opened  for  the 
secure  accomplishment  of  the  purpose  on  which  the  king's 
heart  had  long  been  set  (Ps  132^"^},  the  removal  of  the 
ark,  which,  since  its  reclamation  from  the  Philistines  twenty 
years  ago,  had  remained  '  in  the  fields  of  the  wood  '  with 
Abinadab  of  Kirjath-jearim.  An  act  so  important  in  the 
religious  history  of  Israel  is  appropriately  related  in  detail  (6). 
Most  significant  is  the  narrative  that  follows  (7),  expressing 
the  king's  desire  to  crown  the  transaction  by  erecting  a  per- 
manent sanctuary.  This  gives  occasion  to  a  great  prophetic 
utterance  from  Nathan,  with  the  king's  sublime  outpouring 
of  thankfulness  and  prayer. 

279.  David  king  in  Jerusalem.— David  had  now  trans- 
ferred the  seat  of  government  from  Hebron,  where  it  had 
remained  for  seven  years,  to  Jerusalem.  His  career  of  con- 
quest continued,  marked  by  notable  events  (8  10) ;  the  war 
with  Amnion  being  specially  bitter  and  prolonged^.  In 
connexion  with  this  war  occurred  the  great  sin  of  David's 
career,  faithfully  related ;  his  heartfelt  penitence ;  Divine 
forgiveness,  and  the  birth  of  Solomon  {12^*''^^).  But  though 
the  sin  was  pardoned,  its  consequences  remained ;   and  the 

•  It  may  be  noted,  as  an  interesting  fact,  that  the  railway  to  Jeru- 
salem now  runs  along  the  valley,  its  terminus  being  close  by  the  Valley 
of  Hinnom,  south-west  of  the  city. 

^  On  the  final  treatment  of  the  Ammonites  by  David,  see  Part  I, 
§  115,  I. 

Gg  2 


452  THE   EAKLY  HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

following  history  records  a  melancholy  series  of  family  and 
public  disasters.  The  crime  of  Amnon  (13),  Absalom's 
revenge,  his  disgrace,  restoration  to  favour,  his  rebellion  and 
death,  are  related  in  full  detail  (14-19) ;  then  the  revolt  of 
Sheba  the  Benjamite,  caused  by  jealousies  between  the 
tribes  (20).  The  brief  paragraph  20^^"^^  is  a  virtual  repetition 
of  8^^~i^.  Both  passages  probably  formed  the  close  of 
different  accounts  of  David's  reign.  The  book  closes  with 
a  series  of  narratives  referable  to  different  periods;  the 
vengeance  of  the  Gibeonites  upon  the  family  of  Saul  (2i^~^^), 
and  the  honourable  burial  of  the  remains  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  probably  belong  to  an  early  part  of  the  reign. 
A  summary  of  the  contests  with  Philistia  is  here  introduced, 
in  the  course  of  which  the  giant  Goliath  is  said,  according 
to  the  present  text  (21^^),  to  have  been  slain  by  El-hanan, 
a  Bethlehemite.  There  is  undoubtedly  here  a  transcriber's 
mistake,  to  be  corrected  from  i  Ch  20^  '\ 

280.  David's  thanksgiving,  and  *  last  words.' — Chapter 
22  contains  Ps  18,  with  a  few  variations  ;  and  in  23^""'^ 
there  is  a  poem  describing  an  ideal  king,  with  an  account 
of  David's  heroes  23^^^^,  evidently  distinct  from  the  fore- 
going. The  last  chapter  of  the  book  gives  an  account 
of  a  pestilence  following  a  census  of  Israel,  apparently  under- 
taken by  David  in  a  vainglorious  spirit ;  with  a  consequent 
projiitiatory  sacrifice,  in  connexion  with  which  the  site  of  the 
future  Temple  is  acquired. 

Compare  the  account  in  i  Ch.  21.  'Oman'  and  'Araunah'  are 
different  forms  of  the  same  name.  The  price  of  *  the  threshing-floor 
and  oxen  '  was  fifty  shekels  of  silver  (2  Sa  24'*),  tliat  of  'the  place,' 
i.e.  the  whole  of  what  was  afterwards  the  Temple  hill,  six  hundred 
shekels  of  gold. 

281.  Events  recorded  in  the  Books  of  Samuel,  prohaUy 
referred  to  in  Psalms  ascribed  hy  expositors,  or  hy  their  Jewish 
titles,  to  David.     {On  these  titles,  see  §§  38G,  387.) 

*  For  fui tlior  remarks  on  this  pa.ssage,  see  Part  I,  §  58,  13. 


EVENTS   REFERRED   TO   IN   THE   PSALMS     453 


(Those  marked  *  are  according  to  the  superscriptions, 
others  conjecturally  :  some  Psalms  are  ascribed  to  more  than 
one  occasion,  the  opinion  of  expositors  varying  greatly.) 


Historical  Connexion. 

Referenoes. 

Psalms. 

i.  Prior  to  the  reign  of  David. 

David  when  calumniated  at  court  of 

I  Sa  i8,  19 

7*,    II    (Ewald), 

Saul 

12 

When  pursued  by  Saul 

»> 

191-n 

59*>  22 

David's  flight  to  Gath 

» 

2 1 10-15 

56*,  34* 

'When    he   fled   from    Saul    in    the 

)) 

221-2 

57*,  14a* 

cave,'  i.e.  at  Adullam,  or  it  may 

or  24 

be  En-gedi 

When   Doeg  the  Edomite    informed 

» 

226-23 

53* 

Saul    of    David's    coming    to    the 

house  of  Ahimelech 

When   David  was   betrayed   by  the 

If 

23I9-24 

54* 

Ziphites 

Escape  from  Saul 

>» 

23^5-28 

i7(Hitzig,Moll.>, 
31  (Del.) 

When  pursued  by  Saul  at  En  gedi 

>> 

24 

35  (Roster),  63 

David's  pursuit  of  and  victory  over 

M 

30 

16  (Hitzig) 

Amalekites 

ii.  After  David's  accession  to  the  Tlirone  and 

prior  to  his  great  FaU. 

Accession  to  the  Throne 

2  Sa  2^-* 

27,  28 

Jerusalem  made  the  capital 

1) 

5^-^^ 

68,    TOT 

'At  the  dedication  of  the  house  of 

30*,  29 

David ' 

Removal  of  the  Ark  to  Jerusalem 

» 

e,i--u 

68,  15,  24,  26 

Promises  by  Nathan  to  David 

>j 

7 

138 

Wars  and  conquests 

jj 

81-11 

6o^  9, 20, 21 

To  this  period  generally 

5,  6,  8,  16,  18,  19, 

23,  29,  36,  58, 

68  (Del.),  108, 
97*  (Sept.),  98* 
(Sept.),  99* 
(Sept.) 

iii.  David's  FaU  and  Repentance. 

David's  great  sin  and  repentance 

)» 

12I-1* 

51*,  32,  38,  39, 
40,  41 

To  this  period  generally 

55,  58,  103 

454 


THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL  BOOKS 


Historical  Connexion. 

References. 

Psalms. 

iv.   The  Time  of  the  Great  Revolt. 

Events  immediately  preceding 

2Sa  15I-6 

6,64 

Flight  from  Absalom 

„     i5'^-«« 

3*,4(K6ster),3i, 
61,  62  (Del.), 
63  (Del.),  69 

Rebellion  of  Absalom 

,7    17 

27,  28,  42  (Sept.), 
43  (Sept.),  70, 
143 

AhithopheFs  treachery 

-„21-23 

35,55 

V.  Dedication  of  Araunah's  threshing- 

2^25 

24 

floor 

282.  Principal  Quotations  from  the  BooTcs  of  Samuel  in  the 
New  Testament. 


I  Saai 


8^  lo* 


Tc22 

a  Sa  712.1s 
>>     7 

Ta24 


Lu  1*6.4 
Ac  13'* 

Mk   I2»3 
Mt   123* 

Ac  2^0  13' 

Heb  i« 

Mt  i6»i-Lu3""i 


Mk  a2B26  Lu  e''-* 

36 


Prophecy:   from  Samuel  to  David 

283.    The   Prophetic   Spirit   revived:    Samuel.  —  In 

Samuel  we  have  a  revival  of  the  prophetic  spirit.  From 
the  days  of  Joshua  to  Eli  there  seems  to  have  been  *  no  open 
vision '  (i  Sa  3^  Ac  13^°  3^*).  Under  the  Judges,  the  original 
covenant  remained  as  at  first.  The  Jewish  polity  and  priest- 
hood were  unchanged.  The  Law,  as  given  by  Moses,  was 
in  full  force,  and  the  Books  of  Samuel  repeatedly  evince 
a  knowledge  of  the  records  and  institutions  of  the  Penta- 
teuch (see  §  275).  In  the  days  of  Samuel,  however, 
marked  changes  were  passing  over  the  state.  Calamities 
were  becoming   more   confounding,  successes   more   extra- 


SAMUEL   AND   DAVID   AS   PKOPHETS        455 

ordinary  and  transient.  The  priesthood  was  to  be  trans- 
ferred; kingly  government  to  be  established.  By  and  by, 
the  kingdom  itself  would  be  broken  and  divided.  Idolatry 
would  be  publicly  sanctioned,  needing  public  authoritative 
rebukes.  Then  would  follow  a  long  series  of  afflictions, 
ending  in  removal  and  captivity,  as  long  ago  predicted. 

Changes  so  serious  needed  special  interposition.  Hence 
the  necessity  of  a  revival  and  enlargement  of  prophetic 
revelation.  As  Moses  required  peculiar  evidence  of  a  Divine 
appointment  for  his  mission,  so  did  Samuel.  He  appears, 
therefore,  as  prophet,  and  commences  an  age  of  prophecy 
which  continues  without  any  material  chasm  to  the  days 
of  Malachi. 

A  supernatural  call  and  a  prophetic  vision  were  granted 
to  him  at  the  commencement  of  his  ministry,  even  in  his 
youth.  He  was  commissioned  to  repeat  to  Eli  a  prediction 
which  a  man  of  God  had  already  announced,  and  the  fulfil- 
ment of  this  prediction,  with  other  circumstances,  gave  early 
evidence  of  his  authority.  The  people  soon  sought  a  king, 
and  as  their  request  implied  a  distrust  of  the  protection  and 
love  which  had  made  them  a  theocracy,  it  was  opposed  by 
the  prophet  in  God's  name.  At  length,  God  complied,  and 
it  became  the  business  of  the  prophet  to  watch  over  the 
change,  to  define  the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  to  show  whom 
Jehovah  had  chosen,  and  ultimately  to  transfer  the  kingdom 
to  the  person  and  tribe  of  David.  So  far,  the  predictions 
and  business  of  the  prophet  were  chiefly  civil. 

284.  David  as  Prophet  (see  Ac  2^^). — In  David's  person 
and  reign  prophecy  assumes  a  new  character.  His  kingdom 
was  first  confirmed  to  him  (2  Sa  7^2-17  pg  3^^^  rpj^^ 
character  and  kingdom  of  Solomon  are  then  foretold,  and, 
blended  with  these,  we  find  revelations  of  a  higher  and 
holier  kind.  The  promise  to  Abraham  was,  as  we  have 
seen,  both  temporal  and  evangelical ;    so  also  is  now  the 


456  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

promise  to  David.  To  Abraham,  the  Messiah  had  been 
announced,  more  or  less  clearly,  as  the  promised  Seed ;  to 
Moses,  as  the  coming  Prophet ;  to  all  of  that  age,  as  the 
Priest;  to  David,  he  appears,  in  addition,  as  King.  In 
connexion  with  his  reign,  therefore,,  we  have  distinct  fore- 
shadowings  of  Messiah's  authority,  of  the  hostility  of  the 
kings  of  the  earth,  of  His  sceptre  of  righteousness,  of  His 
unchangeable  priesthood,  of  His  exalted  nature,  of  His  death, 
and  His  victory  over  death,  and  of  His  dominion,  including 
both  Israel  and  the  Gentiles  (Psalms  2,  16,  45,  no,  &c.). 

How  far  David  himself  was  conscious  of  the  deeper 
meaning  of  the  prophecies  addressed  to  him,  as  by  Nathan, 
or  uttered  by  himself  in  Psalms,  we  cannot  tell.  To  him  as 
to  other  inspired  seers,  the  words  of  Peter  apply:  i  Ep.  i^^~^^. 
But  from  Peter  also  we  elsewhere  learn  that  David  knew 
that  *  God  had  sworn  with  an  oath  to  him,  that  of  the  fruit 
of  his  loins  He  would  set  One  upon  his  throne '  (see  R.  V., 
Ac  2^^  and  margin). 

In  proportion  as  the  kingdom  and  character  of  the  Christ 
were  thus  brought  into  view,  provision  was  made  for  deepen- 
ing the  impression  of  these  prophecies  upon  the  hearts  of  the 
people,  and  making  them  conducive  to  faith  and  piety.  As 
uttered  in  Psalms,  they  passed  into  the  devotions  of  the 
Church.  These  Psalms  form  the  most  important  additions 
that  had  yet  been  made  to  the  Mosaic  revelation,  and  were 
clearly  adapted  to  inspire  ancient  worshippers  with  the 
Messianic  hope.  Very  beautiful,  too,  is  the  growing  dis- 
tinctness of  these  predictions.  To  Abraham  a  seed  was 
revealed.  When  his  descendants  had  become  tribes,  to 
Judah  the  promise  was  confined  ;  and  now,  when  the  king- 
dom appears,  it  is  given  to  David.  Nor  can  these  predictions 
be  ascribed  to  flattery  or  selfishness.  It  is  not  David  who 
in  the  first  instance  receives  them.  Nor  is  it  to  himself,  in  all 
their  fullness,  that  he  approj^riates  them.  He  applies  them 
to  another,  and  the  messenger  who  gives  them  is  Nathan, 


THE   BOOKS   OF    KINGS  457 

the  prophet  who  rebuked  his  sin,  and  severely  threatened 
Solomon  with  the  consequences  of  his  apostasy.  The  faith- 
fulness of  such  servants  of  God  had  other  and  immediate 
ends,  but  it  proves  incidentally  the  truth  of  their  announce- 
ments. 

The  Books  of  Kings 

285.  General  View. — The  two  Books  of  Kings  (which  in 
ancient  copies  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  form  but  one  book) 
contain  the  history  of  Israel  and  Judah,  from  the  end  of 
David's  reign  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity.  The  present 
division  of  the  books  is  taken  from  the  LXX  and  Vulgate, 
in  which  they  are  entitled  the  Third  and  Fourth  Books  of 
Kings. 

Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  authorship ;  the  most 
probable  opinion  is,  that  as  memoirs  of  their  own  times 
were  written  by  several  of  the  prophets,  for  the  use  of  the 
kingdom,  the  present  books  were  compiled  from  such 
records.  Jewish  tradition  points  to  the  authorship  of 
Jeremiah,  but  the  events  described  reach  to  the  liberation 
of  Jehoiachin  from  prison  in  Babylon  some  twenty-five 
years  later  than  the  latest  notice  of  the  prophet  (Jer  44). 
A  late  authorship  seems  to  be  indicated  by  the  frequent  use 
of  Aramaisms,  but  caution  is  necessary  in  view  of  our 
ignorance  of  local  dialects.  The  view  that  the  books  were 
drawn  up  from  various  documents  by  one  hand  is  con- 
firmed by  the  books  themselves. 

The  sources  referred  to  are  (i)  The  Book  of  the  Acts  of  Solomon, 
I  Ki  ii*\  (2)  The  Book  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Judah,  i  Ki  14^^, 
referred  to  fifteen  times.  (3)  'The  Bvok  of  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of 
Israel,  i  Ki  14^^,  referred  to  seventeen  times.  (4)  The  frequent  inser- 
tions, with  little  or  no  alteration,  of  the  records  of  eye-witnesses  in 
the  narrative  portions  of  the  histories  of  the  Prophets,  Elijah,  Elisha, 
and  Micaiah,  indicate  the  use  of  older  material,  presumably  preserved 
among  the  annals  of  the  schools  of  the  prophets.  Compare  the  list 
given  under  Chronicles,  §  289. 


458  THE  EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

The  frequent  vividness  of  the  narrative  bespeaks  the 
work  of  eye-witnesses ;  but  that  the  whole  was  revised  by- 
one  hand  appears  from  the  similarity  of  style  and  idiom  in 
various  unimportant  expressions. 

286.  Comparison  with  Chronicles. — The  comparative 
dates  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  explain  various  differences 
of  phraseology  and  other  variations.     See  §  290. 

Differences  in  the  order  of  events  are  explained  by  the 
fact  that  none  of  the  writers  profess  to  give  the  exact  order 
of  time  *.  Additions,  omissions,  and  abbreviations  may  be 
ascribed  to  the  different  aim  of  each  narrative. 

Other  differences,  amounting  to  discrepancies,  are  occa- 
sionally found,  and  refer  chiefly  to  numbers  and  names. 
It  is  well  known  that  the  text  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and 
Chronicles  is  in  a  worse  condition  than  that  of  any  other 
of  the  inspired  writings ;  nor  must  we  ascribe  to  the 
author  what  may  be  due  to  the  errors  of  copyists  ^.  These 
variations,  it  may  be  added,  do  not  affect  any  article  of  faith 
or  rule  of  life,  and  till  we  can  rectify  them  they  ought  to  be 
candidly  acknowledged. 

Both  books  are  referred  to  or  quoted  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment c.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  inspired  acclamation  of 
David  to  the  praise  of  God  is  ascribed  by  the  seer  of  the 
Apocalypse  to  the  blessed  spirits  who  celebrate  the  praises 
of  God  in  heaven,  i  Ch  29^0-^1  Rev  512.13. 

287.  Theocratic  character  of  the  History. — A  com- 
ment on  the  life  and  career  of  David  has  been  already  given 
in  the  section  on  the  Books  of  Samuel.  It  may  here  be 
added,  with  regard  both  to  himself,  to  Solomon,  and  to  their 
successors,  that  the  most  remarkable  feature  in  their  history, 

*  Thus,  I  Ch  14  2  Ch  ii<-i7  9^6  are  evidently  out  of  chronological 
order. 

^  See  2  Ch  8^8  (^  Ki  9"^)  1  Ch.  11"  (2  Sa  23")  2i»  (2  Sa  24')  i  Ch 
18*  (2  Sa  8*)  19I8  ^a  Sa  lo^*). 

•  See  §  300. 


THE   FIKST   BOOK   OF   KINGS  459 

as  given  in  Kings  and  Chronicles,  is  its  religious,  theocratic 
character.  King,  Church,  State  are  all  represented  as 
under  God.  The  character  of  each  king  is  decided  by 
his  fidelity  to  the  religious  obhgations  of  his  office.  Of 
each  it  is  said,  he  *  walked  in  the  ways  of  David  his 
father,*  and  so  prospered;  or  'of  Jeroboam,  who  made 
Israel  to  sin,'  and  so  failed. 

These  books  are  valuable  as  the  history  of  God  and  His 
law  in  the  nation — and  that  nation  a  monarch^/;  as  the  Books 
of  Joshua  and  Judges  are  the  history  of  God  and  His  law 
in  an  aristocracy  or  a  democracy  ;  or  as  the  earlier  books  are 
the  history  of  God  and  His  law  in  the  family.  In  the 
Prophets,  and  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  we  have  glimpses 
of  what  is  to  be  the  history  of  God  and  His  law  in  the 
world.  Hence  the  prominence  given  to  the  erection  of 
the  Temple  ;  the  numerous  references  to  the  ancient  law, 
especially  when  the  two  kingdoms  were  drawing  to  their 
end ;  the  frequent  interposition  of  prophets,  now  rebuking 
the  people,  and  now  braving  the  sovereign  ;  the  deposition 
and  succession  of  kings  ;  and  the  connexion  everywhere 
traced  between  what  seem  to  be  mere  political  incidents 
and  the  fidelity  or  idolatry  of  the  age''^.  Were  nations  wise, 
these  records  would  prove  their  best  instructors ;  they  are 
adapted  to  teach  alike  the  world  and  the  Church. 

First  Booh  of  Kings,  chs.  i-ii. 

288.  The  first  eleven  chapters  of  the  First  Book  relate 
the  last  days  of  David,  the  attempt  of  Adonijah  to  be 
recognized  as  his  successor,  i ;  the  dying  king's  charge  to 
Solomon,  2^~^;  his  decease,  ^o-^^;  Solomon's  accession,  his 
measures  of  severity,  2^2-46 .  j^js  alliance  with  Egypt,  3^ ;  the 
national  religion,  2~*. 

•  See  2  Ki  5-8  10"  i7i3-i5-87  i8*-6.  Elijah's  history ;  i  Ki  i5»-* 
aKi  11^^. 


460  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

The  Pharaoh  whose  daughter  Solomon  married  must  liave  been  one 
of  the  later  kings  of  the  twenty-first  dynasty,  possibly  Pasebkhanen  II. 

Solomon  chooses  *  an  understanding  heart '  as  the  best  gift 
3^~^^,  and  gives  proof  of  it  i6-28^  jj^  jg  established  in  his 
kingdom,  and  recognized  as  the  wisest  among  men  4.  With 
great  treasure,  partly  inherited  from  David,  he  obtains  from 
the  maritime  and  commercial  country  of  Phoenicia,  then 
under  the  rule  of  Hiram,  materials  and  workmen  for  the 
erection  of  the  Temple,  which,  after  occupying  thirteen 
years  in  construction,  is  solemnly  dedicated,  chs.  5-8. 

The  date  of  the  Temple  building  is  given  in  6^  as  four  hundred  and 
eighty  years  after  the  Exodus.  On  this  see  Part  I,  §  198  ;  also  the 
Chronological  Appendix. 

The  splendour  of  Solomon's  reign,  renewed  Divine  com- 
munications, the  visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  occupy  chs. 
9,  10.  Ch.  II  gives  an  account  of  his  moral  and  religious 
decline,  the  troubles  of  his  later  days,  and  his  death. 

Before  proceeding  to  the  continuation  of  Kings,  some 
account  must  be  given  of  the  Books  of  Chronicles. 


The  Books  of  Chronicles 

289.  General  view. — These  books  were  included  by 
the  Jews  in  the  KethuhJiim,  or  Hagiographa,  thus  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Books  of  Kings,  which  form  part  of 
the  '  Earlier  Prophets.'  In  the  Hebrew  Bible,  as  at  present 
arranged,  the  Books  of  Chronicles  are  placed  at  the  end. 
They  were  originally  one,  and  called  the  Words  of  Days,  i.  e. 
diaries  or  journals,  prolmbly  in  allusion  to  the  ancient  annals 
out  of  which  they  appear  to  have  been  composed.  In  the 
LXX  they  are  distinguished  as  the  books  of  Omissions 
(7ra/3a\€i7ro/jtcV(i)i/),  and  were  regarded  as  a  kind  of  supplement 
to  the  preceding   books  of  Scripture,   supplying   such   in- 


THE   BOOKS   OF  CHRONICLES  4G1 

formation  as  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  alterations 
consequent  upon  the  Captivity.  The  present  title  was  first 
given  to  them  by  Jerome. 

According  to  Jewish  tradition  Ezra  was  the  author,  and  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  conclusion  of  2  Chronicles  is  the  same  as  the 
beginning  of  Ezra,  thus  joining  these  books,  which  together  with 
Nehemiah  originally  formed  one  connected  whole.  'They  also 
resemble  each  other  in  the  point  of  view  from  which  the  hifitory  is 
treated,  in  the  method  followed  in  the  choice  of  material,  as  well  as 
in  the  preference  shown  for  particular  topics — genealogies,  statistics, 
registers,  description  of  religious  ceremonies,  details  respecting  the 
sacerdotal  classes,  and  the  organizations  of  public  worship'  (Driver). 
No  exact  determination  of  date  can  be  given.  If  the  main  authorship 
was   Ezra's,    there   was   probably   addition   by   a   subsequent   writer 

(I  ch  319-2*). 

Compilation.  The  fact  that  the  '  Chronicles '  were  com- 
piled from  earlier  documents,  themselves  the  work  of 
prophets,  is  abundantly  evident  in  these  books.  These 
documents  seem  often  to  be  quoted  literally :  see  2  Ch  5^  8*^ ; 
the  purpose  of  the  compiler  being  not  to  modify  these 
documents,  but  to  connect  with  them  his  own  narrative. 
Many  passages  also  are  identical,  or  nearly  identical,  with 
passages  in  Kings,  both  being  evidently  taken  from  the 
same  annals. 

The  documents  referred  to  or  quoted  are  : — 

(i)  The  Book  of  the  Kings  o/Judah  and  Israel,  2  Ch  16"  2528  2826.  That 
the  Canonical  Books  of  Kings  are  not  intended  is  evident  from 
allusions  made  to  events  not  there  recorded.  (2)  The  History  of  Samuel 
the  Seer,  i  Ch  2929.  (3)  The  Hist&ry  of  Nathan  the  Prophet,  1  Ch  29^9. 
(4)  The  History  of  Gad  the  Seer,  1  Ch  zg-^.  (5)  The  Prophecy  of  Ahijah  the 
Shiloniie,  2  Ch  92^.  (6)  The  Vision  of  Iddo  the  Seer,  2  Ch  9"^^  (7)  The 
Histories  of  Shemaiah  the  Prophet,  and  of  Iddo  the  Seer,  2  Ch  12^^  (8)  The 
History  of  Jehu  the  son  of  Hanani,  2  Ch  20^*.  (9)  The  Commentary  of  the  Book 
of  the  Kings,  2  Ch  24V.  (10)  T7ie  Acts  ofUsziah,  by  Isaiah,  the  son  of  Amos, 
2  Ch  26^2.  (11)  The  Vision  of  Isaiah  the  Prophet,  the  son  of  Amoz,  2  Ch  32^2^ 
(12)  The  Words  of  the  Seers  (of  Hozai,  R.  V.),  2  Ch  33H  Compare  the 
list  of  references  in  i  and  2  Ki,  §  285. 

290.  Comparison  with  Samuel  and  Kings. — The  three 


462  THE   EARLY  HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

double  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  have  much 
in  common,  though  they  have  also  characteristic  differences. 
They  treat  for  the  most  part  of  the  same  period,  and  should 
be  read  and  compared  together.  In  Chronicles,  the  Temple 
is  spoken  of  as  'the  House  of  God,'  or  'of  Jehovah'  no  fewer 
than  thirty-four  times.  The  '  divisions '  and  '  courses '  of  the 
priests  and  Levites  are  given  in  full  detail.  Priests  and 
Levites  are  very  frequently  coupled  together  (only  once 
in  I  Ki,  8^).  So  '  singers '  and  '  porters '  (also  in  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah).  Great  prominence  also  is  given  to  the  measures 
of  David,  Solomon,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  public  worship. 

The  genealogical  tables  of  the  Chronicles,  though  to  us 
comparatively  uninteresting,  were  highly  important  among 
the  Jews,  who  were  made  by  prophetic  promises  extremely 
observant  in  these  particulars.  These  tables  give  the  sacred 
line  through  which  the  promise  was  transmitted  for  nearly 
3,500  years  ;  a  fact  itself  unexampled  in  the  history  of  the 
human  race.  That  of  Zerubbabel  is  continued  to  the  time 
of  Alexander  ;  i  Ch  3^^"^*,  evidently  by  a  later  writer. 

Most  Bible  students  have,  at  one  time  or  another,  endeavoured  to 
obtain  or  to  construct  for  themselves  a  '  Harmony'  of  the  Chronicles 
with  the  older  histories  ;  and,  although  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of 
many  correspondences  and  mutual  illustrations,  they  have  often  been 
checked  by  unexpected  difficulties  in  their  task.  The  following  points 
of  resemblance  and  of  contrast  should  be  carefully  noted.  See  also 
§  286. 

1.  The  Books  of  Samuel  and  Kings  relate  the  histories  of  both 
Israel  and  Judah  :  those  of  Chronicles  contain  (after  the  Disruption) 
the  annals  of  Judah  only.  The  fact  accounts  for  many  omissions  in 
the  latter;  among  others  for  the  want  of  reference  to  Elijah  and 
Elisha. 

2.  Several  passages  in  both  are  evidently  from  the  same  documents, 
with  such  slight  variations  as  mark  most  transcripts  of  the  kind. 

3.  Some  passages  record  the  same  events  from  difTerent  sources. 
Hence  apparent  discrepancies. 

4.  In  regard  to  the  language  of  the  books,  it  may  be  noted  that  in 
Chronicles  we  have  Aramaic  forms  (i  Ch  11^^  13''  15-''  iS"  2  Ch  10^^), 


THE   FIKST  BOOK  OF  CHRONICLES        463 

later  words  and  expressions  (i  Ch  14^  19^-  21^  2  Chr  16*),  and  synony- 
mous phrases  used  for  others  liable  to  misconception  (i  Ch  19* 
a  Ch  22^2). 

5.  In  studying  the  different  records,  it  must  be  remembered  all 
through  that  the  Books  of  Chronicles  are  essentially  Levitical.  To 
all  therefore  that  concerns  the  house  and  service  of  Jehovah,  especial 
prominence  is  given. 

Valuable  assistance  in  regard  to  such  'Harmony'  will  be  found  in 
The  Hebreio  Monarchy,  by  Andrew  Wood,  M.A.,  with  Inb-oduction  by 
Dean  E.  Payne  Smith,  1896.  This  work  also  contains  in  their  pre- 
sumed place  the  contemporary  Psalms  and  Prophecies,  with  a  com- 
mentary on  the  whole. 


First  BooJc  of  Chronicles ;   and  Second  Boole  to  cJi.  9. 

291.  Outline.— Book  I,  1-9  contains  a  summary  of 
the  Israelite  genealogies.  The  History,  parallel  with 
that  in  Samuel  and  Kings,  begins  with  ch.  10  (i  Sa  31). 
The  whole  of  the  record  concerning  the  attempt  to  make 
Ish-bosheth  king  is  omitted;  ch.  11  showing  David  estab- 
lished on  the  throne.  The  histories  then  for  the  most 
part  coincide,  special  stress  being  laid  in  Chronicles  on 
David's  appointments  for  the  service  of  the  Tabernacle.  The 
campaign  against  Ammon  is  mentioned  in  Chronicles  (20^), 
but  without  the  record  of  David's  sin  and  penitence.  The 
whole  account  of  Absalom's  rebellion  and  death  is  also 
omitted  in  Chronicles,  with  the  insurrection  under  Sheba. 
David's  song  of  praise  and  his  'last  words,'  describing  an 
ideal  king,  are  absent  from  Chronicles.  Both  contain  an 
account  of  the  king's  heroes,  the  *  three  '  and  the  'thirty' 
(2  Sa  23  I  Ch  11).  David's  sin,  again,  in  numbering  the 
people,  and  its  chastisement  are  in  both  the  histories 
(2  Sa  24  I  Ch  21).  Then  follows  in  Chronicles  an  account 
of  the  institutions  of  David's  kingdom,  military  and  Leviti- 
cal (23-27),  passed  over  in  the  other  records.  The  erection 
of  the  altar  upon  Oman's  (Araunah's)  threshing-floor  is 
related  by  both  historians,  while  Chronicles  alone  records 


464  THE   EARLY   HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

David's  preparations  for  the  Temple.  The  troubles  of 
David's  old  age,  the  pretensions  of  Adonijah,  and  the 
anointing  of  Solomon  as  king  in  his  fcither's  lifetime,  are 
peculiar  to  Kings.  Both  histories  record  David's  farewell 
instructions  to  Solomon,  those  in  Kings  referring  to  his 
political  conduct  (i  Ki  2^~^),  those  in  Chronicles  to  the 
erection  of  the  Temple  (i  Ch  28  29),  closed  by  a  sublime 
thanksgiving  and  prayer  *  before  all  the  congregation.' 

The  death  of  David,  the  accession  and  reign  of  Solomon, 
with  the  building  and  consecration  of  the  Temple,  are 
common,  with  occasional  variations,  to  both  histories,  that  in 
Chronicles  being  the  more  copious  in  details.  The  record  of 
Solomon's  marriage  to  Pharaoh's  daughter,  of  his  commerce 
by  sea,  of  the  visit  of  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  with  the  account 
of  his  wealth,  are,  again,  in  both.  His  polygamy  and 
idolatry  are  narrated  in  Kings  alone,  with  the  '  adversaries ' 
raised  up  against  him  towards  the  end  of  his  reign.  His 
death  is  recorded  in  both  histories,  with  the  disruption 
of  the  kingdom  that  followed.  From  that  event,  the  Book 
of  Chronicles  (2)  narrates  the  history  of  Judah  (the  Southern 
Kingdom),  with  only  occasional  references  to  Israel  (the 
Northern),  that  of  Kings  (i,  2)  records  the  history  of  both 
kingdoms,  until  their  overthrow. 

292.  Note  on  the  Reig-ns  of  David  and  Solomon. — Tho  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon  constitute  the  golden  period  of  the  Jewish  state. 
From  the  first,  David  showed  the  utmost  anxiety  that  every  step  he 
took  towards  the  possession  of  the  kingdom  should  be  directed  by 
Jeliovah,  i  Sa  232*  2  Sa  2^.  He  acted  ever  as  'His  servant';  and 
when  established  in  his  kingdom,  his  first  concern  was  to  promote  the 
Divine  honour  and  the  religious  welfare  of  his  people  (2  Sa  6^~°  7^--). 
As  a  king  he  sought  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  and  as  the  visible 
representative  of  Jehovah  he  strictly  conformed  to  tho  spirit  of  the 
theocracy.  It  was  due  to  this  character  of  his  administration,  probably, 
rather  than  to  his  private  virtues,  that  he  is  designated  *  as  a  man 
alter  God's  own  lieart '  (i  Sa  13^*  ;  see  also  Ac  13^^^),  who  was  to 
'execute  all  His  will.'  It  is,  indeed,  impossible  to  vindicate  all  his 
acts,  or  to  regard  him  as  a  perfect  character.      And  yet  when  we  look 


SOLOMON'S   GREATNESS  465 

at  the  piety  of  his  youth,  the  depth  of  his  contrition,  the  strength  of 
his  faith,  the  fervour  of  his  devotion,  the  loftiness  and  variety  of  his 
genius,  the  largeness  and  warmth  of  his  heart,  his  eminent  valour 
in  an  age  of  warriors,  his  justice  and  wisdom  as  a  ruler,  and  his 
adherence  to  the  worship  and  will  of  God,  we  may  well  regard  him 
as  a  model  of  kingly  authority  and  spiritual  obedience. 

Solomon  continued  the  policy  and  shared  the  blessing  of  his  father. 
His  dominions  extended  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Euphrates, 
and  from  the  Red  Sea  and  Arabia  to  the  utmost  Lebanon  (i  Ki  4-^  &c.). 
The  tributary  states  were  held  in  complete  subjection,  and,  as  they 
were  still  governed  by  their  own  princes,  Solomon  was  literally  'king 
of  kings.'  The  Canaanites  who  remained  in  Palestine  became  peace- 
able subjects  or  useful  servants.  His  treasures  were  immense,  com- 
posed largely  of  the  spoils  won  by  his  father  from  many  nations,  and 
treasured  up  by  him  for  the  purpose  of  building  a  temple  to  Jehovah. 
To  these  Solomon  added  the  proceeds  of  oppressive  taxation.  The 
largeness  of  his  harem  transgressed  the  bounds  of  even  Oriental 
licence,   though  possibly  dictated  by  worldly  policy. 

The  wisdom  of  Solomon  is  celebrated  both  in  Scripture  and  in 
Eastern  story.  Three  thousand  proverbs  gave  proof  of  his  virtues 
and  sagacity.  A  thousand  and  five  songs  placed  him  among  the  first 
of  Hebrew  poets  ;  while  his  knowledge  of  natural  history  was  shown 
by  writings  which  were  long  admired. 

His  very  greatness  betrayed  him.  His  treasures,  wives,  and  chariots 
were  all  con^^rary  to  the  spirit  and  precepts  of  the  Law  (Dt  17'^-^'^}. 
His  exactions  alienated  the  affections  of  his  people  ;  and,  above  all, 
he  was  led  astray  by  his  wives,  and  built  temples  to  Chemosh,  or  Baal- 
Peor,  the  obscene  idol  of  Moab  ;  to  Moloch,  the  god  of  Ammon ;  and 
to  Ashtaroth,  the  goddess  of  the  Sidonians.  His  later  days,  there- 
fore, were  disturbed  by  'adversaries,'  who  stirred  up  revolt  in  the 
tributary  states  ;  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  became  a  centre  of  disaffection  ; 
Hadad  did  'mischief  in  Edom  ;  Damascus  declared  its  indepen- 
dence under  Rezon ;  and  Ahijah  was  instructed  to  announce  to 
Solomon  himself  that,  as  he  had  broken  the  covenant  by  which  he 
held  his  crown,  the  kingdom  should  be  rent  from  him  and  jf^n,  of  it 
given  to  his  servant,  i  Ki  ii'^  To  this  'servant'  Jeroboam,  Ahijah 
prophesied  that  he  would  become  ruler  of  ten  out  of  the  twelve  tribes, 
verses  29-39,  Yet  his  reign,  on  the  wh*-!*  was  most  prosperous. 
*Judah  and  Israel  were  many,  as  the  sand  which  is  by  the  sea  in 
multitude,  eating  and  drinking  and  making  merry.'  The  land  was 
free  from  hostile  raids.  From  Dan  even  to  Beersheba,  they  dwelt 
safely  every  man  '  under  his  vine  and  under  his  fig-tree.' 

The  great  event  of  Solomon's  life  was  the  erection  of  the  Temple. 
As  this  building  fulfilled  a  prophecy  (2  Sa  7^*),  and  was  a  symbol 

uh 


4Gt)  THE   EAKLY   HISTORICAL  BOOKS 

of  Jehovah's  abode  with  the  people,  so  it  was  itself  both  a  pro- 
phecy and  a  type,— a  type  of  the  Jewish  people  and  of  the  Church, 
and  a  prophecy  of  God's  continued  presence  (Jer  7).  Its  history, 
therefore,  is  an  index  to  the  history  of  the  Jews  themselves.  When 
it  fell,  they  were  scattered  ;  as  it  rose  from  its  ruins,  they  gathered 
round  it  again  ;  and  history  dates  the  Captivity,  with  equal  accuracy, 
fvATP  t,h«  destruction  of  the  Temple,  or  from  the  first  capture  of  Jeiu- 
sulom  (see  S  349).  i  Ki  c>'-^  2  Ch  f^  Jer  7  Is  44'"^ 


CHAPTER  XIV 

HISTORICAL  AND  PROPHETICAL 

BOOKS  FROM  THE  DEATH  OF 

SOLOMON  TO  THE  BABY^ 

LONIAN  CAPTIVITY 

nistoricdl  View  (i  Ki  12  to  2  Ki  25  ;  2  Ch  10-36) ». 

293.  Division  of  the  Kingdom. — With  the  reign  of 
Solomon  ended  the  glory  of  united  Israel.  The  kingdom 
was  thencefoi-th  dismembered,  the  immediate  cause  being 
the  folly  of  Rehoboam,  although  there  had  been  much  dis- 
affection, owing  in  great  measure  to  the  enormous  pressure 
of  the  taxation  needful  to  maintain  the  royal  state.  Ten 
tribes,  of  which  Ephraim  was  chief,  separated  from  the  rest, 
and  formed  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  Judah,  with  which 
Benjamin  was  now  united,  alone  remained  faithful  to  the 
house  of  David.  To  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  however,  most 
of  the  Levites,  and  many  who  feared  God  out  of  all  the 
tribes,  ultimately  adhered,  2  Ch  ii^^~^^ 

The  history  of  these  kingdoms  presents  striking  contrasts 
and  instructive  lessons. 

294.  The  Kingdom  of  Israel.— Jeroboam,  the  first  King 
of  Israel,  an  Ephraimite,  was  raised  to  the  throne  with 
Divine  sanction  conveyed  through  the  prophet  Ahijah,  and 
a  conditional  promise  was  given  that  his  kingdom  should 

*  See  Iniroductions  to  the  respective  books;  also  Chronological 
Appendix. 

H  h  2 


4G8     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

be  as  David's  (i  Ki  ii^^).  But  Jeroboam  had  neither  the 
faith  nor  the  obedience  of  David.  To  preserve  the  indepen- 
dence of  his  kingdom,  he  established  a  separate  priesthood, 
and  established  the  calf-worship  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  declaring 
this  to  be  the  true  method  of  serving  Jehovah*.  He  thus 
framed  a  system  of  idolatry,  which  became  ever  afterwards, 
in  one  form  or  another,  part  of  the  national  religion.  He 
himself,  therefore,  is  branded  in  history  as  *  Jeroboam,  the 
son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin.'  From  this  time 
to  that  of  Hoshea,  the  nineteenth  and  last  Israelite  king, 
we  find  none  free  from  the  charge  of  general  depravity. 
Of  king  after  king,  it  is  said  that  he  *  did  that  which  was 
evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord.'  Omri,  famous  and  powerful 
among  the  neighbouring  nations,  as  the  monuments  show, 
was  in  character  among  the  worst.  Ahab,  his  son,  under 
the  influence  of  Jezebel,  his  Sidonian  queen,  introduced  the 
worship  of  the  Phoenician  Baal,  idolatry  of  deeper  dye  than 
that  of  Jeroboam.  Jehu,  indeed,  destroyed  the  prophets  of 
Baal,  and  for  his  partial  obedience  was  rewarded  with 
enlarged  temporal  blessing ;  but  he  *  took  no  heed  to  walk  in 
the  law  of  the  Lord,  for  he  departed  not  from  the  sin  of 
Jeroboam,  who  made  Israel  to  sin.'  The  nation  copied  their 
kings.  There  were  a  few  exceptions,  but  it  needed,  in 
Elijah's  days,  a  direct  revelation  to  discover  them ;  and  out 
of  the  hundreds  of  thousands  of  whom  Israel  was  composed, 
but  7,000  are  mentioned  as  not  having  bowed  the  knee 
unto  Baal. 

Meantime  Israel  was  not  without  warning.  Within  fifty 
years  appeared  the  prophets  Jehu  and  Micaiah,  Elijah  and 
Elisha ;  the  two  latter  working  more  miracles  than  any 
prophet  had  wrought  since  the  days  of  Moses  and  Joshua. 
A  few  years  after  their  protracted   ministry  came  Jonah, 

*  Compare  the  sin  of  Aaron,  Ex  32*•^  The  violation  of  the  second 
commandment  was  idolatry,  even  though  the  worship  was  professedly 
rendered  to  Jehovah  under  the  calf-symbol. 


THE   ISRAELITE    KINGS  469 

Hosea,  and  Amos.     The  messages  of  these  prophets  were 
confirmed  by  Divine  chastisements. 

The  reign  of  Jeroboam  II,  although  outwardly  prosperous  (2  Ki  14^^^), 
formed  no  exception  to  the  prevailing  apostasy,  and,  in  contrast  with 
the  house  of  David,  in  which,  notwithstanding  much  degeneracy  and 
sin,  the  succession  was  maintained,  according  to  the  Divine  promise, 
to  the  end,  the  line  of  Israelite  kings  was  so  broken  that  in  the 
course  of  about  220  years  nine  different  dynasties  occupied  the  throne. 

1.  Jeroboam  I ;  Nadab  ;  slain  by  Baasha. 

2.  Baasha  ;  Elah  ;  murdered  by  his  servant  Zimri. 

3.  Zimri  ;  committed  suicide  after  a  week's  reign. 

4.  Omri  (Tibni,  rival-king) ;  Ahab  ;  Ahaziah  ;  Jehoram  ;  killed  in 

battle  by  Jehu. 

5.  Jehu ;  Jehoahaz  ;  Jehoash  ;  Jeroboam  II  ;  Zechariah  ;   slain   in 

conspiracy  by  Shallum  (Am  7^). 

6.  Shallum  ;  murdered  by  Menahem. 

7.  Menahem  ;  Pekahiah  ;  slain  by  his  captain  Pekah. 

8.  Pekah  ;  slain  in  conspiracy  by  Hoshea. 

9.  Hoshea;   deposed  by  the  Assyrian  monarch,    after  nine  years' 

reign. 

295.  The  ruin  of  the  last  two  kings  was  directly  traceable 
to  the  fatal  policy  of  alliance  with  heathen  powers. 
Pekah  had  sought  the  aid  of  Eezin,  king  of  Syria,  against 
Ahaz,  and  had  at  first  prevailed.  Ahaz,  imitating  his  rival's 
policy,  applied  for  help  to  Tiglath-pileser  (or  Pul),  King  of 
Assyria.  He  came  and  chastised  the  Israelites,  carrying 
into  Media  the  two  and  a  half  trans-Jordanic  tribes,  and 
making  the  rest  tributary.  Such  was  the  first  captivity 
of  Israel.  Ten  years  later,  Hoshea  appealed  to  So,  King  of 
Egypt  (probably  Sabaco  the  Ethiopian,  founder  of  the  25th 
dynasty'^),  to  assist  him  in  throwing  off  the  tribute, 
Hezekiah  unhappily  joining  in  the  confederacy.  This  revolt 
brought  up  Shalmaneser,  son  of  Tiglath-pileser,  with  a  large 
host ;  Samaria  fell  before  the  power  of  Sargon,  Shalmaneser's 

*  Herodotus  II,  §  137.    For  the  different  theory  by  Winckler  see  in 
Hastings'  Diet.  Bible,  art.   So. 
for  rejecting  the  general  view,  as  above. 


470     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

successor,  and  was  annexed  to  the  Assyrian  crown  ;  the 
second  captivity  of  Israel,  completing  the  depopulation 
of  the  land.  Hezekiah  escaped,  the  army  of  Sennacherib, 
son  of  Sargon,  being  miraculously  destroj^ed. 

Origin  of  the  Samaritans.  —  The  conquered  Israelite 
territory  was  afterwards  peopled  by  settlers  from  the  region 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  They  intermarried  with 
those  of  the  Israelites  who  had  remained,  and  ultimately 
took  the  name  of  Samaritans.  The  ravages  of  lions  in  the 
depopulated  country  were  attributed  by  them  to  the  anger 
of  '  the  God  of  the  land ' ;  and  on  their  appeal  to  the 
Assyrian  king,  a  priest  of  Jehovah  was  sent  to  instruct  them. 
At  first  their  religion  was  of  a  motley  kind,  Hhey  feared 
Jehovah  and  served  their  own  gods.'  After  the  reforms 
by  Josiah,  however,  which  extended  to  Bethel  and  the 
northern  districts  (2  Ki  23^^  2  Ch  34^*'^),  the  people  seem 
to  have  submitted  to  the  destruction  of  their  idols,  and 
nominally  to  have  adopted  the  Israelite  religion.  This  fact, 
too,  led  to  further  complications,  as  the  succeeding  history 
shows. 

What  became  of  the  Ten  Tribes  is  not  known  \ 
Customs,  rites,  and  features  like  theirs  have  been  discovered 
in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Many  of  them  seem  to  have 
returned  at  different  periods  to  their  own  land.  Cyrus 
addressed  his  proclamation  to  all  the  people  of  Jehovah 
(Ezr  i^"^),  and  some  of  the  rites  connected  with  the  con- 
secration of  the  Temple  imply  that  there  were  present 
remnants  of  all  the  tribes ;  while  many  Israelites  seem  to 
have  been  settled  in  Galilee  and  Persea  long  before  the  days 
of  our  Lord  (i  Mac  5^""^^).  The  appellation  of  Israelite, 
indeed,  was  no  longer  restricted  to  the  northern  tribes ;  and 
in  New  Testament  times  the  old  nationality  seems  in  a 

*  On  the  supposed  discovery  of  the  Ten  Tribes  in  one  or  another 
part  of  the  world,  see  Milman,  History  of  the  Jews,  Book  viii,  pp.  375  sq. 
(5th  ed.). 


THE   KINGDOM   OF   JUDAH  471 

measure   restored.     See  Ac  26"^  Jas   i^    Lu  2^^  (Anna  the 
prophetess  '  of  the  tribe  of  Asher '). 

296.  The  Kingdom  of  Judah. — Very  different  were  the 
destinies  of  the  Southern  Kingdom.  Twenty  kings,  all 
descendants  of  David,  for  nearly  400  years,  occupied  the 
throne ''.  Some  of  these  kings  are  marked  with  sj^ecial 
commendation  (Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Josiah,  Hezekiah),  others 
were  impious  and  depraved  (Ahaz,  Manasseh,  Amon). 
Some,  again,  whose  career  on  the  whole  was  praiseworthy 
committed  grievous  faults,  faithfully  recorded  by  the  his- 
torians (Joash  in  the  murder  of  Zechariah,  Uzziah  in  the 
profanation  of  the  sanctuary),  but  the  Divine  purpose  was 
steadfastly  maintained  in  the  long  preparation  for  the 
Messiah.  See  Ac  2^^  K.  V.  and  the  royal  genealogy  in  Mt  i, 
showing  the  line  of  succession  even  after  *  the  carrying  away 
to  Babylon.' 

Only  once  during  the  kingly  period  does  there  appear  any  serious 
effort  to  break  the  Davidic  line.  It  was  when  the  dread  of  Assyria 
had  led  Kezin,  King  of  Syria,  and  Pekah,  King  of  Israel,  to  form 
a  confederacy  into  which  they  strove  to  force  Ahaz  of  Judah.  On 
the  surface  it  might  appear  a  wise  policy  :  Damascus,  Samaria,  and 
Jerusalem  might  be  strong  enough  to  resist  the  dreaded  power  of  the 
North.  But  for  this  purpose  it  would  be  necessary  to  overthrow 
the  house  of  David,  a  scheme  for  which  the  feebleness  and  worth- 
Icssness  of  its  present  representative  seemed  to  afford  the  opportunity, 
while  a  pretender  to  the  throne  of  Judah  was  ready,  in  the  person  of 
*  the  Son  of  Tabeel,'  a  personage  otherwise  unknown.  Isaiah  graphi- 
cally shows  the  frustration  of  the  design,  ch.  7. 

The  internal  condition  of  the  kingdom  of  Jndah  (in- 
cluding Benjamin)  was  on  the  whole  prosperous;  and  its 
annals  were  for  the  most  part  uneventful.  It  is  specially 
recorded  of  Asa  that  in  addition  to  measures  to  purify  the 
land  from  idolatry,  not  even  sparing  his  own  mother,  he 

*  It  is  noticeable  that  even  when  kings  of  Judah  were  cut  off  by 
violent  deaths  (Ahaziah,  Joash,  Amon),  no  attempt  was  made  tg 
interfere  with  the  Davidic  line  of  succession, 


472     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

built  and  fortified  several  cities.  Of  Jehoshaphat  it  is 
related  that  he  caused  a  knowledge  of  the  Law  to  be  diffused 
throughout  the  kingdom,  and  appointed  '  ministers '  (as  we 
should  say)  'of  public  instruction.'  In  2  Ch  17  there  is 
an  interesting  picture  of  a  peaceful  and  prosperous  com- 
munity under  a  wise,  far-seeing  king.  Jehoshaphat  also, 
after  the  example  of  Solomon,  attempted  to  maintain  a 
mercantile  fleet  at  what  was  then  the  port  of  Ezion-geber, 
but  a  shipwreck  frustrated  his  hopes.  Uzziah,  again,  during 
his  long  reign,  in  the  latter  part  of  which  his  son  Jotham 
was  associated  with  him,  successfully  cultivated  the  arts 
of  peace  as  well  as  of  war.  See  2  Ch  26,  *  He  loved  hus- 
bandry,' and  showed  his  commercial  sagacity  by  securing 
and  refortifying  the  port  of  Elath  at  the  head  of  the  eastern 
arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  which  since  the  days  of  Solomon  had 
been  held  by  Edom  ;  and  which  was  again  captured  from 
Ahaz  by  either  Syria  or  Edom  *,  fifty  years  afterwards. 

297.  External  Dangers :  Egypt. — The  national  existence 
of  Judah  was  more  than  once  threatened  ;  but,  under  the 
Divine  protection,  the  little  kingdom,  centred  in  its  moun- 
tain-fortress of  Jerusalem,  was  able  to  hold  its  own.  Egypt 
at  the  first  was  its  most  formidable  foe,  being  governed  by 
the  fierce  and  aggressive  kings  of  the  Bubastite  or  twenty- 
second  dynasty.  In  the  days  of  Rehoboam,  Shishak 
pillaged  the  Temple  and  threatened  the  kingdom,  but  the 
proud  young  king,  humbled  before  Jehovah,  '  strengthened 
himself  in  Jerusalem  and  reigned '  (2  Ch  12^^).  Zerah 
(probably  Osorkon  II)  invaded  south-western  Palestine 
during  the  reign  of  Asa,  as  the  head  of  a  vast,  almost 
innumerable  horde  of  Ethiopians,  but  suffered  decisive 
defeat  at  Mareshah,  in  the  Shephelah  or  maritime  plain. 

'The  victory,'  writes  Canon  Rawlinson,  'had  most  important  conse- 
quences.    It   put  an  end  to  Egyptian  schemes  of  Asiatic  conquest, 

*  2  Ki  i6«  R,  V.  text  and  margin. 


HOSTILITY   OF   ISRAEL  TO   JUDAH  473 

if  not  for  ever,  at  any  rate  for  three  centuries*.  It  relieved  Judcoa 
from  all  pressure  on  lier  southern  frontier,  and  enabled  her  to  turn 
her  whole  attention  towards  the  north.  It  so  weakened  the  Bubastite 
dynasty  of  the  Sheshoaks  and  Osorkons,  that  within  a  short  time 
they  lost  their  hold  on  large  portions  of  Egypt.  Egypt  grew  friendly 
towards  Judah  instead  of  hostile,  and  the  Israelite  kingdom  learned 
to  lean  upon  the  Pharaohs  for  support  (see  2  Ki  17*  iS'^"^*  Is  20^-^ 
30^^""^),  instead  of  dreading  their  ambition.' 

Confederacy  against  Jehoshapliat.  In  the  south-east 
of  the  kingdom  Jehoshaphat,  in  the  course  of  his  peaceful 
reign,  had  to  encounter  a  confederacy  of  Moab,  Amnion,  and 
Edom  ;  the  armies  met  on  the  slopes  above  En-gedi,  where 
the  songs  of  the  Levites,  accompanied  by  trumpet,  harp, 
and  psaltery,  struck  such  panic  into  the  heathen  hosts  that 
they  turned  their  arms  one  against  another,  and  the  scene 
of  encounter  became  memorable  as  the  Vale  of  Berachah 
('Blessing'),  or,  as  once  in  the  Prophets,  the  valley  of 
Jehoshaphat  (Joel  3^-^^)  ^.  The  invasion  and  victory  are  not 
mentioned  in  Kings  ;  2  Ch  20  gives  its  vivid  details. 

Hostility  of  Israel.  The  enemies,  however,  whom 
Judah  had  most  to  fear  were  nearer  home,  and  the  relations 
with  Ephraim,  as  the  Northern  Kingdom  was  distinctively 
termed,  were  continually  strained.  Abijah,  the  son  of 
Rehoboam,  had  to  meet  the  aged  Jeroboam  in  battle, 
inflicting  upon  him  a  decisive  defeat  (i  Ki  15^  2  Ch  13'"^^). 
A  more  serious  and  prolonged  strife  between  Asa  and  the 
Israelite  king,  Baasha,  led  to  momentous  consequences. 
Baasha  was  erecting  a  fortress  at  Ramah,  on  the  frontier, 
only  six  miles  from  Jerusalem,  in  rivalry  to  the  great 
stronghold  of  Zion.  The  counter-policy  which  Asa  adopted 
was  mistaken  and  sinful,  although  its  immediate  results 
were  successful.  To  thwart  Baasha,  he  subsidized  the  King 
of  Syria  to  attack  Baasha's  kingdom   on   the   north,   the 

*  'Till  the  expedition  of  Neco,  B.C.  609.' 

^  To  be  distinguished  from  the  valley  of  that  name  formed  by  the 
Kidron.     See  Introd.  to  Joel. 


474     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

Israelite  forces  being  thus  drawn  away  from  Judah.  Ramah 
was  dismantled  ;  its  materials  being  used  by  Asa,  as  if  in 
stern  irony,  to  erect  new  fortresses  for  the  southern  king- 
dom. *  Hanani  the  Seer '  perceived  the  terrible  mistake 
that  had  been  made  ;  his  strong  and  faithful  rebuke  is 
recorded  in  2  Ch  16"^"^.  The  king  in  a  rage  shut  up  the 
prophet  in  prison  ;  but  the  course  of  events  only  too  sadly 
confirmed  Hanani's  words. 

A  kindred  error,  although  at  first  sight  more  excusable, 
was  the  alliance  between  Jehoshaphat  and  Ahab,  in  the 
marriage  of  Jehoram,  son  and  successor  to  Jehoshaphat,  with 
Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel.  Their  son 
Ahaziah  (or  Jehoahaz,  2  Ch  21^^)  was  slain,  together  with 
Joram,  son  of  Ahab,  at  Jezreel,  leaving  an  infant  son  to 
inherit  the  throne  of  Judah.  Hence,  the  usurpation  and 
tyranny  of  the  young  king's  grandmother,  with  the  miserable 
train  of  evils  that  followed. 

298.  The  result  of  heathen  alliances  in  later  days 
has  already  been  noted.  Ahaz  sought,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  aid  of  Tiglath-pileser  against  the  kings  of  Israel  and 
Syria ;  and  though,  at  first,  he  was  delivered  from  impend- 
ing evil,  he  really  received  from  the  Assyrians  '  no  help 
at  all.'  The  payment  of  a  heavy  tribute  was  the  im- 
mediate consequence  ;  and  other  results  soon  followed.  It 
cost  Hezekiah  most  of  his  treasure,  and  but  for  special 
interposition  would  have  cost  him  his  throne.  It  cost 
Manasseh  his  liberty  (through  his  alliance  with  the  Egyptian 
Tirhakah) ;  and  Josiah  (who  led  the  forces  of  Judah  to 
resist  the  march  of  Pharaoh-Neco  eastward  to  Carchcmish), 
his  life.  Jehoahaz,  son  of  Josiah,  was  carried  captive  to 
Egypt.  Jehoiakim,  the  brother  and  successor  of  Jehoah.'iz, 
who  owed  his  crown  to  Neco,  remained  for  four  years 
tributary  to  Egypt ;  which  power  in  turn  yielded  to  the 
forces  of  Babylon  at  Carchemish,  so  that  Jehoiakim  became 


DOWNFALL   OF   THE   JEWISH    KINGDOM    475 

subject  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  wlio  at  this  time  succeeded  his 
father  Nabopolassar.  Four  yoars  after  the  subjugation  of 
Judaea.  Jehoiakim  revolted  from  the  Babylonian  king  (2  Ki 
24^  j,  who,  alter  a  while,  attacked  and  captured  him,  intending 
to  carry  him  to  Babylon  (2  Ch  36'"').  A  violent  end  antici- 
pated this  (see  p.  529  note).  Jehoiakim's  son,  Jeconiah 
(Coniah  or  Jehoiachin),  succeeded  him  for  a  short  time,  but 
was  deposed  and  carried  to  Babylon  (597),  Zedekiah,  uncle 
of  Jeconiah,  and  the  third  son  of  Josiah,  being  made  king, 
after  a  solemn  oath  of  allegiance,  in  his  room.  Tempted 
by  Pharaoh-Hophra,  and  against  the  remonstrance  of  Jere- 
miah, he  revolted,  and  again  (587)  Nebuchadnezzar  came 
against  Jerusalem.  After  a  siege  of  eighteen  months,  the 
city  was  taken  at  midnight ;  most  of  the  inhabitants  were 
put  to  death,  the  children  of  Zedekiah  were  slain,  and  he 
himself  (his  eyes  put  out)  was  carried  in  chains  to  Babylon. 
At  the  same  time,  or  a  few  months  later,  Nebuzaradan,  the 
general  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  burned  the  city,  destroyed  the 
Temple,  and  carried  off  the  remainder  of  the  sacred  vessels 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  nation,  a  few  poor  only  being 
left  to  till. the  soil.  This  series  of  events  brought  on  by 
degrees  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  on  which  see  the  next 
chapter. 

It  is  remarkable  that  no  attempt  was  made  to  colonize  the 
country,  as  had  been  done  in  the  case  of  Israel ;  the  pro- 
vidence of  God  thus  keeping  it  vacant,  to  be  reoccupied  by 
the  people  on  the  completion  of  their  captivity.  Jewish 
communities,  properly  so  called,  remained  in  Babylonia 
(see  §  351,  p.  530),  also  in  Egypt  (Migdol,  Tahpanhes,  Noph 
and  Pathros,  Jer  44^) ;  but  in  Judaea  the  people  were  only 
a  disorganized,  desolate  remnant ;  the  land  forlornly  keeping 
its  '  Sabbaths '  until  those  to  whom  God  had  given  it  should 
repossess  their  heritage. 


47G     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 


299.  Events  recorded  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles 
supposed  to  he  referred  to  or  illustrated  in  the  Psalms.  (Compare 
§§  281,  SOL) 


Historical  Connexion. 


On  Solomon  being  made  king 
Solomon's  marriage  to  the  daughter 

of  the  king  of  Egypt 
Building   of    the   Temple    and    of 

Solomon's  House 
Transfer  of  Ark  by  Solomon  from 

the  Tabernacle  to  the  Temple 

Heman  the  Ezrahite's  lament  con- 
cerning his  lot  after  the  death  of 
Solomon 

Defeat  of  Rehoboam  by  Shishak 

Jehoshaphat's  reforms 

Confederacy  of  Moabites,  Ammon- 
ites and  others  against  Jehosha- 
phat 

Jehoshaphat's  deliverance 

Invasion  by  the  Philistines  of  Ju- 
dah  in  time  of  Hezekiah 

Threatened  invasion  by  Senna- 
cherib 

Overthrow  of  Sennacherib  before 
Jerusalem 


Destruction  ot  Jerusalem 


References. 


I  Ch  29' 9 
I  Ki  3I  9^4 

1  Ki  6  72 

2  Ch  3  4 

1  Ki8 
2Ch5 

2  Ch  la 


1  Ki  14^^  &c. 

2  Ch  12 


19^ 


2  Ch  2O2O-30 


Ki  16  ^-9 
Ch  28^8 
Ki  198-" 
Ch32 
Ki  i9-<>-3; 
2  Ch  32 


2  Ki  25 

■J  Ch  34'^-^' 


Psalms. 


72  (Del.) 

45  (Calvin,  Grotius) 

127  .^Hengst.,  Kay) 


i32(Del.,  DeWette, 
Tholuck) 
88  (Del.,  Moll.) 


89  (Calv.,  Del.) 

82      „ 

46     (Del.),     47,    48 

(Del.),    83    (Thol., 

DeWette,  Hengst., 

Del.) 
46  (Del.),  47  (Del.), 

76  (Del.),  ?ii5 

2  (Mauser) 

80  (Calv.,  Ilengst.) 

75  (Hengst.,  Moll., 
?Del.),  76  (Sept., 
Hengst.,  Moll., 
Del.),  87  (Thol., 
Hengst.,  Del.) 

74  (De  Wetto,  K(5s- 
ter),  79  (Moll.),  80 
(Sp.  Comni.) 


KINGS  AND  CHRONICLES  QUOTED  IN  N.  T.    477 

300.  Principal  Quotations  from  and  Befereiices  to  the 
Books  of  Kings  in  iJie  Neiv  Testament. 


I   Ki  2^0 

Ac  2^9  la^s 

„      loi 

Lu  1 1 31 

»      17^-^ 

Lu  42526 

„     ^l'^ 

lleb  1 1 35 

„     i8*2 

Jas  5" -18 

„     19I0-I8 

Rom  ii^-"  Jass^' 

aKi  I'o 

LU95* 

»     4^* 

Heb  I  i3B 

„     5^* 

Lu4" 

„     24^* 

Mt  i»2  Ac  7" 

Principal  Quotations  from  and  Beferences  to  the  Pools  0/ 
Chronicles  in  the  Neiv  Testament. 

I  Ch  25-9  Mt  i3*  Lu  332 

^10-16  t7-12 


3  >> 


29 


Corg'^ 


„     29"  I  Tim  ii7 

a  Ch  18I6  Mt  9S6 

,,      34 ^'^•^i  ,,    23*5  J^u  ,,! 


301.     COMPARATIVE  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 
(APPROXIMATE)   OF   THE   PROPHETIC   WRITINGS. 


Kings  of 

JUUAIl, 
B.C. 

800 

h2    >~ 

'i      c 

2      S 

0 
•-i 

a 
< 

< 

0 

a 
< 

0 

I 
< 

■X 

X 
■X 
< 

1 

< 

< 

< 

0 
< 

< 

KiNOS   OF 
ISKAEL. 

B.C. 

Amaziah.  798 

1 

i 

Jeroboam  11,  783 

700 

770 

Uzziah,770 
760 

770 

1 

750 

1 

ZechH,iah,741 
Shallum.  741 

Jotham.  736 
Ahaz,  734 

740 

Mt-nahem,  740 
l'elcalMah.7:i7 
i'ekali,73ti 

llezekiah,  727 

Mo'il.ea.  730         Cuf 
liiulyof  Uraeljxl 

720 

1 

1 

0 

1 

s 

s 

13          g 

710 

-- 



Manasseh,  6'j7 

i.  . 

1 

670 

050 

Amon.  642 

640 

Josiah.  C4<) 

I 

c 



1 

— 

Jelioahar,  COS 
Jehoiakini.  Ou» 

I 

-  — 

— 

1 

— 

— 

— 

II 

— 

— 

— 

Jeconiali,r.97 
ZBdekiali.  597 

JerusiyUm  de- 
tlroyed.  ftrt6 





— 

Z 







y.eiilhb«bKU.536 
lUaturaliun 

r 

-|- 

<-4:n 

The  ag"  111  wliich  Jdfl  pr<i|iliB.ile<l  Is  very  uucenalii. 

*  It  b  belli  by  many  iiiai  iliere  was  a  '  becuiiU  l»aiah'lu  the  latter  part  of  the  Captivity. 


REVIVAL   OF   THE   PROPHETIC   SPIRIT      479 


Prophecy  during  this  Period, 

302.  Revival  of  the  prophetic  spirit. — It  was  during 

the  period  now  under  review  that  the  spirit  of  prophecy- 
appeared  in  its  most  signal  manifestations.  The  succession, 
indeed,  of  the  inspired  messengers  of  Jehovah  had  never 
ceased.  Prophets,  like  the  'man  of  God,'  who  protested 
against  Jeroboam's  idolatry  at  Bethel,  or  Hanani,  who  so 
nobly  rebuked  Asa  for  confederacy  with  heathen  Syria,  or 
Zechariah,  whose  testimony  for  God  in  the  days  of  Joash 
cost  him  his  life,  or  Elijah  and  Elisha  in  the  northern 
kingdom  in  the  days  of  Ahab  and  his  successors,  performed 
each  his  part  in  appealing  to  the  conscience  of  the  people 
and  declaring  Jehovah's  will ;  but  the  first  prophetic  hoolcs 
date  from  the  eighth  or  ninth  century  B.C.  Of  the  sixteen 
prophets  whose  writings  are  included  in  Scripture,  Jonah, 
Amos,  and  Hosea  addressed  the  Israelites  before  the 
destruction  of  Samaria,  as  did  Isaiah  and  Micah  in  part ; 
though  these  latter  prophesied  to  Judah  chiefly.  After  the 
captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  Jeremiah  prophesied  briefly 
concerning  them,  as  did  Ezekiel.  Most  of  the  prophecies, 
however,  are  devoted  to  the  destinies  of  Judah,  of  heathen 
nations,  and  of  the  Church. 

303.  General  Lessons  of  Prophecy.  A  synoptical  view 
of  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  is  given  at  the  close  of  the 
Introduction  to  Malachi,  §  372,  grouped  according  to  the  aim 
or  general  purpose  of  each. 

I.  Prophecy  on  the  subject  of  heathen  nations  becomes 
most  copious  in  the  age  when  these  nations  seem  to  triumph 
most.  Their  victories,  and  the  boasting  idolatrous  spirit 
these  victories  cherished,  severely  tried  the  faith  of  true 
believers,  and  seemed  to  shake  the  credit  of  their  religion, 
Ps  79  8o,  Lam.  The  pride  of  the  conquerors  is  therefore 
rebuked,  and  the  faith  of  the  Church  confirmed  by  a  series  of 


480     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

predictions  denouncing  the  overthrow  of  the  very  nations 
whose  successes  are  foretold.  See  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah 
to  various  nations ;  of  Nahum  to  Assyria  ;  of  Habakkuk  to 
the  Chaldeans  ;  of  Obadiah  to  Edom  ;  of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
and  Daniel. 

2.  The  gradual  extension  of  Divine  revelation  is  highly 
instructive.  Jonah  and  Nahum  address,  in  their  written 
prophecies.  Gentiles  only.  Gentiles  only  are  also  the  theme 
of  the  prophecies  of  Habakkuk  and  Obadiah,  and  have  large 
place  in  most  of  the  other  prophets.  Plainly,  God  is  not 
the  God  of  one  place  or  people.  His  providence  rules  over 
the  earth,  and  all  people  are  subject  to  Him.  Heathen 
nations,  it  is  true,  are  introduced  into  Scripture  prophecy, 
as  into  Scripture  history,  because  of  their  connexion  with 
the  Church,  or  chosen  nation,  but  the  lesson  remains.  All 
are  within  His  government,  and  it  is  distinctly  intimated 
that  all  are  ultimately  to  become  obedient  to  His  law. 

3.  It  will  be  remarked,  also,  that  the  era  of  the  decline 
and  fall  of  the  temporal  kingdom  (both  of  Israel  and  Judah) 
is  the  very  era  selected  for  the  fullest  and  most  expressive 
disclosure  of  a  new  and  spiritual  kingdom.  As  the  first 
dispensation  seems  hastening  to  decay,  the  objects  and 
promises  of  the  second  are  set  forth  to  our  view.  All  the 
prophets  who  speak  of  the  ruin  speak  also  of  the  restoration, 
and  blend  with  the  restoration  predicted  blessings,  such 
as  had  never  yet  been  possessed.  This  arrangement  clearly 
indicates  the  unchangeableness  of  the  Divine  counsel.  And 
it  does  more.  It  displays  Divine  mercy.  In  the  heart  of 
the  devout  Jew,  under  a  dispensation  which  promised 
temporal  blessing  as  the  token  of  Divine  favour,  prophecy 
and  recent  events  must  have  created  the  utmost  perplexity. 
The  threatened  and  actual  visitations  were  all  deserved  ;  but 
in  that  fact  he  found  no  relief.  To  quiet  the  agitations 
of  his  afflicted  faith,  the  evangelical  prophecies  were  inter- 
posed.    By  means  of  them,  the  hopes  of  the  Church  were 


A   GLOKIOUS   FUTURE  FORETOLD  481 

sent  on  into  the  more  distant  future  and  present  anxieties 
were  alleviated.  As,  therefore,  at  first,  prophecy  lightened 
the  darkness  of  fallen  nature,  so  now  it  lightens  the  darkness 
of  misused  or  neglected  grace.  How  much  even  inspired 
prophets  needed  this  consolation  may  be  gathered  from  the 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  and  from  several  of  tlie  psalms  s 
Pss  74  79. 

In  the  meantime,  also,  the  spirituality  of  true  religion, 
and  the  nature  of  that  work  on  which  it  is  founded,  are 
more  clearly  disclosed.  The  prophets  bring  out  the  true 
meaning  of  the  ancient  Law,  insisting  on  the  inferiority  of 
ritual  worship,  and  indicating  with  quite  evangelical  plain- 
ness the  Divine  nature,  the  great  Sacrifice,  and  the  ultimate 
rule  of  the  Sufferer. 

4.  The  most  remarkable  lesson  remains.  While  nearly 
all  the  prophets  point  to  the  gospel  and  the  reign  of  our 
Lord,  each  speaks  in  language  at  once  appropriate  and 
peculiar.  All  foretell  a  glorious  future,  and  the  same 
glorious  future  ;  but  the  terms  in  which  they  foretell  it  are 
taken  either  from  impending  evil  or  contemplated  good. 
That  future  is  the  opposite  of  present  calamity,  or  it  is  the 
completion  of  present  blessing.  Joel,  for  example,  foresees 
desolating  invasions  of  Judah,  but  in  the  end  the  scene  of 
desolation  is  Egypt  and  Edom  ;  while  '  Judah  shall  abide  for 
ever,  and  Jerusalem  from  generation  to  generation,'  313-20. 
Amos  foresees  the  overthrow  of  both  Samaria  and  Zion ; 
but  beyond  these  calamities  he  beholds  a  different  scene. 
'  In  that  day  will  I  raise  up  the  tabernacle  of  David  that  is 
fallen  . . .  and  I  will  build  it  as  in  the  days  of  old,'  9^^.  And 
such  is  the  character  of  all  predictions  till  the  end  of  the 
Captivity.  Restoration  literally  is  the  first  theme  ;  but  the 
predictions  that  foretell  it  borrow  from  it  phraseology 
intended  to  express  the  glory  of  the  latter  days. 

304.  The  prophets  of  the   period   form  two   distinct 

I  i 


482     HISTOKICAL  AND   PKOPHETICAL   BOOKS 

groups,  separated  by  a  blank  of  about  seventy  years,  includ- 
ing the  whole  reign  of  Manasseh.  The  foi'mer  group  includes 
the  prophecies  delivered  in  both  the  Northern  and  Southern 
Kingdoms  ;  the  latter  has  to  do  with  the  Southern  Kingdom 
only.  During  the  former,  again,  the  power  of  Assyria  was 
paramount  in  western  Asia,  and  once  and  again  made  Judah 
tributary :  the  latter  was  marked  by  the  growing  power  of 
Babylon,  which  led  to  the  Captivity.  Hence  the  prophets 
are  sometimes  described  as  belonging  respectively  to  the 
'  Assyrian  '  and  the  '  Babylonian '  periods. 

The    following    tables*   show   their  names   and    order,    with    the 
sections  of  the  history  to  which  they  belong. 

Table  I.    Assyrian  (and  Pre-Assyrian)  Periods. 

(From  the  division  of  the  kingdom  to  the  Captivity  of  Israel.) 

i  I  Ki  12 — 2  Ki  17  ) 

(  2  Ch  ia-31  $ 

Prophets  in  Israel. 

Jonah  :  history  of  his  mission  to  Nineveh. 

Amos  :  prophecies  affecting  different  nations  and  Israel. 

HosEA :  warns  Israel,  foretells  overthrow,  and  points  to  latter  days. 

Prophets  in  Judah. 

Joel  :  the  desolation  of  Judah,  outpouring  of  the  Spirit,  judge- 
ments against  different  nations. 

Isaiah  :  warnings  and  predictions,  chiefly  addressed  to  Judah  ; 
prophecies  against  many  nations. 

MiCAH  :  prophecies  to  Israel  and  Judah,  and  on  the  latter  days. 

Nahum  :  after  the  fall  of  Samaria  foretells  the  destruction  of 
Nineveh. 

Of  these  seven   prophets,   some  account   must  now   be 
given. 

The  Book  of  Jonah 

Ninth  century  b.c. 
305.  A  prophet  of  Israel. — Jonah  succeeded  Elisha  as 
the  messenger  of  God  to  the  Ton  Tribes.     One  glimpse  of 

•  For  Table  II,  see  p.  511. 


THE   BOOK   OF   JONAH  483 

him  only  is  given  in  the  history,  2  Ki  142^,  where  it  is 
recorded  that  he  foretold  the  enlarged  territory  and  brief 
prosperity  of  Israel  under  Jeroboam  II,  in  whose  reign  the 
prophet  himself  probably  lived.  He  was  a  native  of  Gath- 
hepher,  in  Zebulun  or  Galilee,  a  few  miles  north  of  Nazareth. 

306.  Outline. — This  book,  with  the  exception  of  ch.  2,  is 
a  simple  narrative,  and  relates  that  Jonah,  being  sent  on  a 
mission  to  Nineveh  (the  great  Assyrian  metropolis,  at  that 
time  the  chief  city  of  the  Gentile  world,  and  distinguished 
equally  for  magnificence  and  wickedness),  attempts  to  flee 
westwards  to  Tarshish  ;  but,  being  overtaken  by  a  storm  in 
the  Mediterranean,  he  is  cast  into  the  sea,  swallowed  by 
a  great  fish^,  and  continues  in  its  belly  three  days  (ch.  i) ; 
when,  earnestly  praying  to  God,  he  is  delivered  (ch.  2).  At 
the  renewed  command  of  God,  he  goes  to  Nineveh,  and 
announces  its  destruction ;  upon  which  the  Ninevites, 
believing  his  words,  fast,  pray,  repent,  and  are  graciously 
spared  (ch.  3).  Jonah,  fearing  to  be  thought  a  false  prophet, 
repines  at  the  mercy  of  God,  and  wishes  for  death.  Leav- 
ing the  city,  he  is  sheltered  by  a  gourd,  which,  however, 
shortly  withers  ;  and  Jonah,  manifesting  great  impatience 
and  rebellion,  is  shown,  through  his  concern  about  the 
gourd,  the  propriety  of  God's  mercy  to  Nineveh  (ch.  4). 

Historicity  of  tlie  Book. — That  this  book  is  a  strictly  historical 
narrative  is  argued,  not  only  from  the  plain  meaning  of  the  language 
employed,  but  also  from  the  manner  in  which  the  existence  and 
ministry  of  this  prophet,  together  with  the  main  facts  of  his  history, 
are  referred  to  by  our  Lord  (Mt  la^s-^i  16*  Lu  ii^^-^o).  Who,  explicitly 
recognizing  his  prophetical  office,  as  He  does  that  of  Elijah,  Isaiah, 
and  Daniel,  represents  his  being  in  the  belly  of  the  sea-monster 
as  a  real  miracle  ;  grounds  upon  it  as  a  fact  the  certainty  of  a  future 
analogous  event  in  His  own  history ;  and,  after  mentioning  the 
prophet's  preaching  at  Nineveh,  and  the  repentance  of  the  inhabitants, 

*  In  Mt  12*°  '  whale '  is  an  inexact  rendering  of  the  word  for 
'sea-monster.'  The  species  is  undetermined  in  either  Old  or  New 
Testament. 

I  i  2 


484     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

concludes  by  declaring  respecting  Himself,  *  Behold,  a  greater  than 
Jonah  is  here.' 

307.  The  spiritual  lessons  of  the  narrative  are  highly  instructive. 
Our  Lord  was  asked  for  '  a  sign  '  :  He  refused  any  but  that  of  Jonah, 
whose  preaching  was  its  own  witness  and  won  Nineveh  to  repentance: 
His  own  generation  remained  unrepentant,  though  '  a  greater  than 
Jonah  is  here'  (Lu  ii^^-sz.  Mt  adds  the  sign  of  '  three  days  and  three 
nights  in  the  heart  of  the  earth  '  12^*'"*^). 

The  whole  narrative  presents,  too,  the  most  striking  contrast 
between  the  tender  mercy  of  God,  and  the  rebellion,  impatience, 
and  selfishness  of  His  servant ;  and  furtlier,  between  the  readiness 
with  which  the  Ninevites  repented,  at  the  preaching  of  a  prophet 
who  visited  them  as  a  stranger,  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
Israelites  treated  the  servants  of  Jehovah,  who  lived  and  laboured 
amongst  them. 

But,  undoubtedly^  the  grreat  purpose  of  the  book  was  to  teach  the 
people  of  Israel  that  the  Divine  regard  and  compassion  were  not 
confined  to  them  alone,  but  were  extended  to  other  subjects  of  God's 
government  ;  to  intimate  to  the  people  their  high  destiny,  in  carrying 
the  tidings  of  salvation  to  the  pagan  world,  and  to  keep  up  the 
expectation  of  that  happy  period,  when  repentance  and  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins  should  be  preached  in  the  name  of  Christ  to  all  nations. 
The  history  is  thus  a  real  example  of  the  genius  of  the  gospel. 

In  this  view,  some  expositors  have  regarded  the  history  as  an 
allegory  of  post-exilic  times,  setting  forth  the  relation  of  Israel  to 
the  heathen  world  and  the  unfaithfulness  of  God's  people  to  the  call 
made  upon  them  to  be  witnesses  for  Him.  On  this  interpretation, 
see  §  139,  p.  224.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  it,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  book  finely  illustrates  the  universality  of  the  Divine 
purpose  in  regard  to  the  nations,  while  it  administers  stern  rebuke 
to  Judaic  intolerance. 

'The  Book  of  Jonah,'  writes  Dean  Farrar,  *  is  a  remarkable  and 
beautiful  book,  full  of  large  lessons  of  toleration,  of  pity,  of  the 
impossibility  of  flying  from  God,  of  the  merciful  deliverances  of  God, 
of  the  just  retributions  of  God,  of  the  infinite  love  of  God,  of  man's 
little  hatreds  shamed  into  fatuity,  dwarfed  into  insignificance  by 
God's  abounding  tenderness.  It  teaches  us  that  no  man  can  be  to 
the  nations  a  herald  of  God's  righteousness  who  is  not  a  herald  also  of 
His  mercy.'— T/ie  Minor  Prophets,  Men  of  the  Bible  Series,  p   243. 


THE   BOOK   OF   AMOS  485 

The  Book  of  Amos 

cir.  B.C.  760. 

308.  Sent  from  Judah.  to  Israel. — The  prophets  Amos 
and  Hosea  were  commissioned  to  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  were 
for  a  time  contemporaries.  They  prophesied  during  the 
reigns  of  Uzziah  and  Jeroboam  II,  and  Amos  saw  his  first 
vision  'two  years  before  the  earthquake,'  which  happened, 
as  we  learn  from  Zechariah,  in  the  days  of  Uzziah  (Zee  14^ 
see  also  Is  5-^). 

He  appears  to  have  prophesied  in  Bethel  (7^°"^^),  but  he 
did  not  belong  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  being  an  inhabitant, 
and  probably  a  native,  of  Tekoa,  a  city  about  twelve  miles 
south  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  borders  of  the  vast  open  pastures 
('  wilderness ')  of  the  hill  country  of  Judah.  By  profession 
he  was  a  herdsman,  and  a  dresser  of  sycomore  trees  (7^*) :  *  No 
prophet,  neither  a  prophet's  son,'  i.e.  not  trained  tb  that 
office,  but  called  by  an  irresistible  Divine  commission  (3^  7^^) 
to  prophesy  unto  Israel.  This  fact  he  explicitly  declares 
when  Amaziah,  the  idolatrous  priest  in  Bethel,  charged  him 
with  conspiring  against  Jeroboam.  His  previous  occupation 
ought  to  have  removed  all  suspicion  of  political  connexion 
with  the  house  of  David,  and  to  us  it  illustrates  the  grace 
which  selects  its  ministers  '  from  the  tents  of  the  shepherd, 
as  well  as  from  the  palace  of  the  sovereign,'  qualifying  each 
for  the  duties  to  which  he  is  called  (see  i  Cor  i^'-^s).  Amos 
withdrew  from  Bethel  unmolested,  and,  as  it  has  been  said, 
'went  home  to  Tekoa  to  write  his  prophecies.* 

Amos  speaks  of  himself  as  the  author  (7*  8^-2),  and  his  prophetic 
character  is  established  by  the  testimony  of  Stephen  the  first  martyr, 
and  James  (Ac  'j*^-*^  15^^^^),  as  well  as  by  the  exact  fulfilment  of  his 
predictions.  The  style  of  Amos  is  simple,  but  by  no  means  deficient 
in  picturesque  beauty.  His  manner  of  life  may  be  traced  in  the 
illustrations  he  selects  ;  which  are  taken  mostly  from  rural  employ- 
ments :  many  of  them  are  original  and  striking,  while  all  have  the 


486     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

life  and  freshness  of  nature.  His  knowledge  of  the  events  of  remote 
antiquity  (9'^),  and  of  others  more  recent,  not  elsewhere  recorded 
(6'^),  the  regular  course  of  his  thoughts,  and  the  correctness  of  his 
language,  all  tend  to  show  that  the  responsible  and  often  dangerous 
(3*2 j  occupation  of  a  shepherd  was  still  as  favourable  to  mental 
culture  as  in  the  daj's  of  Moses  and  David. 

The  people  of  Israel  were  now  at  the  summit  of  worldly  prosperity, 
but  were  rapidly  filling  up  the  measure  of  their  sins.  The  mission  of 
Amos  was,  therefore,  rather  to  threaten  than  to  console.  He  rebukes, 
among  other  things,  the  corruption  of  their  manners,  which  kept 
pace  with  their  prosperity  :  he  charges  the  great  men  with  partiality 
as  judges,  and  violence  towards  the  poor  :  and  he  foretells,  as  a 
punishment  from  God,  the  captivity  of  the  Ten  Tribes  in  a  foreign 
country ;  a  prediction  accomplished  about  sixty  years  afterwards, 
when  Shalmaneser  and  Sargon,  kings  of  Assyria,  destroyed  the 
kingdom. 

309.  Outline. — The  book  begins  with  a  *  text/  quoted 
also  by  Joel  (3^^)  and  by  Jeremiah  (25"^^),  and  proceeds 
to  announce  Divine  judgements  against  the  states  around 
Judah,  and  against  the  two  Hebrew  nations  themselves 
(i^).  The  prophet  then  sets  before  the  Ephraimites  their 
sins  in  detail,  showing  in  three  addresses,  each  begin- 
ning with  the  summons  Hear  ye  this  word,  what  Jehovah 
had  done  to  bring  them  back  to  Himself;  how  they  may 
return  to  Him  ;  and  the  chastisements  which  were  in  reserve 
for  their  obduracy  (3-6).  This  is  followed  by  five  symbolical 
visions,  representing  successive  punishments  to  be  inflicted 
on  the  Israelites,  each  more  severe  than  the  preceding.  The 
certainty  and  the  near  approach  of  their  ruin  is  declared 
(8-9«). 

But,  beyond  the  punishment  of  the  people's  sins,  the 
prophet  is  commissioned  to  foretell  new  things  in  the  distant 
future.  Jehovah  will  not  utterly  destroy  the  house  of  Israel ; 
but,  after  sifting  and  cleansing  it  among  the  nations,  will 
raise  it  agafn  to  more  than  its  former  glory,  in  the  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah  (9^^"^^).  In  the  blessings  of  this  kingdom 
the  Gentiles  are  also  to  share  (see  Ac  15^^-^"^).  The  book  is 
remarkable  for  the  explicitness  with  which  it  recognizes  the 


THE   BOOK   OF   HOSEA  487 

universal  sovereignty  of  Jehovah  (cf.  Eo  3^^).  The  title  of 
God  most  frequently  employed  is  '  The  Lord  (Adonai) 
Jehovah.' 

After  the  third  vision  the  narrative  of  Amaziah's  attempt  to 
ruin  the  prophet  (yio-icj  jg  introduced,  showing  how  Amos 
vindicated  his  prophetic  mission,  and  predicted  the  doom  of 
his  calumniator.  Between  the  fourth  and  fifth  visions, 
again,  there  is  a  stirring  denunciation,  especially  against 
fraudulent  commercial  dealings,  with  the  renewed  appeal, 
Uear  ye  this  {8^-^^). 

A  special  feature  in  the  Book  of  Amos  is  the  extent  to  which  his 
language  and  allusions  imply  a  familiarity  with  the  books  of  Moses. 
See  2W  (Dt  296) ;  4«-io  (Dt  4"'°  30^) ;  4I1  (Dt  29^3)  ;  511  (Dt  aS^o-")  ;  5I3 
(Num  35^^). 

Ee/ercnces  to  Amos  in  the  Nciv  Testament, 

310.  There  are  citations  by  Stephen  in  his  address  to  the  Sanhcdrin, 
and  by  James  in  the  Council  of  Jerusalem;  Ac  7^2.43  j^ie-is^  jj^ 
the  former,  the  extension  of  the  phrase  'beyond  Damascus'  to 
*be3'ond  Babylon'  is  very  noticeable.  In  the  latter,  the  'residue  of 
men '  is  from  the  LXX,  the  Hebrew  reading  being,  as  in  A.V.  and  K.  V., 
♦  the  remnant  of  Edom ' :  '  Man  '  and  '  Edom  '  are  alike  in  the  Hebrew 
consonants.  Whichever  reading  be  adopted,  the  testimony  of  the 
prophet  to  the  universality  of  the  gospel  is  very  striking. 

There  is  also  a  remarkable  coincidence  between 
declaring  the  revelation  of  the  mystery  of  God  to  the  prophets. 


The  Book  of  Hosea 

B.C.    785-740. 

311.  A  Prophet  of  Israel.^-The  prolonged  ministry  of 
this  prophet  was  confined  to  the  Northern  Kingdom,  to  which 
he  evidently  belonged,  in  the  days  of  King  Jeroboam  II,  and 
afterwards.  His  name,  signifying  *  Salvation,'  is  identical 
with  the  early  name  of  Joshua  (Num  8^^-^^),  and  with  that  ol 
the  last  King  of  Israel  (usually  written  Hoshea).     It  is  held 


488     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

on  good  grounds  that  he  prophesied  at  least  until  the  days  of 
Menahem. 

Burden  of  his  message. — Hosea  addresses  the  Ten  Tribes 
under  the  titles  of  Israel,  of  Samaria,  which  had  been,  since 
the  days  of  Omri,  their  capital,  and  of  Ephraim,  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  tribes,  to  which  Jeroboam,  their  first 
king,  belonged.  The  spirit  of  idolatry  manifested  in  his  days 
at  Dan  and  Bethel,  had  now  been  continued  in  various  forms 
for  more  than  150  years,  and  had  diffused  every  form  of  vice 
among  all  classes.  The  last  short  interval  of  outward 
prosperity  under  Jeroboam  II  was  already  beginning  to  yield 
to  general  anarchy  and  decay.  The  kings  and  princes  were 
murderers  and  profligates  (7^""^) :  the  idolatrous  priests  had 
spread  their  shameful  festivals  and  their  deceitful  oracles  all 
over  the  land  (4^^^^^  10  12  13^):  the  great  parties  in  the 
state  resorted  for  help  sometimes  to  Assyria,  at  other  times 
to  Egypt  (2  Ki  15^^  17*),  the  two  great  world-powers  of  the 
time  :  while  the  whole  nation  relied  entirely  on  human  help 
(5I3  /y8-i2  ga.io  jq13^  &c.):  worldly  and  sinful  objects  were 
pursued  with  the  same  eagerness  by  Ephraim  as  by  Canaan 
(i2"^-^) :  a  listless  security  blinded  all  minds  (5'^  12^) :  giving 
place  in  the  moment  of  danger  to  a  repentance  merely  of  the 
lips  (7^'') :  and,  what  was  the  root  of  all  the  other  evils,  God 
and  His  word  were  forgotten  (4^~^  8^^). 

This  condition  the  prophet  most  earnestly  condemns, 
using  the  facts  of  his  own  sad  domestic  history  to  reprove 
their  idolatry.  With  keen  and  sorrowful  emphasis,  intensi- 
fied by  bitter  experience,  he  describes  their  departure  from 
God  as  adultery — the  violation  of  a  solemn  covenant,  and 
the  alienation  of  affection  from  God.  These  lessons  were 
illustrated  in  the  assassination  of  four  kings  successively, 
and  in  the  general  disorders  of  the  state. 

For  probably  sixty  years  these  warnings  and  appeals 
were  continued,  without  success  :— a  pathetic  example  of 
persevering  fidelity  under  the  greatest  discouragements. 


PERSONAL   NARRATIVE   OF   HOSEA        489 

312.  Outline. — The  book  may  be  divided  into  two  parts, 
comprising,  (i)  A  Personal  Narrative,  chs.  1-3 ;  and  (2) 
Prophetic  Discourses,  chs.  4-14. 

The  History  and  its  application.— The  former  part  has  been 
regarded  by  many  as  wholly  symbolical,  in  accordance  with  other 
Old  Testament  imagery  drawn  from  conjugal  relations,  Eze  16,  &c.  ; 
but  it  is  now  generally  thought  to  have  been  based  upon  the  prophet's 
own  experience.  It  relates  how  Hosea  had  married  one  Gonier*, 
daughter  of  Diblaim,  who  bore  him  two  sons  and  a  daughter,  but 
turned  out  to  be  unchaste.  She  forsook  him  for  a  paramour,  who 
treated  her  harshly,  and  in  the  end  sold  her  into  slavery.  The 
prophet,  loving  her  notwithstanding  all,  redeemed  her  from  bondage 
and  gave  her  again  a  place  in  his  house,  where  she  sat  desolate  'many 
days.'  All  this  is  used  as  a  picture  of  the  relationship  between 
Jehovah  and  His  people,  setting  forth  His  own  tender  love,  repaid 
by  their  rebellion  and  infidelities,  followed  by  their  chastisement  and 
rejection,  with  their  eventual  repentance  and  restoration.  These  three 
chapters  are  an  abridgement  of  the  whole  book  ;  and  the  gracious 
promises  which  they  contain,  and  which  are  not  noticed  in  the  seven 
following  chapters,  reappear  in  the  eleventh,  and  close  the  prophecy. 

The  second  part  contains  several  prophetic  discourses  evidently 
delivered  at  different  times.  Separate  beginnings  of  these  discourses 
may  be  traced,  4^,  5^,  8\  9^,  ii^^^  and  14^  It  begins  with  rebukes  and 
threatenings,  including  a  warning  to  Judah  to  leave  Israel  'alone' 
4^5"",  i.  e.  not  to  share  her  guilt;  but  by  degrees  the  horizon  becomes 
clear,  and  the  glory  of  the  latter  times  shines  forth  with  unclouded 
lustre. 

Various  atiempts  have  been  made  to  classify  the  latter  chapters 
of  the  book  chronologically,  but  without  success.  The  general  drift 
is  clear,  but  there  is  no  other  indication  of  the  order  of  the  several 
prophecies  than  their  place  in  the  book. 

Considering  the  long  period  to  which  the  ministry  of  Hosea 
extended,  it  may  appear  surprising  that  his  writings  are  comprised 
within  so  small  a  compass:  but  it  must  be  remembered  that,  as  in 
the  case  of  others  of  the  prophets,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that 
this  book  contains  nil  that  he  uttered.  Such  portions  only  of  his 
inspii'ed  communications  are  recorded,  fis  the  Holy  Spirit  saw  fit  to 
preserve  for  the  benefit  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  world. 

The   language  of  Hosea  is  peculiarly  difficult.     His  style  is  very 

•  It  is  an  incidental  objection  to  the  allegorical  view,  that  no 
symbolical  meaning  can  be  attached  to  the  appellations  Gomer  and 
Diblaim.     They  are  simply  ordinary  names. 


490     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

concise  and  abrupt,  abounding  with  figures  and  metaphors,  which 
are  often  much  intermixed  ;  and  the  transitions  from  one  sub- 
ject and  figure  to  another  are  frequent  and  sudden.  The  particular 
occasions  on  which  his  prophecies  wore  delivered  are  in  themselves 
rarely  obvious,  and  are  never  specified  by  the  author.  Some  parts 
of  them,  however,  are  peculiarly  pathetic,  animated,  and  sublime. 
The  leading  note  of  his  utterances  is  an  impassioned  tenderness,  in 
harmony  with  the  personal  experiences  which  he  describes. 

313.  His  chief  predictions. — Among  the  more  remark- 
able of  his  predictions  are  those  in  which  he  foretells  the 
downfall  of  Samaria,  with  the  captivities  and  sufferings  of 
Israel,  5^"^  ^s.e-ii  jqS-s  (^^rhere  'Jareb'  is  an  appellative, 
probably  *  the  combatant  king ' :  so  5^^  13^^')  ;  the  deliverance 
of  Judah  (fulfilled  in  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army), 
i^,  compare  2  Ki  19^^  ;  the  punishment  of  Judah  and  her 
cities,  5^"  8^* ;  the  eventual  conversion  of  Israel,  and  its 
union  with  Judah,  3*-^  ;  while  the  final  ransom  of  God's 
people  from  death  and  the  grave  is  celebrated  in  the  loftiest 
strains,  i^o-^i  22^  13I*  144.8. 

All  these  predictions  are  not  equally  clear:  but  the 
evangelical  tenor  of  most,  nothing  can  exceed.  They  are 
blended  in  the  original  with  a  form  of  phraseology  closely 
allied  to  the  phraseology  of  the  ancient  Law.  To  the  Law 
the  prophet  appears  specifically  to  allude  (8 ^2),  as  to  a  written 
document  or  series  of  documents  :  '  I  wrote  for  him  the  ten 
thousand  things  of  My  law,  but  they  were  counted  as  a 
strange  thing  a '  (R.V.  marg.).     See  §  237(3),  p.  390. 

Chapters  6,  13,  14  are  peculiarly  rich  in  statements  adapted  to 
awaken  those  feelings  of  penitence  and  faith  which  become  the 
Christian  and  the  Church  in  every  age. 

Citations  of  Ilosea  in  the  New  Testament. 

314.  The  Son  of  Jehovah  called  out  of  Egypt  (iii)  Mt  2i\  See  §  157. 
Rejection  and  restoration  (i^°  z"^^)  Ro  9-5-26  j  pgj;  gi" ;  the  great 
declaration  'mercy  rather  than  sacrifice'  (6")   Mt   9^^  12''  and   the 

*  For  an  able  and  convincing  exposition  of  this  important  passage, 
see  Dr.  Robertson's  Early  Religion  0/ Israel,  pp.  342-4. 


THE   BOOK   OF  JOEL  491 

promised  destruction  of  death  (13^*)  i  Cor  i5'*5-56.  gee  also  references 
that  imply  familiarity  with  the  prophet's  language,  in  Mt  20^®  and 
parallels  (6^)  Lu  2122,  (9?)  Lu  23^0^  and  Kev  6^"  (10^). 


The  Book  of  Joel 

Eiglitli  century  e.  c. 

315.  A  propliet  in  Jerusalem. — Joel,  *  Jehovah  is  God,' 
was  the  son  of  Pethuel  (i^),  the  only  fact  of  his  personal 
history  which  the  Scriptures  directly  mention.  Several 
persons  at  different  periods  bore  the  same  name*.  From 
references  in  his  book  it  is  inferred  that  he  was  an  inhabitant 
of  Jerusalem,  and  a  prophet  of  the  Southern  Kingdom,  not 
a  priest  (i^^"^^  2^'). 

The  date  of  Joel  has  been  much  discussed.  The  chief 
fact  bearing  upon  it  is  that  his  prophecy  mentions  among 
the  enemies  of  his  country  the  Phoenicians,  Philistines, 
Edomites,  and  Egyptians,  making  no  reference  to  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians,  a  clear  indication  that  he  wrote  either 
before  these  powers  had  become  formidable,  or  after  they  had 
ceased  to  be  so.  He  must  have  been,  therefore,  among  the 
earliest  or  the  latest  of  the  prophets.  The  former  view  has 
been  most  generally  held  and  appears  to  be  correct.  The 
whole  book  indicates,  moreover,  that  the  prophet  lived  at 
a  time  when  the  people  of  Judah  had  not  fallen  into  that 
extreme  depravity  which,  in  later  times,  drew  down  upon 
them  such  heavy  chastisements.  These  several  points  indi- 
cate his  period  as  somewhere  between  the  reigns  of  Joash 
and  Uzziah.  He  was  contemporary  with  Hosea  and  Amos  ; 
and  as  they  addressed  Israel,  so  he  addressed  Judah. 

316.  Outline. — In  the  first  chapter  (1-2^^),  the  prophet 
delineates,  with  most  graphic  force,  an  impending  devasta- 
tion, successive  armies  of  locusts  (i*),  and  burning  drought 

»  Samuel's  eldest  son,  i  Sa  8^.     See  also  i  Ch  6^^  7^  iiS«  157  2720. 


492     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

(verses    i8,    19),   representing   in   this  form,   probably,  the 
calamities  consequent  on  coming  invasions. 

He  then,  in  the  second  chapter,  exhorts  to  penitence, 
fasting,  and  prayer  (2^2-17)^  promising  the  removal  of  these 
evils,  and  rich  evangelical  blessing.  He  foretells  in  the 
clearest  terms  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  {2^^-^^  Ac  z^-^i 
lo^i),  and  the  '  terrible  day  of  the  Lord '  (2^^  3^*  cf.  Mt  24^^). 

In  the  former  chapter  the  delineation  is  evidertly  literal,  depicting 
the  most  grievous  form  of  calamity  that  can  befall  an  agricultural 
people.  The  question  is  whether  in  the  second  chapter  also  the  same 
interpretation  holds,  or  whether  the  locust-plague  is  symbolically 
used  for  a  hostile  invasion  (cf.  Rev  9^"")  ;  or  for  repeated  invasions, 
as  those  by  Tiglath-pileser,  Shalmaneser,  Sennacherib,  and  Nebuchad- 
nezzar ;  or  even  for  the  subjugation  of  the  country  by  yet  later  foes. 
Others,  as  Olshausen,  combine  these  views,  and  deem  it  a  description 
of  impending  calamity  generally,  both  literal  and  figurative.  '  Locust ' 
is  certainly  used  Avith  this  double  reference  in  Scripture  ;  and  in  the 
second  chapter  expressions  are  used  with  apparently  a  double  aspect, 
as  like  expressions  were  afterwards  used  by  our  Lord,  Mt  24,  referring 
to  an  earlier  and  a  final  visitation.  Indeed,  as  all  great  and  Divine  de- 
liverances prefigure  or  represent  deliverance  through  the  Cross,  so  all 
great  punitive  visitations  supply  figures  for  describing  the  Judgement. 

In  ch.  3,  he  foretells  the  assembling  of  the  nations  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehovah's  Judgement  (Jehoshaphat »)  and  their 
destruction,  the  establishment  of  Jerusalem  as  the  holy  city, 
and  the  glorious  state  of  peace  and  prosperity  to  be  enjoyed 
by  the  Church  in  the  days  of  the  Messiah. 

The  style  of  Joel  is  remarkably  clear  and  elegant  ;  obscure  only 
towards  the  close,  where  its  beauties  are  shaded  by  allusions  to 
events  not  yet  accomplished.  The  double  destruction  foretold  in 
chs.  I,  2,  II,  the  first  by  the  locusts,  the  second  by  the  enemies  of 
whom  they  were  harbingers,  is  painted  in  terms  that  are  reciprocally 
metaphorical,  and  admirably  adapted  to  the  twofold  character  of  the 
description. 

*  Not  the  valley  usually  so  named  ;  but  the  scene  of  Jehoshaphat's 
victory  over  the  confederated  trans-Jordanic  tribes,  2  Ch  20.  This 
was  in  the  wilderness  of  Judah,  below  En-gedi.     See  p.  473. 


THE   BOOK   OF   ISAIAH  493 

Joel  andvAmos. — The  words  of  Joel  3^^  furnish  a  key-note 
to  Am  1 2  ;  another  indication  of  Joel's  earlier  date.  On 
the  contrary  and  less  probable  supposition,  Joel  takes  the 
announcement  of  impending  doom  from  Amos. 

References  to  Joel  in  tJie  New  Testament. 

31*7.  Peter,  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  quotes  Joel's  prediction 
respecting  'the  last  days'  2^8-32  as  fulfilled  in  the  gift  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  Ac  2^'^~2i.  The  closing  words  of  this  prophecy  are  quoted  by 
Paul,  Ro  10^'. 

The  locust- symbol  of  a  destroying  army,  chs.  i,  a,  is  reproduced  in 
the  Apocalypse,  Kev  9^"'. 


The  Book  of  Isaiah 

B.C.   740-701. 

318.  Isaiah's  Personal  History. — Isaiah,  the  greatest 
of  the  prophets,  was  called  to  the  prophetic  office  in  the 
reign  of  Uzziah,  King  of  Judah,  and  continued  to  prophesy 
during  the  reigns  of  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  perhaps 
also  during  a  portion  of  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  He  was 
statesman  as  well  as  prophet ;  and  we  find  him  repeatedly 
speaking  and  acting  in  connexion  with  public  affairs.  Of 
his  father,  Amoz,  nothing  is  known,  though  Jewish  tradition 
makes  him  a  brother  of  King  Amaziah  ;  from  the  same 
doubtful  source  comes  the  legend  that  Isaiah  was  put  to 
death  by  Manasseh,  being  sawn  asunder  for  contradicting 
or  adding  to  the  Mosaic  Law  °'  (Is  6^  compared  with  Ex  33^°). 
His  wife  is  styled  by  him  the  '  prophetess '  (8^),  and  they 
had  two  sons,  whose  names  and  history  illustrate  and 
enforce  his  predictions  (7^  8^-^).     His  name  means  Salvation 

*  This  account  of  Isaiah's  martyrdom  cannot  be  definitely  traced 
beyond  the  second  century  a.  d.  There  may,  however,  be  reference  to 
it  in  Heb  11'^.  The  legend  is  given  in  detail  in  the  book  entitled  The 
Ascension  0/  Isaiah.     See  Deane's  Pseudepigrapha,  1891,  p.  236  isq. 


494     HISTOEICAL   AND   PKOPHETICAL  BOOKS 

of  Jeliovali,  and  is,   in   a  large   degree,  descriptive   of  his 
character  and  writings. 

The  duration  of  his  ministry  is  uncertain.  From  the 
last  year  of  Uzziah,  when  the  prophet  received  his  Divine 
commission,  to  the  fourteenth  (or  perhaps  twenty-fourth*) 
of  Hezekiah,  when  Isaiah  s  name  last  occurs  in  the  history 
(2  Ki  20^  Is  38^),  was  a  period  of  forty  years,  and,  according 
to  the  above-mentioned  Jewish  tradition,  he  survived  till 
the  days  of  Manasseh. 

When  Isaiah  entered  on  his  office,  the  throne  was  occupied  by 
Uzziah,  or  Azariah,  a  king  whose  general  character  was  that  of 
integrity  and  piety  ;  and  under  whose  reign  the  nation  enjoyed  great 
tempoi-al  prosperity.  He  was  a  worshipper  of  the  true  God  ;  thougli 
he  failed  to  remove  the  asherahs  and  high  places  established  for 
idolatrous  worship.  Uzziah  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Jotham,  whose 
general  character  was  like  that  of  his  father  ;  but  the  idolatrous  altars 
were  still  allowed  to  remain,  and  owing  to  the  increase  of  luxury  and 
sensual  indulgence,  true  piety  declined  moie  and  more.  The  next 
king,  Ahaz,  was  a  wicked  and  idolatrous  prince  ;  and  his  reign  was 
very  disastrous.  The  law  of  God  was  broken  in  the  most  reckless 
manner,  and  the  Temple  not  only  defaced  and  plundered,  but,  at  last, 
shut  up.  During  this  period,  Isaiah  came  forward  publicly,  as 
a  reprover  of  sin ;  but  his  counsels  and  warnings  were  disregarded. 
Hezekiah's  character  was  the  reverse  of  that  of  his  father.  He 
abolished  idolatry,  restored  the  Temple  and  worship  of  Jehovah,  and 
relieved  the  people  from  foreign  oppression.  He  treated  Isaiah  with 
great  respect ;  and  during  the  agitating  occurrences  of  his  reign,  the 
prophet  had  an  important  part  in  directing  the  public  counsels. 

319.  The  life  of  Isaiah  includes  the  last  years  of  the 
Northern  Kingdom  of  Israel.  Under  Jeroboam  II,  the 
contemporary  of  Uzziah,  it  had  flourished ;  but  for  several 
years  it  had  been  unsettled,  one  military  adventurer  after 
another  seizing  the  crown ;  and  at  length,  in  the  sixth 
year  of  Hezekiah,  Samaria  was  overthrown,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  land  being  removed. 

His  prophecies,  however,  have  little  reference  to  the  condition  ol 
Samaria,  and  are  directed  chiefly  to  Judah. 

•  See  §  320,  5. 


THE   BOOK   OF  ISAIAH  495 

The  relation  of  Judah  to  neighbouring  nations  it  is  important  to 
remember.  With  Moab,  Edom,  and  the  Philistines,  Judah  had 
continued  conflicts.  Though  within  the  boundaries  of  Judah,  and 
subdued  by  David,  they  were  constantly  endeavouring  to  maintain 
an  independent  position  ;  and  during  the  reign  of  godless,  feeble  kings, 
their  efforts  were  generally  successful.  Assyria  had  increased  in 
strength,  and  was  extending  her  conquests  on  all  sides.  Egypt  had 
been  subdued  by  Ethiopia,  and  both  countries  were  united  under  one 
dynasty.  Assyria  and  Egypt  were  both  preparing  for  a  coming 
struggle,  and  each  in  succession  sought  the  alliance  of  both  Judah 
and  Israel,  as  a  bulwark  against  the  other.  The  right  policy,  in 
regard  either  to  the  temporal  interests  or  to  the  religious  character  of 
the  Jewish  kingdoms,  was  clearly  to  stand  aloof  from  both.  Babylon 
was  at  this  time  an  inferior  kingdom,  struggling  against  Assyria  for 
independence,  and  rising  slowly  into  importance.  Hence  the  policy 
of  Merodach-baladan  in  sending  an  embassy  to  Hezekiah  :  hence,  also, 
the  need  of  Divine  teaching,  to  foretell  the  future  power  of  Babylon, 
and  the  subjugation  by  it  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  a  century  and 
a  half  after  Isaiah's  time  (39''*'^). 

The  most  remarkable  events  of  this  period  are,  tlie  invasion  of  Judah 
by  the  combined  forces  of  Syria  and  Israel  in  the  days  of  Ahaz  ; 
twelve  years  later  the  invasions  of  Shalmaneser  and  Sargon,  which 
issued  in  the  overthrow  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes  ;  and 
the  two  Assyrian  invasions  of  Judah,  the  second  and  more  formidable 
of  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib's  army.  Within 
the  same  period  fall  the  two  most  remarkable  epochs  of  chronology — 
A. u.  c,  B.C.  753,  and  the  era  of  Nabonassar,  B.C.  747.  Just  before  the 
days  of  Isaiah  is  the  date  of  the  first  Olympiad,  b.c.  776.  See,  on 
these  dates,  Part  I,  §  201. 

320.  Outline. — The  Book  of  Isaiah  falls  into  two  dis- 
tinct poirtionSy  containing  thirty-nine  and  twenty-seven 
chapters  respectively.  To  these  a  separate  consideration 
must  be  given. 

First  Part,  1-39. — This  contains  prophetic  addresses 
and  warnings  of  different  dates,  many  of  them  bearing  im- 
mediately on  the  morals,  piety,  and  welfare  of  the  nation ; 
while  others  relate  to  the  heathen  nations  by  which  Judah 
was  surrounded  and  brought  into  conflict.  This  part  of  the 
book  may  be  divided  into  five  sections. 

I.  Keproofs,  warnings,  and  promises  addressed  to  Judah 


496     HISTORICAL   AND  PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

and  Israel,  chiefly  during  the  early  part  of  the  prophet's 
ministry,  including,  after  a  prefatory  chapter  (i),  the  great 
prophetic  discourse  (2-4),  founded  probably,  as  in  Mic  4^"*, 
upon  a  text  from  an  older  prophecy.  The  parable  of  the 
Vineyard  follows,  with  solemn  warnings  of  judgement  (5). 
The  section  is  closed  by  Isaiah's  account  of  his  call  and 
commission  (6). 

2.  Account  of  the  alliance  of  Syria  with  the  Northern 
Kingdom  of  Israel  (Ephraim)  against  Judah  in  the  days  of 
King  Ahaz,  who  looks  to  Assyria  for  aid — a  policy  stead- 
fastly denounced  by  Isaiah  (7-9').  The  '  sign '  of  Im- 
manuel  given  to  reassure  the  king  and  people.  Assyria 
to  be  overthrown,  Israel  exalted  (9^-10),  a  prophecy  in- 
cluding the  Ten  Tribes.  The  close  of  chapter  10  gives 
a  graphic  description  of  the  advance  of  the  Assyrian  host 
(under  Sargon)  in  its  futile  attempt  upon  Jerusalem.  The 
power  of  Assyria,  like  a  forest  of  Lebanon  in  its  might  and 
pride,  to  be  overcome  by  the  sprout  from  the  stem  of  Jesse 
(lo^^-ii^oj^  ^ypg  of  ii^Q  Messiah  Who  will  establish  a  King- 
dom of  Peace,  and  awaken  a  grateful  song  of  praise 
(i  18-12). 

3.  The  Ten  Burdens  :  a  series  of  predictions  regarding 
neighbouring  hostile  nations  ;  in  which  are  described  the 
sins  and  destruction  of  Babylon  (13-14^^) ;  Philistia 
(1428-32J .  Moab  (15,  16) ;  Damascus,  i.  e.  Syria  (17) ; 
Ethiopia  and  Egypt  (18-20) ;  the  '  Wilderness  of  the  Sea/ 
i.e.  Babylon  (21^  ~^*^) ;  Dumah,  i.e.  Edom  (2i^^*^2) ;  Arabia 
^2ii3-i7);  the  'Valley  of  Vision,' i.e.  Jerusalem  (22);  and 
Tyre  (23). 

The  nations  here  named  are  'specimens  of  the  heathen  world 
as  regards  their  attitude  towards  the  Kingdom  of  God  on  earth,' 
including  Jerusalem,  as  exposed  by  its  sins  to  judgement.  The 
graphic  description  of  Ethiopia  as  'the  land  rustling  with  wings' 
(R.  V.)  refers  to  its  swarms  of  insect-life*  (Heb.  isiltsal;  cf.  the  word 

•  Delitzsch  remarks  {Comm.  in  loc.)  that  *  the  prophet,  in  association 
with  the  swarms  of  insects,  has  in  his  mind  the  motley  swarms  of 


'BUKDENS'   AND    'WOES'   OF   ISAIAH      497 

tsetse,  the  native  name  of  Glossina  worsitans).  The  '  Sea'  poetically  indi- 
cates the  Euphrates,  and  the  wilderness  is  the  great  Babylonian  plain 
abutting  to  the  south-west  on  the  Arabian  Desert.  Jerusalem,  a 
'valley,'  because  encircled  by  mountains  (see  Ps  125^),  was  the  home 
of  prophecy — an  aggravation  of  its  unfaithfulness. 

In  connexion  with  these  'burdens'  uttered  at  various  times  are 
two  remarkable  episodes — the  appeai-ance  of  the  prophet,  barefooted 
and  stripped  of  his  outer  garment,  as  a  type  of  the  shame  to  which 
dependence  on  Egypt  would  bring  the  people  (20)  ;  the  deposition 
of  Shebna,  steward  of  the  royal  household,  and  the  appointment  of 
Eliakim  in  his  place  (22^^"^^). 

Most  remarkable,  however,  among  these  multiplied  predictions  is 
that  of  the  final  reconciliation  of  Israel  with  Assyria  and  Egypt  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Jehovah  (ig^^"^^). 

4.  The  chapters  that  follow  (24-27)  are  undated  and  have  no  definite 
historical  background*.  In  a  strain  of  sublimity  unsurpassed  they 
portray  the  judgements  of  Jehovah  against  the  world's  sin,  with  the 
security  and  triumph  of  His  people.  This  part  of  the  prophecy — 
'  Isaiah's  Apocalypse'  as  it  has  well  been  called — has  afforded  to  the 
Church  of  all  ages  many  of  its  richest  promises  and  tenderest 
consolations  ^.  From  these,  we  pass  in  chs.  28-31  to  a  renewed 
'  Book  of  Woes' — against  profligate  and  doomed  Samaria  (28),  against 
David's  'Ariel,'  Jerusalem,  the  '  Hearth  of  God,'  where  His  altar  fires 
burned  (29),  and  against  the  nations  of  heathendom  with  all  who 
seek  their  alliance  (30,  31).  Then  comes  the  vision  of  a  kingdom 
of  righteousness  and  peace  (32),  followed  again  by  a  tremendous  out- 
burst against  Assyria,  now  gathering  for  the  onslaught  upon  Judah 
(33),  and  against  Edom  134) — the  very  climax  of  terrible  predictions. 
In  lively  contrast  with  all  this,  the  long  series  of  prophecies  closes 
(35)  with  a  picture  of  the  blessedness  prepared  for  '  the  redeemed ' 
and  'the  ransomed  of  Jehovah,'  when  sorrow  and  sighing  shall  flee 
away. 

5.  History  of  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  with  the  de- 
struction of  his  army  in  answer  to  Hezekiah's  prayer. 
Hezekiah's  sickness,  his  miraculous  recovery,  and  the  pro- 
longation of  his  life  for  fifteen  years  (36-38).  Visit  of 
ambassadors    from    Merodach-baladan,    King    of    Babylon, 

people  of  this  great  kingdom,  which  were  fabulously  strange  to  an 
Asiatic' 

*  Excepting  one  brief  reference  to  Moab,  25^®. 

•»  See  26'  '  perfect  peace  '  ;  26^  '  a  Rock  of  Ages  '  ;  26^^-'^^. 

Kk 


498     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

ostensibly  to  congratulate  the  king  on  his  recovery,  possibly 
also  to  inquire  into  the  astronomical  phenomenon  ^  ;  but  prin- 
cipally, no  doubt,  to  cement  the  alliance  against  Assyria. 
Isaiah  is  inspired  to  perceive  the  ominous  character  of  the 
alliance,  and  predicts  in  explicit  terms  the  Babylonian 
Captivity  of  a  far-off  day  (39). 

In  the  narration  of  these  successive  events  there  is  a  chronological 
difficulty,  which  recent  discoveries  in  the  Assyrian  records  have  gone 
far  to  solve.  In  ch.  36^  and  the  parallel  passage  a  Ki  iS^^  'Senna- 
cherib, King  of  Assyria'  is  said  to  have  invaded  Judah  in  the  fourteenth 
year  of  Hezekiah.  But  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah  corresponds 
vs^ith  the  tenth  year  of  Sargon,  the  father  of  Sennacherib.  Hence 
some  critics  have  supposed  that  for  '  fourteenth '  we  should  read 
<  twenty-fourth.'  But  it  now  appears  from  the  monuments  that  there 
was  a  prior  invasion  of  Judah  by  Sargon  which  created  great  alarm, 
but  came  to  nothing  (to  this  probably  the  vivid  description  in  lo^s-^^ 
refers).  Some  transcriber  may  have  added  the  name  Sennacherib 
to  the  words  '  the  king  of  Assyria.'  Or  it  may  be  (less  probably)  that 
in  this  first  invasion  Sennacherib  was  his  father's  general.  In  any 
case  an  interval  must  be  placed  between  36^  and  36^,  the  details  that 
follow  belonging  to  the  second  and  more  eventful  invasion. 

It  must  also  be  observed  that  the  illness  of  Hezekiah  occurred 
before  this  invasion  of  Sennacherib,  although  narrated  after  it.  For 
as  the  king  lived  for  fifteen  years  after  his  recovery  (38^),  and  reigned 
in  all  for  twenty-nine  years  (2  Ki  iS^),  the  illness  must  have  occurred 
in  his  fourteenth  regnal  year  ;  contemporaneously  (according  to  the 
view  above  given)  with  Sargon's  abortive  attack.  See  Chronological 
Appendix. 

321.  Second  Part,  40-66. — This  division  of  the  book 
differs  from  the  former  in  being  a  continuous  prophetic 
discourse,  of  which  the  starting-point  is  the  Babylonian 
Captivity,  as  predicted  in  ch.  39^"^.  But  while  the  leading 
theme  is  the  deliverance  from  exile,  the  inspired  seer 
goes  on  to  dwell  upon  the  accomplishment  of  redemp- 
tion, and  the  triumphs  of  God's  Kingdom  to  the  end  of 
time. 

•  For  an  account  of  the  sun-dial  of  Ahaz,  on  which  the  shadow  went 
back,  see  Smith's  Diet.  Bible,  second  ed.,  art.  '  Dial.' 


THE   SECOND   PAKT   OF   ISAIAH  499 

The  main  theme  of  the  entire  book,  in  both  its  divisions, 
is  thus  Uhe  grace  of  God  to  Israel  in  successive  testing- 
times.'  These  times  are  noted  in  the  historical  sections — 
the  deliverance  from  Syria  and  Epliraim  in  the  days  of  Ahaz 
(7,  8),  the  rescue  from  the  yet  more  formidable  power  of 
Assyria,  foreshadowed  to  Ahaz  and  more  fully  declared 
to  Hezekiah  (10^-12,  &c.) ;  passing  to  the  greatest  deliver- 
ance of  all,  that  from  Babylon,  which  power,  in  Hhe  per- 
spective of  prophecy/ was  one  with  Assyria  (13,  27,  40,  &c.) ; 
the  whole,  by  many  links,  being  connected  with  the  future 
great  Redemption.  There  is  thus  a  sublime  unity  of  con- 
ception pervading  the  book.  It  exhibits  the  world-powers 
in  their  conflict  with  the  Kingdom  of  God,  which  triumphs 
in  the  end,  and  wins  the  whole  earth  to  its  beneficent 
sway. 

Many  modern  critics,  however,  hold  that  the  passages  which  relate 
to  the  deliverance  from  Babylon  were  the  work  of  a  later  prophet,  to 
whom  they  attribute  the  chapters  from  40  to  the  end.  The  opinion 
has  so  far  gained  ground  that  to  speak  of  '  Second  Isaiah  '  has  become 
almost  a  commonplace  of  critical  and  general  literature  *.  While,  to 
a  large  extent,  this  view  is  associated  with  outspoken  or  tacit  denial 
of  the  predictive  element  in  prophecy,  there  are  many  critics  who 
disclaim  such  denial,  and  yet  hold  to  the  existence  of  this  Deutero- 
Isaiah.     A  brief  reference  to  this  question  is  therefore  necessary. 

This  broad  severance  of  the  book  into  two  sections,  the  one  written 
by  Isaiah,  the  other  by  an  unnamed  prophet  of  the  Exile,  may  be 
considered  apart  from  that  further  critical  dismemberment  with  which 
it  is  too  often  associated.  In  the  one  case  we  are  dealing  with  a  solid 
body  of  opinion  ;  in  the  other  with  varying  speculations  which  split 
up  Isaiah  into  anonymous  fragments'*. 

External  evidence  is  all  in  favour  of  the  unity  of  the  book.  Until 
within  the  last  hundred  years,  the  unhesitating  belief  of  the  Jewish 

•  Otherwise  'the  Deutero-Isaiah,'  'the  Babylonian  Isaiah,'  'the 
Great  Unnamed '  (Ewald). 

^  See,  e.  g.,  Isaiah  printed  in  Seven  Colours  (Haupt),  ed.  Cheyne,  1898. 
Critical  sagacity  is  even  supposed  to  be  so  fine  as  to  discriminate 
between  different  authors  in  one  and  the  same  verse.  Some  passages 
in  the  First  Part,  alleged  to  be  later  than  Isaiah's  time,  are  13-14'-^^ 
ai^-io  24-27  34  35  36-39. 

K  k  2 


500     HISTOKICAL   AND   PKOPHETICAL   BOOKS 

and  Christian  Church  (with  the  doubtful  exception  of  the  Jewish 
writer  Aben  Ezra  in  the  twelfth  century  a.  d.),  as  well  as  the  implicit 
authority  of  Christ  and  His  Apostles,  has  assigned  the  whole  to 
Isaiah  the  sou  of  Amoz*.  The  LXX  and  other  versions  give  no  hint 
of  dual  authorship.  The  ancient  belief  is  well  expressed  by  the  son 
of  Sirach,  who  writes  (Ecclus  482*-25  R.V.),  when  recounting  the  annals 
of  Hezekiah's  day,  that  Isaiah  the  prophet 

*  Saw  by  an  excellent  spirit  what  should  come  to  pass  at  the  last ; 

And  he  comforted  them  that  mourned  in  Sion. 
He  showed  the  things  that  should  be  to  the  end  of  time, 
And  the  hidden  things  or  ever  they  came.' 

In  the  New  Testament,  as  shown  below,  the  references  to  *  Isaiah  the 
prophet '  are  divided  almost  equally  between  the  two  parts  of  the 
book,  those  to  the  latter  part  being  slightly  the  more  numerous. 
Now,  the  main  problem  lies  in  the  change  of  place,  time,  and  situation 
which  confronts  us  in  ch.  40.  The  final  prophecy  of  Isaiah,  against 
Sennacherib,  37''^"^',  is  uttered  b.  c.  701  :  the  prophecies  which  begin 
with  ch.  40  seem  to  be  addressed  to  the  captives  in  Babylon  in  the 
later  years  of  their  exile,  say  598-550.  If  Isaiah  wrote  them,  instead 
of  the  prophet  of  righteousness  to  his  own  generation  he  has  become 
the  seer,  carried  forward  in  vision  a  century  and  a  half,  and  writing 
what  he  saw  as  a  bequest  for  his  exiled  nation. 

Dr.  (afterwards  Dean)  Bradley,  before  the  University  of  Oxford  in 
1875,  sketches  this  view  (without  pronouncing  judgement  upon  it)  in 
graphic  language**:  'The  Isaiah,*  he  says,  'of  the  vexed  and  stormy 
times  of  Ahaz  and  Hezekiah  is  supposed  in  his  later  days  to  have  been 
transplanted  by  God's  Spirit  into  a  time  and  a  region  other  than  his 
own.  .  .  .  He  is  led  in  prolonged  and  solitary  vision  into  a  land  that 
he  has  never  trodden,  and  to  a  generation  on  whom  he  has  never 
looked.  The  familiar  scenes  and  faces,  among  which  he  had  lived 
and  laboured,  have  grown  dim  and  disappeared.  All  sounds  and 
voices  of  the  present  are  hushed,  and  the  interests  and  passions  into 
which  he  had  thrown  himself  with  all  the  intensity  of  his  race  and 

*  There  is  a  list  of  prophetic  books  in  a  treatise  of  the  Talmud 
(Baha  Bathra)  in  which  the  order  is  given  thus  :  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Isaiah,  the  Minor  Prophets  ;  as  though  Isaiah,  at  least  in  part,  came 
after  Ezekiel.  The  order,  however,  appears  to  be  not  of  date  but  of 
length.  See  Dr.  C.  H.  H.  Wright  in  Smith's  Diet.  Bible,  vol.  i  (and  ed.), 
p.  1451. 

^  Sermon  reported  in  the  Oxford  Undergraduates'  Journal,  February, 
1875,  and  quoted  by  Professor  Cheyne  in  an  Essay  supplementary  to 
his  Isaiafi  (vol.  ii.  p.  227,  3rd  ed.). 


THE   PEEDICTIVE   ELEMENT  501 

character  move  him  no  more.  The  present  has  died  out  of  the  horizon 
of  his  soul's  vision.  .  .  .  The  voices  in  his  ears  are  those  of  men  unborn, 
and  he  lives  a  second  life  among  events  and  persons,  sin  and  suffer- 
ing, and  fears  and  hopes,  photographed  sometimes  with  the  minutest 
accuracy  on  the  sensitive  and  sympathetic  medium  of  his  own  spirit ; 
and  he  becomes  the  denouncer  of  the  special  sins  of  a  distant 
generation,  and  the  spokesman  of  the  faith  and  hope  and  passionate 
yearning  of  an  exiled  nation,  the  descendants  of  men  living  when  he 
Avrote  in  the  profound  peace  of  a  renewed  prosperity.' 

But,  it  may  fairly  be  asked,  is  there  anything  impossible  in  this, 
if  the  prediction  of  the  future  be  once  admitted  as  a7i  element  in  prophecy  1 
The  answer  given  is — not  impossible,  but  so  exceptional  as  to  be, 
failing  conclusive  evidence  to  the  contrary,  highly  improbable,  and 
it  is  held  that  tradition  is  not  conclusive,  especially  as  these  chapters 
nowhere  claim  Isaiah's  authorship,  and  are  indeed  separated  from  his 
undoubted  oracles  by  an  historical  narrative  of  some  length. 

As  a  rule,  the  inspired  Old  Testament  seers  took  their  stand  upon 
their  own  times,  and  addressed  their  contemporaries  (see  §  145). 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that,  if  the  fortieth  and  eight  following  chapters 
had  come  to  us  anonymously,  without  any  save  internal  indications  of 
authorship  and  date,  they  would  have  been  assigned  to  the  time  of  the 
Captivity.  When  in  ch.  i"-^  the  prophet  bewails  the  desolation  of 
Judah,  we  know  that  he  is  describing  the  existing  condition  of  the 
land :  and  when  we  come  upon  an  entirely  similar  passage  in  ch. 
64^°'^^  it  would  be  natural  to  conclude  that  we  have  there  also  the 
words  of  a  contemporary.  But  the  unity  of  Isaiah  would  imply  that 
the  propliet's  position  in  the  former  cases  was  actual,  in  the  latter 
ideal. 

Then,  again,  the  mention  of  Cyrus  by  name  (44^^^  45^)  is  unlike  the 
usual  scope  of  prophecy.  There  is  one  parallel  instance — but  only  one — 
in  the  reference  to  Josiah,  i  Ki  13^^,  nearly  three  hundred  years  before 
that  king's  time.  These  instances  may  extend  our  conception  of 
scripture  prophecy,  but  assuredly  do  not  invalidate  it.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  God  Himself,  by  the  mouth  of  Isaiah,  appeals  to 
former  declarations  regarding  the  future  now  being  fulfilled,  in  prooi 
of  His  own  claim  to  know  the  end  from  the  beginning.  See  41-^ 
•q.  43'  *q.  447  aq.  43I9.21  46^0  sq.  433  ■<!.  If  these  were  simply  ' prophecies 
after  the  event,'  the  challenge  fails. 

There  are  many  incidental  considerations  bearing  upon  the  main 
issue.  Words  and  phrases  common  to  the  two  sections,  and  those 
that  are  peculiar  to  one  or  the  other,  have  been  much  discussed. 
Among  these,  the  special  appellation  of  Jehovah,  '  the  Holy  One  of 
Israel,*  is  remarkably  characteristic  of  both,  and  is  hardly  found 
elsewhere  in  Scripture.     Again,  while  it  is  urged  on  the  one  hand 


502     HISTORICAL  AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

that  the  later  chapters  contain  allusions  to  facts  and  incidents  of 
Babylonian  life,  as  if  from  an  author  conversant  with  them,  it  is 
replied  on  the  other  that  the  local  colouring  is  mostly,  and  very 
strikingly,  that  of  Judaea.  Rocks,  mountains,  and  forests  are  in  the 
prophet's  landscapes  ;  the  horizon  of  his  view  extends  to  the  islands 
of  the  sea ;  the  flocks  are  those  of  Kedar ;  tlie  rams  those  of  Nebaioth; 
the  trees  are  the  cedar  and  the  acacia,  the  pine  and  the  box,  with  the 
oaks  of  Bashan  and  the  woodland  heights  of  Carmel.  In  particular, 
that  terrible  section  which  describes  the  lingering  idolatries  of  Judah 
(56',  57)  places  the  scene  of  them  'in  the  torrent-valleys,  under  the 
cliffs  of  the  rocks,  among  the  smooth  stones  of  the  stream.'  *  As  there 
are,'  writes  Dean  Payne  Smit;h,  '  no  torrents,  but  only  canals,  in  the 
flat,  alluvial  soil  of  Babylonia,  so  there  are  no  torrent-beds  there  ;  but 
these  form  a  common  feature  of  the  landscape  in  Palestine  and  all 
mountainous  countries*.'  In  fact,  the  whole  description  of  idolatrous 
practices  given  in  this  section  is  so  inapplicable  to  all  that  we  know 
of  Babylonia  and  the  Jewish  exiles,  that  it  must  be  referred  to 
another  place  and  period,  whatever  may  be  said  of  the  rest. 

It  is  not  pretended  that  the  subject  is  free  from  difficulty.  But 
whatever  conclusion  be  adopted  on  a  candid  consideration  of  the 
evidence,  it  is  well  to  remember,  in  the  words  of  Delitzsch,  italicized 
by  him  to  convey  his  sense  of  their  importance,  that  if  we  only  allow 
that  the  prophet  was  a  prophet,  it  is  of  no  essential  consequence  to  what  age  he 
belonged  ^. 

Similarly,  Dr.  A.  B.  Davidson  remarks,  in  his  Lectures  on  Old  Testament 
Prophecy,  that '  the  question  is  one  of  fact  and  criticism  exclusively,  and 
not  a  matter  either  of  faith  or  practice.  Such  questions  ought  to  be 
kept  as  far  away  as  possible  from  all  interference  with  the  articles  of 
religion.  How  can  it  affect  one's  religious  condition  whether  he  believes 
Isaiah  to  be  the  single  author  of  the  prophecies  attributed  to  him,  or  to 
havehadothers  joined  with  him?  And  I  wish  to  say  that  I  think  we 
ought  to  repudiate  and  resent  the  attempts  that  are  made  to  make  the 
question  on'e  of  religious  belief,  and  to  endeavour  so  to  place  the 
question  that  it  do  not  become  so*.* 

A  whole  literature  has  grown  up  around  this  question.  The  English 
student  may  be  referred  for  varying  views  to  the  Bible  Dictionaries 

*  Prophecy  a  Preparation  for  Christ,  see  p.  295,  2nd  ed.  (1871"). 

*>  Commentary  on  Isaiah,  ist  ed.,  1866.  Dr.  Delitzsch  then  held  to 
the  single  authorship  of  Isaiah;  and  to  Hhe  Babylonian  horizon'  as 
unveiled  by  special  revelation  to  the  son  of  Amoz.  In  his  later  life, 
however,  he  altered  his  views,  and  accepted  the  theory  of  a  Deutero- 
Isaiah.     See  the  second  ed.  of  his  Commentary,  1890. 

"  See  chap,  xv,  throughout :  'Tlie  Isaianic  Problem,'  especially  p.  271, 


LITERATURE   ON   ISAIAH  503 

and  Cyclopaedias,  and  for  a  vindication  of  the  traditional  view  to 
Nagelsbach's  Commentary  in  the  Lange  series,  translated  by  Dr.  Lowrie 
of  Pliiladelphia,  1878  ;  to  the  work  of  Principal  G.  C.  M.  Douglas, 
Isaiah  One  and  his  Book  One,  1895  ;  also  to  Lines  0/  Defence  0/  the  Biblical 
Revelation  by  Professor  D.  S.  Margoliouth,  1900,  ch.  iii ;  to  the  Intro- 
duction to  Isaiah  in  the  Speaker's  Commentary,  by  Dr.  W.  Kay,  §  iii ;  and, 
for  another  line  of  argument,  to  The  Servant  of  the  Lord,  by  W.  Urwick, 
M.A.,  1877.  The  arguments  for  the  Babylonian  authorship  are  given 
by  Dr.  Driver  in  his  Introductioyi  to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
in  his  book  on  Isaiah  in  the  'Men  of  the  Bible'  series,  pp.  185-212, 
where  the  arguments  on  both  sides  are  carefully  stated  ;  by  Professor 
A.  F,  Kirkpatrick  in  his  Doctrine  of  the  Prophets,  Lect.  xiii,  1892  ;  and 
by  Dr.  A.  B.  Davidson  in  his  posthumous  Lectures  quoted  on  the  pre- 
ceding page.  Dean  Stanley  has  summarized  the  arguments  on  this 
side  of  the  question  in  a  popular  form  in  his  History  of  the  Jewish  Church, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  499  sq.  (ed.  1883).  On  the  other  hand,  the  linguistic 
evidence  is  carefully  treated  and  Dr.  Driver's  list  examined  in  detail 
by  Mrs.  Jeffreys,  The  Unity  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  with  a  preface  by 
Dr.  Sinker  (1899),  and  the  *  position  which  no  Hebrew  writer  of  note 
has  ever  assailed '  is  maintained  by  a  born  Jew,  Rev.  Michael 
Rosenthal,  in  his  Two  Sermons  at  St.  Mary's,  Oxford  (Parker,  i( 


322.  Outline  continued. — This  Second  Part  of  the  book 
may  be  divided  into  three  main  sections,  each  occupying 
nine  chapters.  The  first  (40-48)  refers  to  the  deliverance 
from  Babylon,  the  central  theme  being  the  greatness  of 
Jehovah  in  contrast  with  the  gods  of  the  nations,  the  most 
impressive  illustration  being  the  subordination  of  Cyrus, 
the  heathen  conqueror,  to  the  accomplishment  of  the 
Divine  will.  The  second  section  rises  to  a  yet  nobler  strain 
(49-58),  where  the  leading  topic  is  the  achievement  of 
redemption  through  sorrow  and  sacrifice.  Each  of  these 
portions  ends  with  the  refrain^  'There  is  no  peace,  saith 
Jehovah,  to  the  wicked '  (48--  57^^).  Of  the  ihird  section,  the 
prevailing  thought  is  the  establishment  of  God's  universal 
Kingdom  and  its  triumph  over  every  opposing  form  of  evil. 
The  '  holy  mountain  Jerusalem '  appears,  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  Isaiah's  predictions  (66'^'^ ;  cp.  2^) ;  and  in  yet  loftier 
vision  the  *  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth  '  as  in  the  Apo- 
calypse of  John  (66-- ;  cp.  Kev  21^). 


504     HISTOKICAL   AND   PEOPHETICAL   BOOKS 

323.  The  Servant  of  Jehovah.— But  the  leading  feature 
of  these  first  and  second  sections,  enstamping  upon  them 
a  character  absolutely  unique,  and  allying  them  with  all 
that  is  greatest  in  the  scheme  of  Divine  revelation,  is  the 
delineation  of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah.  Rightly  to 
understand  the  several  passages  in  which  this  conception 
is  wrought  out,  is  to  gain  an  insight  at  once  into  the  spirit 
of  prophecy,  and  into  the  nature  of  Redemption. 

Comparing  the  passages  in  which  this  Servant  of  .Jehovah  is 
described,  we  note  that  the  designation  is  in  several  instances  applied 
to  Israel  (or  '  Jacob  ')  collectively,  ^i^-"^  ^^^■'^-'^  45*  48^0  493,  These  passages 
are,  in  fact,  the  key  to  the  rest — Israel,  as  Jehovah's  servant,  the 
object  of  Divine  guardianship,  bearing  a  Divine  commission,  witness- 
ing for  God  to  the  nations,  the  appointed  minister  of  His  will.  Such 
was  the  ideal  Israel — often  indeed  falling  below  this  high  character — 
'blind'  and  'deaf  (42^9),  but  still  the  chosen  depositary  and  instru- 
ment of  the  Divine  purpose  (44'^^).  But  the  ideal  seeks  a  yet  higher 
realization,  and  becomes  personally  realized,  in  One  Who  Himself  and 
alone  combines  all  the  attributes  delineated.  *  Behold,  My  Servant 
shall  deal  Avisely,  He  shall  be  exalted  and  lifted  up,  and  be  very  high.' 
Henceforth  the  prophecy  concentrates  itself  upon  Him.  To  employ 
the  fine  illustration  of  Delitzsch,  'The  idea  of  the  Servant  of  Jehovah 
assumes,  to  speak  figuratively,  the  form  of  a  pyramid  :  the  base  was 
Israel  as  a  whole  ;  the  central  section  was  that  Israel  which  was  not 
merely  Israel  according  to  the  flesh,  but  according  to  the  spirit  also  ; 
the  apex  is  the  Person  of  the  Mediator  of  salvation  springing  out  of 
Israel.'  In  this  character  He  becomes  the  representative  of  His 
people.  He  bears  their  griefs  and  carries  their  sorrows,  the  chastise- 
ment of  their  peace  is  upon  Him  and  His  soul  is  made  an  offering  for 
sin.  So  is  Jehovah's  purpose  accomplished :  the  pleasure  of  the  Lord 
prospers  in  His  hand. 

After  this  crowning  delineation,  there  is  no  mention  by  the  prophet 
of  Israel,  or  any  human  agent,  as  '  the  Servant  of  Jehovah.'  The  one 
true  Servant  has  appeared,  and  all  others  are  servants  in  subordination 
to  Him. 

324.  It  is  here  that  Isaiah  is  most  truly  seen  as  the 
Evangelical  Prophet.  If  in  the  former  part  of  the  book 
the  Messiah  is  revealed  as  King — the  Branch  from  the  root 
of  Jesse — in  this  He  appears  as  the  Sufferer  for  sin,  tlie 


ISAIAH   QUOTED   IN   NEW   TESTAMENT     505 

Redeemer  and  Sacrifice.  The  tAvo  views  are  not  contra- 
dictory but  supplemental.  In  the  vision  of  the  Apocalypse, 
the  seer  was  bidden  to  behold  'the  Lion  of  the  Tribe  of 
Judah,  the  Root  of  David.'  ^  And  I  looked,'  he  continues, 
'and  lo  a  Lamb  as  it  had  been  slain.'  Here,  as  in  a  parable, 
appears  the  spirit  of  the  two  books  which  bear  the  name  of 
the  prophet  Isaiah. 

325.  Priticipal  Quotations  and  Allusions  in  the  Nctv  Testament. 

Part  I. 
i"  *  a  remnant '  (LXX  '  a  seed ').     So  Ro  9^^. 
6^-^  '  His  Glory.'     Cp.  Jn  12*1  Rev  42<''8. 
6^^"  the  heart  hardened  to  Divine  teaching,  Mt  is^^-is  j^  jg^^"** 

Ac  282-^27, 

7"  the  Emmanuel  passage.  Mt  i2i--\ 

812.13  'Sanctify  Jehovah  of  Hosts,'  i  Pet  3^*-^^ 

8'*  the  stumbling-stone,  Ro  9-^2.33 

817.18  .^he  children  whom  Jehovah  hath  given  me,'  Heb  2^'. 

91-2  light  to  the  people  that  walked  in  darkness,  Mt  4^^"^^ 
jo'22.23  a  remnant  to  be  saved,  Ro  g'^'^-'^^. 

II*  'the  rod  of  His  mouth  and  the  breath  of  His  lips,'  2  Th  2% 
iiio  «the  root  of  Jesse'  ('shall  rise  to  rule,'  LXX),  Ro  15^2^ 
ai»  '  Fallen  is  Babylon,'  Rev  14*  18-. 
2222  '  the  key  of  the  house  of  David,'  Rev  3'. 
25^  'death  swallowed  up  in  victory'  (LXX),  i  Cor  i5'^*. 
2811-12  <  with  another  tongue'  (cited  as  from  'the  law,'  i  Cor  1421 ). 
28^6  the  corner-stone  laid  in  Zion,  Ro  g^^  i  Pet  2*-^ 
29^''  'the  spirit  of  slumber,'  Ro  11''. 
29I3  lip-service  and  estranged  hearts,  Mt  15^-^  Mk  7*'^. 
29"  the  wisdom  of  the  wise  destroyed,  i  Cor  i^^. 
29IS  45^  the  creature  challenging  its  Creator,  Rj  92°. 
34*-^°  the  coming  judgement.  Rev  6^^-i*. 
35^  weak  hands  and  feeble  knees,  Heb  12*2 

Part  II. 

40'"*  the  voice  crying  in  the  wilderness,  Mt  3'  and  parallels. 

4o6-«  fading  glory  and  abiding  truth,  Jas  iio-i^  i  Pet  i'^*-^^ 

40"  '  Who  hath  known  the  mind  of  Jehovah  ?'  Ro  ii^*  i  Cor  2^\ 

41*  The  First  and  the  Last,  Rev  !» n-"  2^  21^  22". 

42^-*  the  Servant  of  Jehovah,  Mt  x2^''-^\ 

4523  '  To  Me  every  knee  shall  bow,'  Ro  14^^  Phil  2^0". 


506     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 


49^°  '  they  shall  not  hunger  nor  thirst,'  Rev  7^®". 

5267  (see  Nah  i^*)  'feet  beautiful  upon  the  mountains,'  Ro  io^\ 

53  The  suffering  Servant  of  Jehovah  :  the  Saviour  from  sin  and 
sorrow.  This  chapter  is  almost  reproduced  in  the  N.  T., 
applied  at  every  point  to  Christ.  Compare  verse  4  with  Mt  8^'', 
verses  5,  6  with  i  Pet  a'^^-^s,  verses  7,  8  with  Ac  S^'^-^'^,  verse  9 
with  I  Pet  2^2,  verse  12  with  Mk  15^^^  Lu  22"  Heb  9^8. 

54^  '  Rejoice,  thou  barren,'  Gal  4^7. 

54I3  xhy  children  taught  of  God,  Jn  6^5. 

55'  'the  sure  mercies  of  David,'  Ac  13^*. 

55'°  'seed  to  the  sower  and  bread  to  the  eater,'  a  Cor  9^°. 

56"^  *  a  house  of  prayer  for  all  people,'  Mt  ai^^  a^jj  parallels. 

57"  *  peace  to  him  (LXX  *  them  ')  that  is  (are)  far  off,'  &c.,  Eph  2". 

59^'^  '  breastplate  of  righteousness,  and  helmet  of  salvation,'  Eph 
614.17  I  xh  5». 

59'°-2i  '  the  Deliverer  out  of  Zion,'  Ro  ii^e-sr. 

5q3.io.ii  ^y^q  nations  and  the  heavenly  City,  Rev  2i2*-26, 

6ii-2  glad  tidings  to  the  meek,  Lu  4^'^"^'. 

63^  treading  the  winepress,  Rev  ig^^-''^^. 

64*  mysteries  of  Divine  love,  i  Cor  2^. 

6512  <  found  of  them  that  sought  Me  not,'  Ro  lo^o-zi. 

65"  '  New  heavens  and  a  new  earth,'  2  Pet  3^^  Rev  21^ 

66^  "^  Throne,  footstool,  and  sanctuary,  Mt  534-35  j^q  ^48-50^ 

66^*  Undying  worm  and  quenchless  fire,  Mk  9**. 

To  this  array  of  passages,  many  phrases  and  allusions 
might  be  added,  evidently  derived  from  the  prophet.  In 
fact,  Isaiah  in  the  New  Testament  would  be  among  the 
most  interesting  and  profitable  of  Bible  studies. 


The  Book  of  Micah 

B.C.    730-695- 

326.  His  personal  history. — Micah,  a  contemporary 
of  Isaiah,  appears  to  have  been  a  native  of  Moresheth-gath 
(i^"*),  hence  the  title  '  Morasthite.'  The  place  was  a  village 
about  twenty  miles  south-west  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  Philis- 
tine territory  :  Jerome  places  it  near  Eleutheropolis.     Thus, 


THE   BOOK   OF  MICAH  507 

while  Isaiah  was  a  prophet  of  the  court  and  city,  Micah 
was  a  country  prophet.  The  book  contains  many  notes  of 
the  prophet's  personaHty  : '  And  I  said '(2^) ;  *  Woe  is  me ! '  (7^). 
He  seems  to  have  been  commissioned  not  long  after  Amos, 
Hosea,  and  Isaiah  had  begun  their  ministry;  and  he  includes 
both  Israel  and  Judah  in  his  reproofs  and  warnings  (i^). 
There  is  a  striking  resemblance  between  the  predictions  of 
doom  regarding  both  Samaria  and  Jerusalem,  comp.  i*^ 
with  3^2^  Greek  writers  (Epiphanius  and  others)  say  he 
was  slain  by  Jehoram,  son  of  Ahab  ;  confounding  him  with 
Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah,  2  Ki  22^ "^s^  The  names  are 
different  forms  of  the  same  word,  signifying  '  Who  is  like 
Jehovah'  (see  Ex  15^^);  Micah  does  not  appear  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom,  but  died  in  peace  in  the  days  of  Heze- 
kiah  ;  see  Jer  26^^"^^,  where  it  ajDpears  that  Jeremiah  might 
have  been  put  to  death  for  foretelling  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple,  had  it  not  appeared  that  Micah  had  foretold  the 
same  thing  above  a  hundred  years  before.  He  is  not  only 
referred  to  as  a  prophet  in  Jeremiah,  as  above,  but  is 
quoted  by  Zephaniah  (3^^),  Ezekiel  {22,'^'^),  and  Isaiah  (41^^). 
The  passage  4^~*,  nearly  identical  with  Is  2^~*,  was  prob- 
ably not  borrowed  by  either  of  the  prophets  from  the  other, 
but  was  a  prediction  of  an  earlier  time  ;  each  prophet  in 
turn  being  inspired  to  make  it  the  text  of  his  discourse. 

^■27.  Outline. — His  predictions  may  be  divided  into 
three  sections. 

He  first  describes  the  approaching  ruin  of  both  kingdoms  ; 
particularizing  several  of  the  towns  and  villages  of  Judah 
in  his  own  neighbourhood,  eh.  i.  He  then  rebukes  and 
threatens  the  princes,  prophets,  and  people  for  their  pre- 
vailing sins  ;  introducing,  however,  an  intimation  of  mercy 
(2^).  In  the  second  section,  he  proceeds  to  unfold  the 
future  and  better  destinies  of  the  people ;  dwelling  at 
length  upon  the  happiness  and  glory  of  the  Church  under  the 


508     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

reign  of  the  Messiah ;  then  reverting  to  the  nearer  deliver- 
ance of  the  Jews,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  power 
(4,  5).  The  third  division  exhibits  the  reasonableness,  purity, 
and  justice  of  the  Divine  requirements,  in  contrast  with 
the  ingratitude,  injustice,  and  superstition  of  the  people, 
which  caused  their  ruin.  The  ethical  teaching  of  this  part 
of  the  prophecy  is  clear  and  sublime  ^,  its  power  being 
enhanced  by  interposition,  as  it  were,  of  Jehovah  Himself, 
pleading  with  His  people.  From  the  contemplation  of  this 
catastrophe,  the  prophet  turns  for  encouragement  to  the 
unchanging  truth  and  mercy  of  Jehovah,  which  he  sets 
before  the  people  as  the  most  powerful  inducement  to 
heartfelt  repentance  (6,  7). 

Micah  has  much  of  the  poetic  beauty  of  Isaiah,  and  of  the  vigour  of 
Hosea.  His  style  is,  however,  occasionally  obscure,  through  concise- 
ness and  sudden  transitions  from  one  subject  to  another. 

He  foretells,  in  clear  terms,  the  invasions  of  Shalmaneser  ^  and 
Sennacherib  '^ ;  the  dispersion  of  Israel*^ ;  the  cessation  of  prophecy  " ; 
the  utter  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ^ ;  nor  less  clearly,  the  deliverance  \ 
of  Israel^;  the  birthplace  of  the  Messianic  King  and  His  '  issuings 
forth'  of  power  from  the  remotest  past** ;  the  promulgation  of  His  gospel 
from  Mount  Zion,  and  its  results,  and  the  exaltation  of  His  kingdom 
over  all  nations. 


a  e^~^.  It  may  be  noted  that  this  paragraph  is  not  to  be  taken, 
with  some  expositors  (including  Bishop  Butler),  as  the  words  of 
Balaam.  It  is  an  utterance  of  Micah  himself,  as  in  response  to 
Jehovah's  pleading.  Note  that,  connected  with  the  reference  to 
Balaam,  the  phrase  *  from  Shittim  unto  Gilgal '  means  '  from  the  last 
station  east  of  Jordan  to  the  first  station  on  the  west,'  i.  e.  the  eventful 
period  of  crossing  of  the  Jordan  into  the  Promised  Land. 

»>    lG-8  (2  Ki   i7*-6). 

"    i9-i6  (2  Ki  i8i3).  *  5^-8.  "  3*5-'^. 

f   ^12^  g    2^2  ^10  ^8_ 

^  5^  'Goings  forth'  (or  'comings  forth')  is  from  the  same  root  as 
'shall  come  forth'  in  the  same  verse,  and  must  be  explained  accordingly. 
*  From  ancient  time  *  (or  '  from  the  days  of  old  ')  is  illustrated  by 
vii.  20 '  (Kirkpatrick).  He  appeared  from  the  beginning  for  the 
defence  and  deliverance  of  His  people. 


THE   BOOK   OF   NAHUM  509 


Citations  from  Micah  in  the  New  Testament. 

328.  52  The  birth  at  Bethlehem  of  the  coming  King,  Mt  2«.  This 
passage  is  especially  remarkable  for  having  been  quoted  by  the  *  chief 
priests  and  scribes  *  of  Jerusalem,  as  an  accepted  prophecy  of  the 
Messiah.  Comp.  Jn  7*^^  There  are  also  striking  reproductions  of  the 
prophet's  language  (7®)  in  Mt  lo^^-^^  Mk  13^^  and  Lu  12^^,  also  of  7^^*  in 
Lu  i"-^\ 


The  Book  of  Nahum 

B.  C.    660-607. 

329.  Occasion     and     date     of     his     prophecy. — The 

prophecy  of  Nahum  is  a  cry  of  exultation  at  the  coming 
of  the  vengeance  of  the  Lord  upon  Assyria,  the  oppressor 
of  His  people.  Of  the  prophet  nothing  is  known  except 
that  he  is  described  as  'the  Elkoshite'  (i'),  a  native  of 
Elkosh,  unidentified,  but  stated  by  Jerome  to  be  a  village 
of  Galilee  ^.  The  date  of  the  prophecy  falls  between  the 
capture  of  the  Egyptian  city  of  No-amon,  or  Thebes  (by 
Assurbanipal,  c.  663  b.  c),  referred  to  in  3^"^'^,  and  the 
predicted  overthrow  of  Nineveh  (by  the  Medes  under 
Cyaxares,  c.  607  b.  c).  Assyria  had  been  threatened  by 
the  Medes  as  early  as  625,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  events 
of  this  earlier  siege  of  Nineveh  inspired  the  prophet's  vision 
of  her  downfall,  but  the  language  rather  suggests  the 
imminence  of  the  later  and  final  catastrophe.  In  either 
case  Nahum  prophesied,  probably  in  Judah,  wathin  the  reign 
of  Josiah. 

Nineveh,  the  destruction  of  which  is  foi'etold  by  the  prophet,  was  at 
that  time  the  capital  of  a  great  and  flourishing  empire.     It  was  a  city 

*  Prologue  to  Oomm.  on  Nahum. 


510     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

of  vast  extent  and  population,  and  was  the  centre  of  the  principal 
commerce  of  the  world.  Its  wealth,  however,  was  not  altogether 
derived  from  trade.  It  was  a  *  bloody  city,'  *  full  of  lies  and  robbery ' 
(3^).  It  plundered  the  neighbouring  nations  ;  and  is  compared  by  the 
prophet  to  a  family  of  lions,  which  '  fill  their  holes  with  prey,  and  their 
dens  with  ravin'  (2^'^-'^^).  At  the  same  time  it  was  strongly  fortified  : 
its  colossal  walls  are  said  by  Diodorus  Siculus  to  have  been  a  hundred 
feet  high,  and  wide  enough  at  the  summit  for  three  chariots  to  be 
driven  abreast  on  them  ;  with  fifteen  hundred  towers,  bidding  defiance 
to  all  enemies.  Yet,  so  totally  was  it  destroyed,  that,  in  the  second 
century  after  Christ,  not  a  vestige  remained  of  it;  and  its  very  site 
was  long  a  matter  of  uncertainty. 


330.  Outline. — This  book  is  surpassed  by  none  in  sub- 
limity of  description.  It  consists  of  a  single  poem  ;  which 
opens  with  a  solemn  description  of  the  attributes  and  opera- 
tions of  Jehovah  (i^~^).  Then  follows  (i^~^*)  an  address  to 
the  Assyrians,  describing  their  perj^lexity  and  overthrow , 
verses  12  and  13  being  thrown  in  parenthetically,  to  con- 
sole the  Israelites  with  promises  of  future  rest  and  relief 
from  oppression.  Chapter  2  depicts  the  siege  and  capture 
of  Nineveh,  and  the  consternation  of  the  inhabitants. 
Chapter  3  describes  the  utter  ruin  of  the  city,  and 
the  various  causes  contributing  to  it.  The  example  of 
No-Amon  (or  Thebes),  a  great  and  strong  city  of  Egypt, 
which  fell  under  the  judgement  of  God,  is  introduced 
(3^"^")  to  illustrate  the  similar  punishment  coming  on  the 
Assyrians.  It  is  observable  that  in  Nahum  there  is  no 
reference  to  the  sins  of  Judah  as  punished  by  the  Assyrian 
trouble,  nor  is  there  any  prediction  of  the  Babylonian  yok6 
(Kirkpatrick). 

New  Testament  Eeference, 

331.  The  words  of  Nahum  (i^')  'Behold  upon  the  mountains  the 
feet  of  him  that  Ijringeth  good  tidings,  that  publisheth  peace  ! '  are 
nearly  as  in  Is  52^-''.  From  one  of  these  prophets,  or  perhaps  with 
a  remembrance  of  both,  they  are  cited  Ro  10^'. 


THE   BOOK   OF   ZEPHANIAH  611 

Prophets  of  the  Babylonian  Period  (see  p.  482). 

Table  II. 

(Ivecline  and  Fall  of  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  ;  and  the  Captivity  under 

Nebuchadnezzar.) 

k  2  Kings  20-25.  ) 

(  2  Chronicles  32-36.  ) 

Prophets  in  Judah. 

Zephaniah  :   warns   Judah  ;   prophesies    against   various    nations  ; 

predicts  restoration. 
Habakkuk  :  prophecies  on  the  Chaldaean  invasion  and  the  Return. 
Jeremiah  :    in  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards   in    Egypt  ;    predictions 
concerning  Judah,  Israel,  and  heathen  nations,  largely  historical; 
followed  by  Lamentations  over  the  fall  of  the  city. 
Obadiah  :  prophecies  concerning  Edom  and  the  Latter  Days. 

EzEKiEL  :  on  the  Chebar ;  beholds  the  Divine  glory  ;  counsels  and 
warnings  to  his  fellow  exiles  ;  speaks  of  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem ;  prophesies  concerning  heathen  nations ;  Restoration ; 
Symbols  of  the  future  Church. 


The  Book  of  Zephaniah 

B.  C.    630-620. 

332.  Period  of  his  ministry. — Between  the  cessation 
of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Micah,  and  Nahum,  and  the 
days  of  Zephaniah,  Jereniiah,  and  the  later  prophets,  there 
was  an  interval  of  fifty  years,  during  which  there  was 
no  prophet  whose  writings  have  reached  us.  The  lessons 
taught  by  the  destruction  of  Samaria,  and  by  earlier  pro- 
phets, especially  Isaiah,  seem  to  have  been  left  to  produce 
their  proper  effects  on  the  minds  of  the  people.  The  wicked 
reign  of  Manasseh  occupied  nearly  all  this  interval,  and 
seemed  to  render  reformation  by  prophetic  teaching  hope- 
less. With  Josiah,  however,  the  prophetic  spirit  revived, 
and  Zephaniah  ('  Jehovah  hath  guarded ')  is  the  earliest  of 
the  prophets  of  his  age.  He  seems  to  have  prophesied  near 
the   commencement   of  Josiah's  reign,    and   at   all  events 


512     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

before  the  eighteenth  year  %  when  the  altars  of  Baal  were 
destroyed.  He  probably  assisted  Josiah  in  his  efforts  to 
restore  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Of  the  prophet 
personally  nothing  is  known.  As  he  traces  back  his  pedi- 
gree for  four  generations  (i^)  he  was  probably  of  noble  birth. 

333.  Outline. — The  first  chapter  contains  a  general 
denunciation  of  vengeance  against  Judah  and  those  who 
practised  idolatrous  rites ;  Baal,  his  black-robed  priests 
(Chemarim)  and  Malcham  (Moloch),  being  all  condemned  ; 
and  declares  '  the  great  day  of  trouble  and  distress '  to  be  at 
hand  (i^~^}. 

There  is  an  evident  reference  here  to  the  invasion  of  the  Scythians, 
wliicli  at  this  time  filled  the  land  with  consternation**.  The  sur- 
rounding countries  were  ravaged,  especially  Philistia,  but  there  was 
hope  that  Jerusalem  might  be  spared  (2^).  This  hope  was  actually 
fulfilled  :  and  the  first  catastrophe  deferred. 

The  second  chapter  predicts  the  judgements  in  connexion 
with  this  great  invasion,  about  to  fall  on  the  Philistines, 
those  especially  of  the  sea-coasts  (Cherethites),  the  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and  Ethiopians  ;  and  describes  in  terms  won- 
derfully accurate  the  desolation  of  Nineveh :  prophecies 
which  began  to  be  accomplished  in  the  conquests  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. The  result  was  to  be  the  reverence  paid  to 
Jehovah  when  *  the  gods  of  the  earth '  were  thus  discredited. 
The  heathen  should  worship  Him  '  every  one  from  his 
place'  (2^^),  while  in  the  latter  part  of  the  prophecy  they 
are  described  as  bringing  their  offerings  to  Him  (3^^). 

In  the  third  chapter,  the  prophet  arraigns  Jerusalem, 
rebukes  her  sins,  and  concludes  with  the  most  animating 
promises  of  her  future  restoration,  of  the  gathering  of  the 

*  There  is  a  slight  chronological  indication  in  the  mention  of  'the 
king's  sons  '  in  i*.  In  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah,  Jehoiakim  would 
liHve  been  twelve  and  Jehoahaz  ten  years  old. 

''  See  Herodotus  i.  105,  io6. 


THE   BOOK   OF   HABAKKUK  513 

nations  into  the  Church  of  God,  and  of  the  happy  state  of 
the  people  of  Jehovah  in  the  latter  days  (3^""^  3^"^^). 

Dr.  Keith  has  noticed  the  exactitude  with  which  Zephaniah, 
Amos,  and  Zechariah  foretell  the  destinies  of  the  four  chief  cities 
of  Philistia— Gaza,  Ashkelon,  Ashdod,  and  Ekron.  Comparing 
Am  i^'^-^  Zee  9^  and  Zep  2^~^,  it  will  be  seen  that  of  Gaza  it  is 
declared  that  baldness  shall  come  upon  it,  and  that  it  should  be 
bereaved  of  its  king.  At  present,  amid  ruins  of  white  marble  indicating 
its  former  magnificence,  a  few  villages  of  dry  mud  are  the  only  abode 
of  its  inhabitants.  Of  Ashkelon  and  Ashdod  it  is  said  that  both  shall 
be  '  without  inhabitants '  ;  and  so  they  are.  Gaza  is  inhabited  ;  Ash- 
kelon and  Ashdod  are  not,  though  their  ruins  remain.  Different  from 
the  destiny  of  each  was  to  be  the  end  of  Ekron  :  '  it  shall  be  rooted 
up.'  Now  its  very  name  is  lost,  nor  is  the  spot  known  on  which  it 
stood.  .  .  .  Clearly,  prophecy  and  providence — predictions  and  the 
events  that  fulfil  them — are  guided  by  the  same  hand  *. 

New  Testament  lieferences. 

334.  The  phrase  '  the  day  of  wrath  '  (source  of  the  mediaeval  poem. 
Dies  Irce)  i^^-^^  is  characteristic  of  this  prophet,  and  is  repeated,  Ro  2^ 
Rev  6^^.  The  prophet  also  (3")  has  the  metaphor  of  'pouring  out '  the 
Divine  anger,  reflected  in  the  imagery  of  the  vials  (bowls,  RV.)  of 
wrath,  Rev  i6^ 


The  Book  of  Habakkuk 

B.C.    625-607. 

335.  Time  of  his  prophecy. — Nothing  is  known  with 

certainty  of  the  parentage  and  life  of  Habakkuk  (a  name 
which  signifies  '  embracing,'  or  '  a  wrestler ') ;  but  from  the 
fact  that  he  makes  no  mention  of  Assyria,  and  speaks  of  the 
Chaldaean  power  as  growing  with  almost  incredible  rapidity, 
it  is  concluded  that  he  prophesied  in  Judah  during  the 
reign  of  Jehoahaz  and  Jehoiakim,  shortly  before  the  inva- 
sion of  Nebuchadnezzar  (i^  2^  2--^^~^2).     This  view  is  con- 

*  See  Keith  on  Prophecy,  ch.  viii,  p.  loa  (Religious  Tract  Society's 
edition). 

Ll 


514     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

firmed  by  his  reference  to  the  state  of  the  kingdom.  The 
reforms  instituted  by  Josiah  were  evidently  past,  and 
reaction  was  setting  in.  It  is  probable  that  the  duel 
between  Chaldaea  and  Egypt  had  come  to  an  end  in  the 
great  battle  of  Carchemish  ;  and  that  Judaea  lay  open  to  the 
northern  power.  Habakkuk  therefore  was  contemporary 
with  Jeremiah.  Many  legends  were  current  among  the 
Jews  respecting  him,  but  they  shed  no  light  on  his  career. 
As  a  specimen,  see  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  verses  33-39. 

Of  all  the  nations  who  afflicted  the  Jews,  and  in  them  the  Church  of 
God,  the  chief  were  the  Assyrians,  the  Chaldaeans,  and  the  Edomites  ; 
and  three  of  the  prophets  were  commissioned  specially  to  pronounce 
their  destruction.  Nalmm  foretells  the  destruction  of  the  Assyrians  ; 
Habakkuk  that  of  the  Chaldaeans  ;  and  presently  we  shall  find 
Obadiah  foretelling  the  destruction  of  Edom. 

336.  Outline. — The  prophet  begins  by  lamenting  the 
iniquities  and  lawless  violence  that  prevailed  among  the 
Jews.  God  then  declares  that  He  will  work  a  strange  work 
in  their  days,  and  raise  up  the  Chaldaeans,  described  with 
terrible  vividness,  who  should  march  through  the  breadth 
of  their  land  and  take  possession  of  its  dwellings.  In 
this  description,  the  prophet  forecasts  the  three  invasions 
(in  the  reigns  of  Jehoiakim,  Jeconiah,  and  Zedekiah) ; 
depicts  the  fierceness  of  their  attack  and  the  rapidity  of 
their  victories ;  then  points  to  the  pride  and  false  confi- 
dence of  the  victors,  and  humbly  expostulates  with  God 
for  inflicting  such  judgements  upon  His  people  by  a 
nation  more  wicked  than  themselves.  He  then  receives 
and  communicates  God's  answer  to  his  expostulation,  to 
the  efi'ect  that  the  vision,  though  it  tarry,  shall  surely 
come :  that  the  just  shall  live  by  their  faith,  and  are  to 
wait  for  it.  He  then  pronounces  five  '  Woes '  upon  the 
Chaldaeans ;  for  insatiate  ambition  (2^"^),  for  unscrupulous 
greed  (2^"^^),  for  injustice  and  cruelty  (2^^-14^^  f^^  drunken 
debauchery  (2^^"^^),  and  for  gross  idolatry  (2}^'^%    These  are 


THE   BOOK   OF  JEREMIAH  515 

revealed  in  vision  to  the  prophet  upon  his  watch-tower ; 
being  prefaced  by  the  assurance  to  the  j)eople  of  God  that 
'the  just  shall  live  by  his  faith,'  a  promise  whose  depth 
of  meaning  it  was  given  to  the  Apostle  Paul  to  discern, 
Ro  1 17  Gal  3I1 ;  cf.  Heb  lo^^-ss. 

The  prophet,  hearing  these  promises  and  threatenings, 
concludes  his  book  with  a  sublime  song,  both  of  praise  and 
of  prayer  (3).  He  celebrates  past  displays  of  the  power 
and  grace  of  Jehovah,  supplicates  God  for  the  speedy  deliver- 
ance of  His  people,  and  closes  by  expressing  a  confidence  in 
God  which  no  change  can  destroy.  This  psalm,  which  was 
evidently  intended  for  use  in  public  worship,  being  *  set  to 
Shigionoth  '  or  dithyrambic  measures  (see  Introd.  to  Psalms), 
was  designed  to  afford  consolation  to  the  pious  Jews  under 
their  approaching  calamities. 

Citations  in  the  New  Testament. 

337.  Besides  the  profound  declaration  in  2*,  two  sentences  of  this 
prophet  are  also  employed  with  evangelical  meaning  ;  the  warn- 
ing in  i'^,  quoted  by  Paul  at  Antiocli,  Ac  i3*f>*i ;  the  certain,  although 
tarrying  vision,  2'  (Heb  10"'^).  There  is  also  a  resemblance  between 
a^^  and  Lu  19*° ;  and  between  3^*  and  Lu  1*^ 


The  Book  of  Jeremiah 

B.C.    627-577. 

338.  His  personal  history. — Jeremiah  was  the  son  of 
Hilkiah,  a  priest  of  Anathoth,  in  Benjamin.  He  was  called 
to  the  prophetic  office  about  seventy  years  after  the  death 
of  Isaiah,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  King  Josiah,  whilst  he 
was  very  young  (i^)  and  still  living  at  Anathoth.  It  would 
seem  that  he  remained  in  his  native  place  for  several  years ; 
but  at  length,  probably  in  consequence  of  the  persecution  of 
his  fellow  townsmen,  and  even  of  his  own  family  (11-^  12^), 
as  well  as,  under  the  Divine  direction,  to  have  a  wider  field 

L  1  2 


516     HISTOKICAL   AND   PEOPHETICAL  BOOKS 

for  his  labours,  he  left  Anathoth,  and  came  to  Jerusalem. 
He  also  visited  the  cities  of  Judah  (ii^),  and  prophesied  alto- 
gether upwards  of  forty  years. 

During  the  reign  of  Josiah,  he  was,  doubtless,  a  valuable  coadjutor  to 
that  pious  monarch  in  the  reformation  of  religion.  From  his  notice  of 
Jehoahaz  (Shallum)  (22^°""^^),  ha  probably  prophesied  without  hindrance 
during  his  reign.  But  when  Jehoiakim  came  to  the  throne  he  was 
interrupted  in  his  ministry  ;  '  the  priests  and  prophets'  becoming  his 
accusers,  and  demanding,  in  conjunction  with  the  populace,  that  he 
should  be  put  to  death  (26).  The  princes  did  not  dare  to  defy  God 
thus  openly  ;  but  Jeremiah  was  either  placed  under  restraint,  or 
deterred  by  his  adversaries  from  appearing  in  public.  Under  these 
circumstances,  he  received  a  command  from  God  to  commit  his 
predictions  to  writing  ;  and  having  done  so,  sent  Baruch  to  read 
them  in  the  Temple  on  a  fast  day.  The  princes  were  alarmed,  and 
endeavoured  to  rouse  the  king  by  reading  out  to  him  the  prophetic 
roll.  But  it  was  in  vain  :  the  reckless  monarch,  after  hearing  three 
or  four  pages,  cut  the  roll  in  pieces,  and  cast  it  into  the  fire,  giving 
immediate  orders  for  the  apprehension  of  Jeremiah  and  Baruch.  'But 
Jehovah  hid  them  ;'  and  Jeremiah  soon  afterwards,  by  Divine  direc- 
tion, wrote  the  same  messages  again,  with  some  additions  (36). 

In  the  short  reign  of  Jehoiachiu  (Jeconiah)  wo  find  the  prophet 
still  uttering  the  voice  of  warning  (see  13^* ;  compare  a  Ki  24^''*  and 
ch.  222*-3o^,  though  without  effect. 

In  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  when  Nebuchadnezzar's  army  laid  siege 
to  Jerusalem,  and  then  withdrew  upon  the  report  of  help  coming 
from  Egypt,  Jeremiah  was  commissioned  by  God  to  declare  that  the 
Chaldaeans  would  come  again,  and  take  the  city,  and  burn  it  with 
fire.  Departing  from  Jerusalem,  he  was  accused  of  deserting  to  the 
Chalda3ans,  and  was  cast  into  prison,  where  he  remained  until  the 
city  was  taken.  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  had  formed  a  more  just  estimate 
of  his  character,  gave  a  special  charge  to  his  captain,  Nebuzar-adan, 
not  only  to  provide  for  him,  but  to  follow  his  advice.  The  choice 
being  given  to  the  prophet,  either  to  go  to  Babylon,  where  doubtless 
he  would  have  been  held  in  honour  at  the  royal  court,  or  to  remain 
with  his  own  people,  lie  preferred  the  latter.  He  subsequently 
endeavoured  to  persuade  the  leaders  of  the  people  not  to  go  to  Egypt, 
but  to  remain  in  the  land  ;  assuring  them,  by  a  Divine  message,  that 
if  they  did  so  God  would  build  them  up.  The  people  refused  to  obey, 
and  went  to  Egypt,  taking  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  with  them  (43®).  In 
Egypt,  he  still  sought  to  turn  the  people  to  the  Lord  (44)  ;  but  his 
writings   give   no   information   respecting    his    subsequent    history. 


CONTEMPORARIES   OF  JEREMIAH  517 

Ancient  tradition,  however,  asserts  that  the  Jews,  offended  by  his 
faithful  remonstrances,  put  him  to  death  in  Egypt. 

339.  His  prophetic  contemporaries. — Jeremiah  was 
contemporary  with  Zephaniah,  Habakkuk,  and  Ezekiel. 
Between  his  writings  and  those  of  Ezekiel  there  are 
many  interesting  points  both  of  resemblance  and  of  con- 
trast. Both  prophets  were  labouring  for  the  same  object, 
at  nearly  the  same  time.  One  prophesied  in  Palestine, 
the  other  in  Chaldsea ;  yet  the  substance  of  both  mes- 
sages is  the  same.  In  the  modes  of  expression  adopted  by 
the  prophets,  however,  and  in  their  personal  character, 
they  widely  differed.  The  history  of  Jeremiah  brings  be- 
fore us  a  man  forced,  as  it  were,  in  spite  of  himself,  from 
obscurity  and  retirement  into  the  publicity  and  peril  which 
attended  the  prophetical  office.  Naturally  mild,  susceptible, 
and  inclined  rather  to  mourn  in  secret  for  the  iniquity  which 
surrounded  him  than  to  brave  and  denounce  the  wrong- 
doers, he  stood  forth  at  the  call  of  God,  and  proved  himself 
a  faithful,  fearless  champion  of  the  truth,  amidst  reproaches, 
insults,  and  threats.  This  combination  of  qualities  is  so 
marked,  that  it  has  well  been  regarded  as  a  proof  of  the 
Divine  origin  of  his  mission.  In  Ezekiel,  on  the  other  hand, 
we  see  the  power  of  Divine  inspiration  acting  on  a  mind 
naturally  of  the  firmest  texture,  and  absorbing  all  the 
powers  of  the  soul. 

The  style  of  Jeremiah  corresponds  with  this  view  of  the  character 
of  his  mind.  It  is  peculiarly  marked  by  pathos.  He  delights  in 
expressions  of  tenderness,  and  gives  touching  descriptions  of  the 
miseries  of  his  people. 

340.  Arrangement  of  his  discourses. — The  prophecies 
of  this  book  do  not  all  stand  in  respect  to  time  as  they 
were  delivered.  Why  they  are  not  so  arranged,  and  how 
they  are  to  be  reduced  to  chronological  order,  it  is  not 
easy  to  say.  Attempts  have  been  made  by  Ewald  and 
otjjers  to  apcDunt  for  the  preseijt  arrangement,  but  not  very 


518     HISTORICAL  AND   PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

successfully.  The  best  explanation  is  that  there  has  been 
some  dislocation  of  the  order ;  and  from  the  notes  of  time 
that  are  given,  and  the  contents  of  the  several  discourses, 
the  sections  have  been  thus  classified. 

1.  In  the  reign  of  Josiah,  1-12.  The  beginning  of  eh.  11 
seems  to  mark  the  time  when  the  book  of  the  Law  was 
newly  discovered  in  the  Temple  (2  Ki  22^"^^). 

2.  Under  Jehoiakim,  13-20,  in  connexion  with  which 
series  of  discourses  is  recorded  the  conspiracy  of  '  the  princes 
of  Judah '  against  the  prophet,  with  his  deliverance  (25,  26). 
Ch.  22^"^''  denounces  Jehoiakim  for  his  unrighteousness,  and 
declares  the  fate  of  his  brother  and  predecessor  (Jehoahaz 
or  Shallum).  Ch.  35  draws  lessons  of  constancy  and 
obedience  from  the  conduct  of  the  Rechabites.  Chs.  45 
(to  Baruch,  the  prophet's  scribe)  and  36  refer  to  the  roll  of 
the  above  prophecies  as  read  to  Jehoiakim  in  the  fifth  year 
of  that  king's  reign,  and  by  him  cut  to  pieces  and  burned. 

3.  Under  Jehoiachin,  •z'Z^^"'^^ .  The  fate  of  the  king 
(called  here  Coniah)  is  pathetically  depicted.  He  is  to  be 
a  lifelong  prisoner  in  Babylon,  and  to  leave  no  heir  to  the 
throne  of  David  ;  being  thus  virtually  childless. 

4.  Under  Zedekiaii.  The  following  passages  belong  to 
this  period:  21  27*  (counselling  submission  to  the  Baby- 
lonian yoke) ;  28  (recording  the  prediction  of  the  false  pro- 
phet Hananiah  of  deliverance  within  two  years) ;  34  (the 
king's  fate,  and  the  punishment  of  the  slave-owners* 
perfidy) ;  37,  38  (an  account  of  the  prophet's  arrest 
and  imprisonment) ;  39  52^^20  ^^^  capture  of  Jerusalem). 
Chs.  30-33  give  the  assurance  of  restoration,  and  of  the 
New  CoA'enant,  with  the  remarkable  episode  (32)  of  the 
purchase  by  the  prophet  of  his  ancestral  property  at  Ana- 
thoth,  in  the  assurance  that  the  land  would  be  regained. 

5.  Prophecies  against  hostile  nations,  46-52.  These  were 
probably  uttered  at  different  times,  and  are  gathered  into 

•  In  37^  the  true  reading  is  obviously  'Zedekiah.'     See  R.V.  marg. 


PROPHECIES   OF   JEREMIAH  619 

these  four  chapters  from  their  similarit}^  of  subject.  They 
relate  to  Egypt,  Philistia,  Moab,  Ammon,  Edom,  Damascus, 
Kedar,  and  the  kingdoms  of  Hazor,  Elam,  and  Babylon. 
The  brief  discourse  against  Elam  {^g^*~^^)  was  delivered  at 
the  beginning  of  Zedekiah's  reign  ;  the  wonderful  prophecy 
respecting  Babylon  (50,  51)  in  that  king's  fourth  year  when 
he  went  with  the  chief  officer  of  his  court  into  Chaldaea  on 
some  errand  to  us  unknown.  This  discourse  was  to  be 
cast  into  the  Euphrates  bound  to  a  stone,  an  emblem  of  the 
sinking  of  the  proud  city  (compare  Rev  18-^). 

6.  After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  One  of  the  most 
striking  parts  of  the  book  is  in  ch.  29,  a  letter  sent  by 
Jeremiah  to  the  exiles  in  Babylon  with  Jehoiachin,  coun- 
selling them  as  to  their  conduct  in  captivity.  Instead  of 
rebelling  and  repining  they  were  to  settle  down  as  peaceful 
and  industrious  inhabitants  of  the  land,  seeking  the  pros- 
perity of  the  country,  and  repudiating  those  false  prophets 
who  sought  to  stir  up  discontent.  After  seventy  years,  the 
prophet  declares,  the  captivity  would  cease.  This  wise  and 
noble  letter  had  a  lasting  influence  for  good,  and  was  re- 
membered when  the  day  of  deliverance  came  (Ezr  i^). 

7.  To  the  end  of  Jeremiah's  life,  39-44.  This  section  is 
mainly  historical,  and  its  details  have  been  alreadj^  noted, 
§  338.  The  chief  prophetic  discourse  which  it  contains  is 
a  protest  against  the  idolatry  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt  (44). 

Among  the  special  predictions  of  Jeremiah  were  his 
prophecies  of  the  fate  of  Zedekiah*^,  the  duration  of  the 
Babylonian  captivity  ^,  and  the  return  of  the  Jews  °.  The 
downfall  of  Babylon  ^  and  of  many  nations  «  is  also  foretold 
in  predictions,  the  successive  completion  of  which  kept  up 
the  faith  of  the  Jews  in  those  that  refer  to  the  Messiah*". 

*  34'^*'  :  compare  2  Ch  36^^  2  Ki  25^"'^  Jer  52^^ 

^  2511-^2  (see  Dn  g^).  "  29^''-^*  (Eze  i^). 

d   2512  60-51_  •  46-49. 

f    233-8  3o9  3il5  32^0  3326, 


520     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

He  foretells  very  clearly  the  abrogation  of  the  Mosaic  law  ; 
speaks  of  the  ark  as  no  more  remembered  (3^^) ;  and  reaches 
the  very  height  of  Old  Testament  prediction  in  his  great 
prophecy  of  the  New  Covenant  (31'^^"^*). 

Befcrences  in  the  New  Testament. 

341.  Compare  7^^  with  Mt  2\^^  'a  den  of  robbers';  9"^*  with  i  Cor 
isi  'glorying  in  the  Lord  ' ;  lo"^  with  Rev  15*  ;  ii^"  with  i  Thess.  2* ; 
17^0  with  Rev  2^3  ;  22^  with  Mt  23^8  ;  25^0  with  Rev  i8'2-23 ;  517-9 
with  Rev  14^  172-4  i8«"' ;  51^  with  Rev  18*  ;  and  si^s-^*  with  Rev  iS^i. 
The  appellation  '  Dayspring,'  as  applied  to  the  Messiah.  Lu  i'^^^  jg  from 
the  LXX  of  Jer  23^,  where  the  Heb.  is  '  Branch  '  (so  Zee  3^  6^2)^  Yot 
the  application  of  the  passage  '  Rachel  weeping  for  her  children  '  (31^^ 
Mt  217-18^,  see  Part  I,  §  157. 

The  most  noteworthy  of  such  New  Testament  applications  is  that  of 
2^31-34  in  jjeb  8^-1^  and  10^^^'^.  The  prophet  describes  the  New 
Covenant  in  terms  which  make  this  passage  a  true  anticipation  of  the 
gospel,  and  which  possibly  suggest  the  phrase  '  New  Covenant'  in  the 
institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  ;  so  placing  Jeremiah  by  the  side  of 
Isaiah  as  an  '  Evangelical  Prophet.' 


The  Book  of  Lamentations 

dr.  B.C.  586. 
342.  This  book  is  an  Appendix  to  the  prophecies 
of  Jeremiah.  Its  authorship  has  been  ascribed  to  him  by 
uniform  ancient  tradition,  although  it  nowhere  contains  his 
name.  The  tradition  has  been  questioned  on  internal 
grounds,  but  without  sufficient  reason.  The  book  expresses 
with  pathetic  tenderness  the  prophet's  grief  for  the  desola- 
tion of  the  city  and  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  the  captivity  of 
the  people,  the  miseries  of  famine,  the  cessation  of  public 
worship,  and  the  other  calamities  with  which  his  country- 
men had  been  visited  for  their  sins.  The  leading  object 
was  to  teach  the  suffering  Jews  neither  to  despise  Hhe 
chastening  of  the  Lord,'  nor  to  *  faint '  when  '  rebuked  of 
Him/  but  to  tur»  to  God  with  deep  repentance,  to  confess 


THE   BOOK   OF   EZEKIEL  521 

their  sins,  and  humbly  look  to  Him  alone  foi  pardon  and 
deliverance. 

By  the  Jews  the  book  is  ranked  among  tlie  MegiUoth  (rolls)  and  is 
read  in  the  synagogues  on  the  9th  of  Ab  (July),  the  anniversary  of  the 
destruction  of  the  Temple. 

No  book  of  Scripture  is  more  rich  in  expressions  of 
patriotic  feeling,  or  of  the  penitence  and  trust  which  become 
an  afflicted  Christian. 

The  book  consists  of  five  chapters,  each  being  a  separate 
complete  poem.  (On  the  poetical  form,  see  Introduction  to 
ch.  xvi.)  The  form  of  these  poems  is  strictly  regular. 
With  the  exception  of  the  last  (5),  they  are  in  the  original 
Hebrew  alphabetical  acrostics,  in  which  every  stanza  begins 
with  a  new  letter.  The  third  has  this  further  peculiarity, 
that  all  three  lines  in  each  stanza  have  the  same  letter  at 
the  commencement. 

As  a  composition,  this  book  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  of 
pathetic  images  it  contains,  expressive  of  the  deepest  sorrow,  and 
worthy  of  the  subject  which  they  are  designed  to  illustrate.  It  also 
contains,  amidst  its  words  of  grief,  occasional  sentences  of  richest 
consolation.     See  322-24. sfi.se.ss^ 

In  the  New  Testament  there  is  perhaps  a  reminiscence 
of  3*5  in  I  Cor  4I3. 


The  Book  of  Ezekiel 
B.C.  592-570. 

343.  His  personal  history. — Ezekiel  {God  will  strengthen, 
or  prevail)  was,  like  Jeremiah,  a  priest  as  well  as  a  prophet. 
He  was  one  of  the  great  company  of  captives  carried  to 
Babylon,  with  the  young  King  Jehoiachin,  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, B.C.  597,  ten  years  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  These  captives  were  distributed  into  different 
settlements   tl^rou^hout    JBabylopia,   forming    small    com- 


522     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

munities  with  a  certain  organization,  and  freedom  to  wor- 
ship, each  in  their  *  little  sanctuar5\'  The  company  to 
which  Ezekiel  belonged,  consisting  as  it  appears,  of  people 
well-to-do,  had  its  abode  at  Tel-abib  (Corn-hill),  by  the 
river  Chebar ;  that  is,  either  the  Habor  (2  Ki  17^)  in  Lower 
Mesopotamia,  near  Carcheniish,  among  the  descendants  of 
the  Israelite  exiles,  or,  as  most  recent  expositors  think, 
some  river  or  canal  nearer  Babylon.  There  the  priest- 
prophet  was  the  most  notable  figure  in  the  group  of  exiles, 
who,  however,  for  the  most  part  resisted  his  words,  cling- 
ing to  the  hope  of  a  speedy  return  to  the  land  of  their 
fathers.  It  was  Ezekiel's  bitter  task  to  disenchant  them  ; 
and  his  life  was  still  further  saddened  by  the  sudden  death 
of  his  wife  in  the  ninth  year  of  their  exile  (24^^).  Tradition 
says  that  he  was  put  to  death  by  one  of  his  fellow  exiles, 
a  leader  among  them,  whose  idolatries  he  had  rebuked. 

He  commenced  prophesying  in  the  fifth  year  after  the 
captivity  of  Jehoiachin  (i-),  that  is,  in  Zedekiah's  reign 
(592),  and  continued  till  at  least  the  twenty-seventh  year 
(29^^).  The  year  of  his  first  prophesying  was  also  the 
thirtieth  from  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of  Nabo- 
polassar  and  from  the  era  of  Josiah's  reform.  His  influence 
with  the  people  is  obvious,  from  the  numerous  visits  paid 
to  liim  by  the  elders,  who  came  to  inquire  what  message 
God  had  sent  through  him  (8^  14^  20^  &c.). 

His  writings  show  remarkable  vigour,  and  he  was  evidently  well 
fitted  to  oppose  'the  people  of  stubborn  front  and  hard  heart,'  to 
whom  he  was  sent.  His  characteristic,  however,  was  the  subordina- 
tion of  his  whole  life  to  his  work.  He  ever  thinks  and  feels  as 
the  prophet.  In  this  respect  his  writings  contrast  remarkably  with 
those  of  his  contemporary  Jeremiah,  whose  personal  history  and 
feelings  are  frequently  recorded.  That  he  was,  nevertheless,  a  man 
of  strong  feeling  is  clear  from  the  brief  record  he  has  given  of  his 
wife's  death  (241^^"). 

The  central  point  of  Ezekiel's  predictions  is  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  Be/ore  this  event,  his  chief  object  was  to  call  to  repentance 
those  living  in  careless  security  ;  to  warn  them  against  indulging  the 


OUTLINE   OF  THE   BOOK   OF  EZEKIEL      523 

hope  that,  by  the  help  of  the  Egyptians,  the  Babylonian  yoke  would 
be  shaken  ofif  (17^^'"^'^  :  compare  Jer  37') ;  and  to  assure  them  that  the 
destruction  of  their  city  and  Temple  was  inevitable  and  fast  approach- 
ing. After  this  event,  his  principal  care  was  to  console  the  exiled 
Jews  by  promises  of  future  deliverance  and  restoration  to  their  own 
land  ;  and  to  encourage  them  by  assurances  of  future  blcBsings.  His 
predictions  against  foreign  nations  come  between  these  two  great 
divisions,  having  been  for  the  most  part  uttered  during  the  interval 
between  the  Divine  intimation  that  Nebuchadnezzar  was  besieging 
Jerusalem  (24^)  and  the  arrival  of  the  news  that  he  had  taken  it  (33"-'^}. 
The  periods  at  which  the  predictions  on  these  different  subjects  were 
delivered  are  frequently  noted,  being  reckoned  from  the  era  of 
Jehoiachin's  captivity.     See  Part  I,  §  201. 

344.  Outline. — The  book  may  be  divided  (Havernick) 
into  nine  sections. 

1.  Ezekiel's  call  to  the  prophetic  office,  1-3-^.  Here  Je- 
hovnh  from  between  the  cherubim  gives  the  prophet  a 
commission  ;  shows  him  a  roll  inscribed  with  prophetical 
characters,  and  bids  him  eat  it,  that  is,  digest  its  contents. 
This  sublime  and  m^'sterious  vision  with  which  the  prophecy 
begins  (see  also  ch.  10)  impressively  showed  that  the  presence 
and  glory  of  the  Lord  were  as  truly  in  that  heathen  land  as 
in  Jerusalem. 

2.  Predictions  and  symbolical  representations,  foretelling 
the  approaching  destruction  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem,  322-27^ 
The  390  years  of  Israel's  defection,  and  the  forty  years 
during  which  Judah  had  been  especially  rebellious,  are  set 
forth  in  the  typical  siege  of  ch.  4.  The  threefold  judge- 
ment of  pestilence,  sword,  and  dispersion,  finds  expression 
in  the  symbolical  representations  of  ch.  5.  The  prophet's 
companions  in  exile  are  thus  warned  that  their  hope  of 
an  early  return  to  their  own  land  is  futile,  and  that  their 
only  hope  lay  in  patient  service  of  Jehovah. 

3.  Visions  presented  to  the  prophet  a  year  and  two 
months  later  than  the  former,  8-1 1,  in  which  he  is  shown 
the  Temple  polluted  by  the  worship  of  Tammuz  (afterwards 
Adonis) ;  the  worshippers  turning,   like   Persian   sun-wor- 


524     HISTORICAL   AND   PROPHETICAL   BOOKS 

shippers,  to  the  east :  the  consequent  judgement  on  Jeru- 
salem and  the  priests,  a  few  faithful  being  marked  for 
exception  (9) ;  and  at  the  close,  promises  of  happier  times 
and  a  purer  worship.  The  symbol  of  the  Divine  presence 
is  gradually  withdrawn :  first  from  the  Temple,  and  then 
from  the  city. 

4.  Specific  reproofs  and  warnings,  12-19.  Here  he 
shows  the  captives  by  two  signs  (12)  what  was  about 
to  be  the  fate  of  the  people ;  exposes  the  false  prophets 
who,  at  Jerusalem  and  at  Babylon  (Jer  23^^  29^),  spoke  of 
peace  and  rest  (13^^);  repeats  his  threatenings  to  some 
elders  who  visited  him  in  the  hope  of  getting  something 
from  him  that  might  contradict  Jeremiah  (14) ;  sets  forth 
Israel  as  a  fruitless  vine  (15),  and  as  a  base  adulteress  (16). 
He  shows  (17)  by  one  eagle  (Nebuchadnezzar),  who  had  taken 
away  the  top  of  the  cedar  (Jehoiakim),  and  by  another  eagle 
(Pharaoh),  to  whom  the  vine  that  was  left  (Zedekiah)  was 
turning,  the  uprooting  of  the  whole ;  and,  digressing  to 
upbraid  Zedekiah  for  the  oath  which  he  was  now  breaking 
(compare  verse  15  with  2  Ch  36^^),  he  predicts  the  replant- 
ing and  flourishing  of  the  whole  under  Messiah  the  Branch. 
He  shows  that  this  suffering  is  the  consequence  of  their 
own  acts  (18),  and  not  only  of  the  acts  of  their  fathers. 

5.  Another  series  of  warnings,  20-23,  given  about  a  year 
later,  when  Zedekiah  had  revolted  to  Egypt.  Zedekiah  to 
be  overthrown ;  mitre  and  crown  (priesthood  and  royalty) 
alike  to  disappear,  and  the  subversion  of  the  existing  order 
to  prepare  the  way  for  Him  '  whose  right  it  is  '  {zi^^-''^'^). 

6.  Predictions  uttered  two  years  and  five  months  later, 
on  the  very  day  when  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  commenced 
(24^ ;  compare  2  Ki  25^),  a  fact  revealed  to  the  exiled  prophet 
at  that  time.  On  that  very  day  his  wife  suddenly  died  ; 
but  he  weeps  not,  as  a  sign  to  the  people  that  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem  would  be  to  them  a  hardening  calamity,  leaving 
no  time  or  opportunity  for  mourning. 


PKOPHECIES   OF   EZEKIEL  525 

7.  Predictions  against  seven  heathen  nations  (25-32), 
Amnion  (25^-'^),  Moab  (25S-11),  Edom  (2512-H),  Philistia 
(2315-17)^  Tyre  (26-28^^),  Sidon  (28-0-^^),  and  Egypt  (29-32). 
These  predictions  extended  over  a  period  of  three  years, 
during  which  time  Jerusalem  was  besieged.  With  regard 
to  the  destinies  of  Israel,  the  prophet  was  to  be  silent 
until  a  refugee  from  Jerusalem  should  arrive  with  the 
tidings  of  that  city's  destruction.  Then  he  might  speak 
again  (24-^"^^). 

8.  His  predictions  concerning  Israel  renewed  (33-39),  the 
fugitive  from  Jerusalem  having  arrived  as  had  been  fore- 
told (33^^).  First,  the  character  of  the  true  shepherd  of  the 
people  is  described,  in  contrast  with  the  false  (33,  34). 
Then,  in  a  threefold  way,  the  future  of  the  restored  people 
is  delineated,  (i)  The  land  to  be  delivered  from  its  Edomite 
enemies,  who  will  be  finally  overthrown  (35-36^^) ;  (2)  the 
nation  to  be  restored,  purified,  and  revivified  (36^^-37^**), 
illustrated  by  the  vision  of  the  valley  of  dry  bones  ;  Judah 
and  Israel  to  be  reunited  (37^^"^^) ;  symbol  of  the  two 
sticks ;  (3)  victory  complete  over  the  invasion  of  barbarian 
forces  (38,  39) ;  '  Gog  and  Magog,'  from  the  wild  regions  of 
the  north,  symbolizing  the  fierce  and  apparently  overwhelm- 
ing might  of  the  power  of  evil  (compare  Eev  20"^"^^). 

9.  Symbolic  representations  of  the  Messianic  times ;  the 
grandeur  and  beauty  of  the  new  city  and  Temple  (40-48)  \ 

Quotations  from  EzcMel  in  the  New  Testament. 

345.  The  words,  'He  that  heareth,  let  him  hear'  (3-^),  may 
possibly  have  beeu  the  original  of  the  phi-ase,  as  found  in  Mt  n^* 
Mk  7^®  Lu  14^^  Eev  13'  &c.  The  solemn  warning  that  judgement 
must  begin  at  the  house  of  God,  i  Pet  4^^,  has  its  original  in  Eze  9^ 
'One  flock  and  one  shepherd,'  Jn  10^^,  may  be  traced  to  Eze  37^*. 

But  the  mass  of  quotations  from  Ezekiel  is  found  in  the  Apocalypse. 
Compare  i5-6,io-i8  with  Eev  46-8 ;  i23  with  Eev  4' ;  2»-^o  with  Eev  5^ ; 

*  See  Annotated  Paragraph  Bible,  at  the  close  of  Ezek.,  for  an  outline 
map  representing  the  ideal  of  the  holy  kingdom. 


526     HISTOEICAL   AND   PKOPHETICAL   BOOKS 

31-3  with  Rev  io»-io ;  6^^  with  Rev  6^:  26"  with  Rev  1822  ;  3710  with 
Rev  11"  ;  382  with  Revao^  ;  397.18.20  ^y^}^  jj^^  j^n.i .  ^0^-3.5  ^ith  Rev 
2 1 10.15.16^  and  47,  48  throughout  with  Rev  ai,  aa.  These  parallels  form 
a  most  instructive  study. 


The  Book  of  Obadiah 

cir.  B.  c.  586. 

346.  Time  of  his  prophecy.— The  time  when  Obadiah 
delivered  his  prophecy  is  somewhat  uncertain,  but  it  was 
probably  between  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Chalda3ans  under  Nebuchadnezzar  (b.  c.  587)  and  the  con- 
quest of  Edom,  which  took  place  five  years  afterwards. 
Others  give  an  earlier  date  to  this  book  (time  of  Hezekiah  ^), 
though  with  less  reason.  The  personal  history  of  the  pro- 
phet is  not  known,  but  his  name,  signifying  *  Servant  of 
Jehovah,'  was  borne  by  several  others  mentioned  in  Scrip- 
ture^. There  is  an  occasional  resemblance  to  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel ;  while  some  passages  reproduce  the  language 
of  the  earlier  prophets  Joel  and  Amos  ^. 

347.  Outline. — Israel  had  no  greater  enemy  than  the 
Edomites.  They  were  proud  of  thcsir  wisdom,  verse  8,  and 
of  their  rocky  and  impregnable  position,  verse  3.  The  pro- 
phet foretells  the  uncovering  of  their  treasures,  and  rebukes 
their  heartless  treatment  of  the  Jews,  their  kinsmen,  in 
rejoicing  over  their  calamities  and  encouraging  Nebuchad- 
nezzar utterly  to  exterminate  them  (Ps  137") ;  for  all  which 
an  early  day  of  retribution  was  to  come;  'As  thou  hast 
done,  it  shall  be  done  unto  thee,'  verse  15. 

*  Or  even  that  of  Jelioram  (see  a  Ch  ai^^i'^),  Kirkpatrick. 

^  Aliab's  steward,  i  Ki  i8^«i6.  See  also  the  lists  in  i  Ch  7^  S^s  9" 
i3«»  27"  a  Ch  34I2  Ezr  8^ 

*  Compare  verses  3,  4  and  Jer  49^^-1''' ;  verse  9  and  Eze  25^^  ;  verse  la 
and  Eze  35'^;  verse  16  and  Jer  49^2.  ^Iso  verse  17  and  Joel  a^2. 
verse  14  and  Am  i^^ 


THE   BOOK   OF   OBADIAH  527 

But  the  chosen  race  themselves  had  just  been  carried  into 
captivity ;  the  holy  land  was  deserted,  and  the  chastisement 
denounced  against  the  Edomites  might  therefore  appear  not 
to  differ  from  that  which  had  already  been  inflicted  upon 
the  seed  of  Jacob.  The  prophet  therefore  goes  on  to  declare 
that  Edom  should  be  as  though  it  had  never  been,  and 
should  be  swallowed  up  for  ever  (a  prophecy  which  has  been 
remarkably  fulfilled) ;  while  Israel  should  rise  again  from 
her  present  fall ;  should  repossess,  not  only  her  own  land, 
but  also  Philistia  and  Edom  ;  and  finally  rejoice  in  the  holy 
reign  of  the  promised  Messiah.     See  Part  I,  §  1 88. 

Compare  Am  iii-i2  9^-15  j^el  310.^^0  j^r  49^-22  j^j^e  35. 

There  are  no  references  to  this  short  prophecy  in  the  New 
Testament. 


CHAPTEE  XV 

HISTORICAL  AND  PROPHETICAL 
BOOKS  FROM  THE  BABYLONIAN 
CAPTIVITY  TO  THE  CLOSE  OF  THE 
OLD  TESTAMENT  CANON 

The  Captivity  :   The  Jews  in  Babylonia. 
348.  The  Babylonian  Captivity  was  a  remarkable,  and, 
at   the   time    it    occurred,   an   unexampled  dispensation  of 
Providence. 

Tlic  wliole  land  was  desolated,  the  ark  destroyed,  the  Temple  burned 
to  the  ground,  and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  laid  -waste  ;  while  the  mass 
of  the  people  were  delivered  into  the  hands  of  barbarous  enemies,  and 
taken  out  of  their  own  into  a  distant  country.  The  short  book  of 
the  'Lamentations'  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  who  lived  in  the  midst 
of  these  scenes,  is  a  heart-touching  memorial  of  this  visitation  and 
of  its  results.     See  also  Psalms  80,  89,  137. 

Babylonian  Kings  during  the  Captivity. 
Nebuchadnezzar 604-561 


Evil-merodach 
Neriglissar    . 
Laborisoarchod 
Nabonidus    . 


561-559 

559-555 

555  (9  months) 

555-538 


Cyrus  conquered  Babylon,  538 

349.  Duration  of  the  Captivity. — The  'seventy  years,' 
assigned  (Jer  25^^  and  other  passages)  as  the  duration  of  the 
Captivity,  are  either  a  round  number,  or  may  be  reckoned 


THE   CAPTIVITY  529 

from  the  time  when  the  defeat  of  the  Egyptians  at  Car- 
chemish,  b.  c.  605  (see  2  Ki  24"^  Jer  462)  secured  to  Babylon 
the  sovereignty  of  Western  Asia,  including  Palestine.  This 
was  in  the  year  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  accession  to  the  throne 
of  Babylon,  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim  (Dan  i^).  Several 
captives — the  youthful  Daniel  and  his  companions  among 
them — were  then  carried  to  Babylon.  Eight  years  after- 
wards Jehoiakim,  endeavouring  to  throw  oif  this  vassalage, 
was  effectually  crushed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  disappears 
from  the  history  ^  ;  and  his  son  Jeconiah  (Coniah  or  Jehoia- 
chin)  was  placed  by  the  Babylonian  monarch  upon  the 
throne  ;  occupying  it,  however,  for  only  three  months,  at 
the  end  of  which  occurred  the  chief  deportation  of  king 
and  people  to  Babylon. 

The  number  of  the  exiles  proves  how  greatly  the  land 
had  been  depopulated.  'Ten  thousand  captives'  besides 
*  craftsmen  and  smiths '  are  mentioned  in  one  account : 
another  estimate,  proceeding  on  some  different  principle, 
gives  the  number  at  various  times  as  amounting  to  four 
thousand  six  hundred  ^.  They  comprised  the  flower  of 
the  nation  ;  '  none  remained,  save  the  poorest  sort  of  the 
people  of  the  land.'  As  vassal-king  of  this  miserable 
remnant,  Nebuchadnezzar  set  up  Josiah's  youngest  son 
Mattaniah,  changing  his  name  to  Zedekiah,  *  Eighteousness 
of  Jehovah,'  and  exacting  from  him  an  oath  of  allegiance, 
Eze  17^^"^*.  The  high-priest  was  left  behind  in  Jerusa- 
lem to  carry  on  and  maintain  the  Temple  services,  with 
a  diminished  magistracy  to  maintain  order.  The  King  of 
Babylon  evidently  contemplated  the  retention  of  Judaea  as 
a  subject  state,  useful  as  a  check  upon  any  ambitious 
designs  of  the  humbled  power  of  Egypt.     But  there  was 

*  All  that  is  known  of  his  fate  may  be  gathered  from  2  Ch  36^  and 
Jer  22^^  3530.  jje  seems  to  have  escaped  from  the  chains  in  which  he 
was  bound  to  be  carried  to  Babylon,  and  to  have  been  slain  in 
attempting  flight  outside  the  city  walls. 

**  Compare  2  Ki  24^*  with  Jer  sa^^-^o^ 

M  m 


530      LATER  PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

in  Jerusalem  a  strong  pro-Egyptian  party,  who  induced  the 
infatuated  king  to  declare  himself  on  their  side.  In  spite 
of  the  earnest  protest  of  Jeremiah,  an  alliance  with  Pharaoh 
was  concluded  ;  Moab,  Ammon,  Edom,  and  Phoenicia  join- 
ing the  confederacy.  Nebuchadnezzar,  enraged  by  Zedekiah's 
perfidy,  dispatched  an  army  to  besiege  Jerusalem.  The 
city  held  out  for  a  year  and  a  half,  but  was  at  length  taken 
by  assault ;  the  king's  chief  abettors,  including  the  high 
priest,  being  carried  to  Riblah  and  slain.  Zedekiah  him- 
self was  blinded  and  taken  to  Babylon.  The  Temple  was 
burned,  and  its  treasures  seized  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

350.  Events  in  Judaea. — Over  the  scanty  population 
left  in  Judaea,  the  Babylonian  king  placed  Gedaliah  (Jer 
40^)  as  governor  ;  but  he  retained  office  for  only  two  months, 
when  he  was  treacherously  murdered  by  Ishmael,  a  scion 
of  the  royal  house,  with  a  party  of  Ammonites,  by  whom 
a  considerable  remnant  of  the  Jews  were  made  prisoners. 
These,  however,  were  rescued  by  Johanan  on  their  way  to 
the  Ammonite  country ;  and  a  halt  was  called  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bethlehem''^.  The  policy  of  a  retreat  to 
Egypt  was  strongly  advocated,  and  as  strongly  resisted  by 
the  prophet  Jeremiah.  He  was,  however,  overruled  (Jer 
40-42)  and  compelled  to  accompany  the  Jews,  who  settled 
at  Tahpanhes  (Daphne)  on  the  Egyptian  frontier.  The 
eventual  fate  of  this  little  colony  is  prophetically  described 
by  Jeremiah,  42^^"^^  44^"^"^^. 

351.  Life  in  Babylonia. —  Of  the  fifty  years  that  fol- 
lowed these  stirring  events,  few  records  remain  ;  but 
the  results  abundantly  appear.  In  Babylon,  of  the  two 
captive  kings,  Jeconiah  remained  as  a  prisoner  of  state 
until  the  accession  of  Evil-merodach,  when  he  was  released  ; 

•  At  Geruth-Chimham,  the  caravanserai  or  'inn'  on  the  property 
made  over  by  David  to  the  son  of  BarziUai.  Expositors  liave  noted 
with  interest  that  tliis  may  have  been  the  very  spot  of  the  Nativity. 


THE   CAPTIVITY  631 

he  was,  indeed,  so  honoured  by  his  late  subjects  that  their 
years  were  reckoned  (as  in  the  prophet  Ezekiel)  from  the 
date  of  his  exile  ;  while  Zedekiah,  the  perfidious,  was  kept 
in  close  confinement  until  his  death. 

It  had  been  predicted  that  Jeconiah  would  be  cliildless  (Jer  22'"^)  ; 
that  is,  as  explained,  that  he  would  have  no  heir  to  his  throne.  In 
fact,  he  had  several  sons  (i  Ch  3"-^*),  of  whom  one,  Salathiel  or 
Shealtiel,  was  the  father  of  Zerubbabel,  so  well  known  for  his 
subsequent  part  in  Jewish  history  (Mt  i^'^).  Another  is  known  as 
Sheshbazzar.     See  Introduction  to  the  Book  of  Ezra. 

Jewish  Communities. — The  Jews  in  Babylonia  were 
from  the  first  a  separate  people  ;  and  they  speedily  proved 
themselves  to  be  of  a  superior  race  to  their  oppressors,  as 
well  as  the  adherents  of  a  nobler  faith.  In  several  places 
they  appear  to  have  constituted  themselves  into  district 
communities,  with  elders,  and  a  government  of  their  own  ; 
as  by  the  river  Chebar  in  the  days  of  Ezekiel  (see  Eze  4). 
The  idolatry  by  which  they  were  surrounded  had  no 
longer  any  attractions  for  them  ^  ;  it  rather  aroused  a  strong 
antagonism.  From  home  associations  (Ps  137)  as  well  as 
from  a  deeper  conviction,  due  to  contrast,  of  the  great- 
ness and  divinity  of  their  ancient  religion,  they  clung  to  it 
with  passionate  intensity,  and  arose  to  a  clearer  conviction 
than  heretofore  that  Jehovah  was  God  of  all  the  earth. 

Thus  they  became  witnesses  for  Him  to  the  surrounding 
heathen,  and  exerted  a  moral  influence  which  never  wholly 
passed  away.  Not  only  so ;  their  principles  and  belief 
were  consolidated.  The  very  deprivation  of  Temple,  altar, 
and  sacrifices,  threw  them  back  upon  the  foundations  of 
their  faith.  Schools  of  theology  arose  amongst  them  ;  and 
when  the  day  of  restoration  came,  it  found  them,  not  with 
dim  convictions  and  a  shattered  doctrinal  system,  but 
with  an  assured  monotheism,  and  a  distinct  religious  creed, 

*  In  this  respect  they  differed  from  many  among  the  remnant  of 
the  Jews  whom  Johanan  had  conducted  to  Egypt.     See  Jer  44-^ 

M  m  2 


532      LATER  PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

never  again  to  yield  to  heathen  fascinations.  It  is  interest- 
ing to  know  that  the  Jews  who  remained  in  Babylonia 
sent  their  offerings  to  Jerusalem  for  the  service  of  the 
Temple  (Ezr  i'^-^  ;  see  Zee  6^'^% 

'  It  is,'  writes  Professor  Cornill,  of  KOnigsberg,  '  one  of  the  greatest 
ironies  of  fate  known  to  universal  history — or,  to  speak  more  correctly, 
it  is  one  of  the  most  striking  evidences  of  the  wonderful  ways  which 
Divine  Providence  takes  for  the  attainment  of  its  most  important  and 
most  significant  ends — that  the  first  completion  and  the  permanent 
consolidation  of  the  exclusive  Judaism  which  sealed  itself  hermetically 
against  everything  non-Jewish,  and  rejected  everything  heathen,  was 
accomplished  and  made  possible  only  under  the  protection  and  by  the 
aid  of  a  heathen  government.' 

352.  Literature  of  the  period. — It  is  probable  that 
the  Exile  was  a  period  of  considerable  literary  activity  in 
collecting,  preserving,  and  editing  ancient  records  :  the  results 
appear  in  after-times.  But  in  addition  to  the  prophecies  of 
Ezekiel  and,  possibly,  of  'Second  Isaiah '^,'  Babylon  is  also 
the  scene  of  a  writing  which  occupies  a  unique  place  in  the 
Old  Testament — the  Book  of  Daniel. 


The  Book  of  Daniel 

B.C.   605-534  b. 

353.  His  personal  history. — Of  Daniel  little  is  knov/n 
beyond  what  may  be  gathered  from  the  book  which  bears 
his  name.  He  was  not  a  priest,  like  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel ; 
but,  like  Isaiah,  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  probably  of 
the  royal  house  (i^"^).  He  was  carried  to  Babylon  as  a 
youth  (i*)  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoiakim  (b.  c.  605),  eight 
years  before  Ezekiel.  There  he  was  placed  in  the  court  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  became  acquainted  with  the  science  of 
the  Chaldaeans,  attaining  a  wisdom  superior  to  their  own. 
By  Nebuchadnezzar  he  was  raised  to  high  rank  and  great 
»  See  §  321.  ^  But  see  below. 


THE   BOOK   OF   DANIEL  533 

power ;  a  position  he  retained,  though  not  uninterruptedly, 
under  both  the  Babylonian  and  Persian  dynasties.  He 
prophesied  during  the  whole  of  the  Captivity  (i^^) ;  his  last 
prophecy  being  delivered  two  years  later,  in  the  third  year 
of  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (lo^).  Ezekiel  mentions  Daniel,  with 
Noah  and  Job,  as  a  righteous  man  (i/\}^-^^)  and  as  endowed 
w^ith  special  wisdom  (28^).  If  this  be  the  same,  the  classing 
of  a  young  contemporary  Avith  the  great  names  of  old  is  very 
remarkable.  Our  Lord  quotes  him  as  a  prophet  (Mt  24^^). 
See  Dn  92^. 

The  first  event  which  gained  Daniel  influence  in  the  court  of 
Babylon  was  the  disclosure  and  explanation  of  the  dream  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. This  occurred  in  the  second  year  of  the  sole  reign  of  that 
monarch,  i,  e.  in  603.  Subsequently  his  companions  were  delivered 
from  the  burning  fiery  furnace  (3)  ;  and  some  years  later  occurred 
the  second  dream  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (4).  The  date  of  the  events 
recorded  in  ch.  5  seems  to  be  b.  c.  538,  towards  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Nabonidus,  represented  in  Babylon  by  his  son  Belshazzar. 
That  night  the  young  prince  (denominated  '  king ')  was  slain,  and 
the  dynasty  changed.  Daniel  had  been  made  the  third  ruler  in  the 
kingdom  (verse  29)  ;  and  though  this  honour  was  made  an  empty 
one  by  the  course  of  events,  Daniel  still  found  favour  in  the  eyes  of 
'Darius'  (62-28). 

For  '  Darius  the  Mode  '  see  Part  I,  §  192. 

354.  Outline. — The  book  is  divided  into  two  parts  ;  the 
historical,  1-6,  and  the  prophetic,  7-12.  In  the  former  part 
Daniel  is  spoken  of  in  the  third  person  ;  in  the  latter  (apart 
from  introductory  notices,  7^  10^)  he  himself  is  the  narrator. 

Historical  Section.  Daniel  and  his  companions  at  the 
court  of  Nebuchadnezzar  (i) ;  the  king's  dream  of  the  great 
image,  typifying  four  kingdoms  (2) ;  the  burning  fiery 
furnace  (3) ;  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  the  great  tree 
destroyed,  interpreted  as  foreshadowing  his  madness  (4) ; 
Belshazzar's  feast  (5) ;  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den  (6). 

Apocalyptic  Section.  Vision  of  the  four  great  beasts 
coming  up  frona  the  sea,  their  judgement  before  the  '  Ancient 


534      LATER  PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

of  days,'  and  the  giving  of  an  everlasting  kingdom  to  *one 
like  unto  a  son  of  man '  (7).  Vision  of  the  ram  with  two 
horns  ('  the  kings  of  Media  and  Persia,'  8-^')  overcom.e  by  the 
rough  he-goat  (Hhe  king  of  Greece,'  S^').  The  he-goat*s 
great  horn  ('the  first  king,'  S^i)  is  broken:  out  of  it  come 
up  four  horns  ('four  kingdoms,'  8--),  and  out  of  one  of 
these  'a  little  horn  which  waxed  exceeding  great'  ('a  king 
of  fierce  countenance  and  understanding  dark  sentences,'  8^^). 
He  oppresses  the  '  people  of  the  saints '  (i.  e.  Israel,  cf.  7-^), 
and  defiles  the  sanctuary  for  2300  evenings  and  mornings 
(i.e.  1 150  days  or  3 J  years):  then  he  'shall  be  broken 
without  hand  '  (i.  e.  by  Divine  visitation,  cf.  2"*). 

The  interpretation  given  by  Gabriel  of  the  vision  in  ch.  8  leaves 
little  doubt  of  its  historical  application.  The  Persian  empire  estab- 
lished by  Cyrus  lasted  for  two  centuries,  from  B.C.  538-333,  when  it 
was  overthrown  by  Alexander  the  Great  at  the  decisive  battle  of  Issus. 
By  subsequent  conquests  he  had  at  the  time  of  his  early  death  (in  323, 
aged  thirty-two — the  '  broken  horn  ')  established  an  almost  world-wide 
clominion  which,  in  default  of  an  heir,  was  partitioned  out  among  his 
generals.  After  twenty  years  of  rivalry  and  conflict  four  kingdoms 
were  established — Macedonia  and  Greece,  Thrace  and  Bithynia,  Egypt 
and  Syria,  with  Babylonia  and  the  East  allotted  to  Seleucus.  Hence 
Judaea  passed  under  tlie  sway  of  the  Seleucid  kings,  of  whom  the 
ninth  was  AntiochusEpiphanes  (b. c.  175-164),  the  'little  horn.'  Ilis 
persecutions  of  the  Jews  led  to  the  revolt  under  Judas  Maccabaeus, 
and  to  the  reconsecration  of  the  Temple  (in  165)  about  three  years 
after  its  pollution.  A  few  months  later  Antiochus  died  under  some 
great  mental  distress. 

In  ch.  9  Daniel,  after  pra3'er  and  confession  of  sin,  is 
given  understanding  of  Jeremiah's  prophecy  concerning  the 
accomplishing  of  the  desolations  of  Jerusalem  in  seventy 
years  (Jer  25^^  29^").  The  final  section  (10-12)  is  a  vision 
portraying  the  histoiy  of  Persia  and  Greece  (cf.  ch.  8)  until 
the  times  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes  and  Ptolemy  Philometor, 
the  contemporary  King  of  Egypt. 

Interpretation  of  the  later  chapters.  It  is  impossible  to  deal  here 
with  the  many  difficulties  of  interpretation,  in  general  and  in  detail, 
with  which  this  part  of  Scripture  is  beset.     But  as  the  clear  prediction 


LATER   CHAPTERS   OF   DANIEL  535 

of  ch.  8  is  repeated  and  expanded  in  the  remainder  of  the  book  it  is 
natural  to  suppose  that  it  is  anticipated  in  the  kindred  but  obscurer 
propliecies  of  clis.  7  and  2,  and  tliat  the  kingdoms  of  Media,  Persia, 
and  Greece  are  also  among  the  four  typified  by  the  Beasts  and  the 
Image.  Moreover,  the  first  of  the  four  is  that  of  Nebuchadnezzar 
himself,  Babylon  {2^^). 

At  this  point  expositors  divide.  Are  Media  and  Persia  one  empire, 
the  Medo-Persian,  founded  by  Cyrus,  symbolized  by  the  ram  with 
shorter  and  longer  horns?  If  so,  Greece  is  the  third,  and  the  fourth 
is  naturally  identified  vv^ith  Rome,  under  whose  power  the  empiie 
founded  by  Alexander  eventually  passed.  Out  of  this  assumption 
spring  many  varied  interpretations  of  the  ten  kingdoms  (the  toes  of 
the  image,  ch.  2,  and  the  horns  of  the  fourth  beast,  ch.  7)  into  which 
the  Roman  empire  was  to  be  broken  up  :  also  of  the  '  little  horn '  of 
ch.  'j8-'-^o.2i.'^5^  largely  identified  with  the  papacy. 

Or,  on  the  other  hand,  are  Media  and  Persia  to  be  regarded  as  two, 
the  second  and  third  of  the  four  kingdoms,  the  fourth  being  the 
empire  founded -by  Alexander  the  Great  ?  In  this  case  the  outlook  of 
the  prophecy  is  more  limited  and  of  less  ambiguous  interpretation. 
The  ten  kings  are  probably  Alexander's  successors  :  the  '  little  horn  ' 
of  ch.  7  being  identical  with  that  of  ch.  8,  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who 
is  represented  as  removing  three  powerful  rivals  before  securing  his 
kingdom  (78-20.28). 

The  Roman  view,  that  of  Christian  antiquity  generally  (with  the 
exception  of  Ephrem  Syrus  (a.  d.  300-350)),  in  modern  times  has 
been  held  by  Hengstenberg,  Auberlen,  Hofmann,  Keil,  Dr.  Pusey, 
Dr.  Rule,  and  many  others  :  the  Grecian  is  advocated  by  Ewald, 
Delitzsch,  Bishop  Westcott,  Prof.  Bevan,  Dr.  Driver,  and  the  new 
Bible  Dictionaries. 

Closely  connected  with  the  interpretation  of  the  fourth  kingdom  is 
the  discussion  raised  in  recent  years  as  to  the  date  and  authorship  of 
the  book.  If,  according  to  the  uniform  tradition  of  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  Church,  it  was  written  by  Daniel  in  Babylon,  not  only  is 
the  historicity  of  chs.  1-6  assured,  but  the  prophecies  concerning 
Antiochus  Epiphanes,  uttered  four  centuries  before  the  event,  stand 
out  as  a  marvel  of  prediction.  The  possibility  is  not  to  be  denied  :  the 
issue  must  not  be  decided  either  by  a  virtual  elimination  of  the 
predictive  element  from  Old  Testament  prophecy,  or,  on  the  other 
hand,  by  a  care  for  tradition  and  the  inspiration  and  authority  of 
Scripture  which  refuses  candid  consideration  of  the  grounds  on  which 
the  Book  of  Daniel  is  now,  by  a  large  number  of  scholars,  assigned  to 
a  date  long  subsequent  to  the  Captivity.  The  grounds  are  mainly 
these : 

(i)  The  main  interest  of  chs.  7-12  centres  in  the  times  of  Antiochus 


536      LATER  PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

Epiphanes  :  the  analogy  of  other  prophetic  writings  would  suggest 
that  it  is  there  we  should  look  for  the  historical  standpoint  of  the 
prophet.  If  he  writes  as  a  captive  in  Babylon  how  strangely  he  sub- 
ordinates the  needs  and  sufferings  and  hopes  of  his  own  generation  to 
those  of  a  remote  posterity  ! 

(2)  The  series  of  predictions  in  oh.  11  are,  in  their  minuteness 
of  detail,  unlike  any  other  prophecies  of  Scripture.  To  this  it  is 
replied  that  we  have  no  right  to  limit  the  method  of  possible  Divine 
communication  :  but  it  is  suggested  by  some  that  the  outline  given 
to  the  prophet  may  have  been  filled  up  by  some  later  *  targumist'  and 
transferred  from  the  margin  to  the  text. 

(3)  Some  historical  details  of  chs.  1-6  are  difficult  to  reconcile  with 
the  fuller  knowledge  of  Babylonian  times  reached  by  modern  dis- 
coveries :  especially  the  identity  of  '  Darius  the  Mede.' 

(4)  It  is  held  that  various  indications  of  late  date  are  afforded  by  the 
book  itself,  its  place  in  the  canon,  and  its  use  in  subsequent  literature. 

(a)  The  linguistic  phenomena  are  peculiar.  The  section  2^-78  is 
in  Aramaic  :  fifteen  words  from  the  Persian  and  three  from  the  Greek 
occur  :  the  Hebrew  is  that  of  the  later  language.  The  Persian  words, 
it  has  been  said,  presuppose  a  period  after  the  Persian  empire  had 
been  well  established  :  the  Greek  words  demand,  the  Hebrew  supports, 
and  the  Aramaic  permits,  a  date  afte^-  the  conquest  0/  Palestine  by  Alexander 
the  Cheat  (b.c.  332)  *. 

(&)  In  the  Hebrew  canon,  Daniel  is  not  placed  among  the  'Prophets' 
(though  that  section  contains  the  post-exilic  writings  of  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi),  but  among  the  Kethubhim  (Hagiographa), 
a  collection  which,  there  is  reason  for  thinking,  marks  the  latest 
stage  in  the  formation  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  §  21). 

(c)  The  predictions  in  the  Book  are,  for  their  minuteness  and 
particularity,  up  to  a  certain  point,  unlike  any  other  prophecies  to 
be  found  in  Holy  Scripture.  It  is  replied  that  possibly  some  of 
the  suspected  details  have  been  added  by  '  targumists  '  and  trans- 
feired  from  the  margin. 

For  these  and  other  reasons  the  book  is  assigned  by  many  modern 
critics  to  the  times  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  between  the  desecration 
of  the  Temple  and  his  death  (168-164).  It  thus  becomes  an  appeal  to 
the  author's  suffering  countrymen,  based  on  reminders  of  what  God 
had  wrought  for  His  steadfast  servants  of  old,  permeated  by  a  religious 
interpretation  of  history  as  the  unfolding  of  the  Divine  purpose  for 
His  people,  and  culminating  in  a  reassertion  of  th«  Messianic  hope 
and  the  final  triumph  of  the  Kingdom  of  God. 

No  judgement  is  here  pronounced  on  the  sufficiency  of  these  reasons. 
But  it  may  be  pointed  out — 

(i)  That    the   late   date   leaves   untouched   the  supposition — most 

*  Dr.  Driver,  Daniel,  p.  Ixiii. 


HISTORICAL  INTERPRETATION  OF  DANIEL     537 

probable  on  other  grounds — that  the  author  incorporated  true  traditions 
of  Daniel  and  his  companions  in  Babylon. 

(2)  That  not  only  does  the  book  still  contain  '  genuine  predictions  ' 
(Driver,  op.  cit.  p.  Ixvii),  but,  more  especially,  that  in  its  religious 
interpretation  of  history  and  of  the  circumstances  amid  which  it  was 
written,  it  exhibits  in  a  marked  degree  the  characteristics  of  inspired 
prophecy. 

(3)  That  to  suggest  an  alternative  between  a  genuine  work  of 
Daniel  and  a  'forgery'  is  to  misapprehend  the  literary  methods  of 
the  ancient  world.  Apart  from  the  facts  of  narrative  in  the  third 
person,  already  referred  to,  it  is  quite  conceivable  that  this  Eastern 
writer  would  clothe  his  inspired  message  to  his  persecuted  compatriots 
in  story  and  vision  gathered  round  the  ancient  traditions  of  Daniel  in 
Babylon. 

(4)  That,  finally,  the  religious  value  of  the  book,  its  revelation  of 
the  Divine  working,  its  promise  of  the  Christ,  and  all  moral  and 
spiritual  lessons  which  it  has  so  freely  yielded  to  the  Church  in  all 
ages,  have  been,  and  must  ever  remain,  independent  of  any  conclusion 
of  criticism  as  to  when  and  by  whom  it  was  written. 

The  arguments  for  the  traditional  date  and  authorship  of  Daniel 
may  be  seen  in  the  treatise  of  Hengstenberg  On  Daniel ;  in  the 
summary  of  evidence  given  by  the  same  author  in  Kitto's  Bib. 
Cydopccdia ;  in  the  General  Introduction  of  Havernick  ;  in  Moses 
Stuart's  Commentary  •  in  the  Lectures  of  Dr.  Pusey  ;  in  Zockler's  Com- 
mentary (Lange's  Bibelwerk)  ;  in  Auberlen,  Daniel  and  t)ie  Revelation, 
Eng.  Tr.  1887  ;  and  in  J.  M.  Fuller's  Introduction,  *  Speaker's  Commen- 
tary.' For  critical  views  adverse  to  its  Babylonian  date,  Professor 
Cheyne's  article  Daniel  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica  may  be  con- 
sulted ;  also  Professor  Bevan's  Commentary ;  Dr.  Driver,  Cambridge 
Bible  for  Schools,  Introd.  §  3  ;  Dean  Stanley,  'Note  on  the  date  of  the 
Book  of  Daniel,'  Lect.  Hist.  Jewish  Church  (XLII)  ;  Dean  Farrar  in  The 
Expositor's  Bible  ;  and  the  articles  in  the  new  Bible  Dictionaries. 

355.  Parallels  to  Daniel  in  the  Apocalypse  of  John : — 


Dn  2**  (the  kingdom  of  God) 

Dn  7^°  (the  ministering  myriads) 

Rev  Ills  la'o. 

Rev  5". 

-4.23  (description  of  idolatry) 

7"  (the  final  Advent) 

Eev  920 

Rev  i^  14I*. 

^7.8.21.24  (the  beast  with  horns) 

7^2  (judgement  given  to  the 

Rev  131-2.5.7. 

Saints)                      Rev  20*. 

7^  (the  thrones)           Rev  20^ 

725  12^  ('  a  time  and  times,' 

ib.  (the  Ancient  of  days) 

&c.)                           Eev  12'*. 

Rev  18. 

810  (falling  stars)         Rev  12^ 

538      LATER  PROPHETICAL  BOOKS 

Dn    12*   8'*    (the    vision    to     be  Dn   la^  (the  great  tribulation) 

sealed)            Rev  lo*  (22IO).  Rev  7^*. 

lo'-^  (the  Man  :  see  7'')  ib.  (the  book  of  life) 

Rev  2^'  ig^'^.  Rev  17^  20^'  21"^"^. 

jq18.2i  (Michael  the  prince)  12''  (the  angelic  oath) 

Rev  12"^.  Rev  10"  ^ 

Compare  also  the  form  of  benediction,  ch.  4^,  with  i  Pet  i^  2  Pet  i' 
and  Ju  2 :  the  reference  to  ch.  6"^^  in  Heb  n''',  and  especially  'the 
abomination  of  desolation,'  ch.  12^^,  with  our  Lord's  citation, 
Mt  24''.  (In  Mark  13^*  the  reference  to  'Daniel,  the  prophet'  is 
omitted  in  tlie  best  texts.)  One  of  the  sources  of  our  Lord's  self- 
chosen  title  of  '  Son  of  man '  is  almost  certainly  Dn  7*'. 

The  Restoration. 
356.  Cyrus. — The  restorer  of  the  Jewish  nation  was 
Cyrus  the  Great,  renowned  as  the  founder  of  the  Persian 
Empire,  but  known  in  Scripture  as  the  '  shepherd,'  the 
'servant,'  the  'anointed/  of  Jehovah,  in  the  accomplishment 
of  His  purpose  in  regard  to  His  people  :  Is  44^^  45^~^ 
2  Ch  36-2-23  Ezra  i^~'^.  Herodotus  describes  the  rise  of 
Cyrus  to  power,  and  his  many  campaigns,  one  of  which  led 
to  the  downfall  of  the  Babylonian  empire,  while  Xenophon 
weaves  the  facts  of  his  career  into  a  biographical  romance. 
In  one  prophetic  description  Cyrus  appears  as  making  his 
way  by  Divine  guidance  through  the  '  two-loaved  '  gates  of 
Babylon  ;  another  insj^ired  record  shows  the  handwriting 
on  the  wall  which  announced  in  the  midst  of  a  festival  *  the 
extinction  of  the  kingdom.  Secular  historians  relate  ^  how 
Cyrus  defeated  the  forces  of  Babylon  in  the  open  field,  and 
captured  the  city  without  a  struggle  by  entering  its  un- 
defended river-gates  on  a  day  given  up  to  careless  revelry. 
In  some  tumult  that  ensued,  the  young  vice-king  °  lost  his 

*  See  B3'ron*s  poem,  Belshazzar's  Feast.  It  is,  however,  remarkable 
that  Daniel  is  there  described  as  *a  stranger  and  a  youth.'  The 
prophet  was  a  youth  when  the  Captivity  began — seventy  years  before  I 

**  See  Herod,  i.  190 ;  Xen.  Cyrop.  vii.  5,  15. 

*  For  the  identilication  of  Belshazzar,  son  of  Nabonidus,  see  §  192, 
p.  316. 


THE   BOOK  OF  EZRA  639 

life  ;  his  father,  Nabonidus,  surrendered  about  the  same  time 
from  Borsippa,  where  he  had  sought  a  refuge,  and  was 
allowed  to  live  in  Carmania. 

Cyrus,  in  his  decree,  acknowledges  the  sovereignty  of 
Jehovah.  It  is  related  by  Josephus  that  he  was  influenced 
to  this  course  by  being  shown  his  name  in  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah.  The  recorded  language  of  the  king  (2  Ch  36-^,  re- 
peated Ezr  I-)  w^ell  accords  with  this  statement:  'AH  the 
kingdoms  of  the  earth  hath  Jehovah,  the  God  of  heaven, 
given  me,  and  He  hath  charged  me  to  build  Him  a  house  in 
Jerusalem.'  The  politic  monarch  recognizes  the  gods  of  the 
nations  which  he  overthrew ;  but  he  gives  special  honour 
to  the  God  of  Israel.  In  his  own  inscriptions  recently 
brought  to  light  %  he  declares  his  resolve  to  permit  the 
subjects  of  the  conquered  states  generally  to  return  to  their 
homes  and  re-establish  their  worship,  adding  that  he  was 
bidden  to  this  course  by  the  Babylonian  god  Merodach. 

The  results  of  the  king's  decree  and  the  subsequent 
history  of  the  Jews  until  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament 
canon  are  found  in  the  historical  books  of  Ezra,  Nehemiah, 
and  Esther,  and  in  the  prophecies  of  Haggai,  Zechariah, 
and  Malaciii  ;  which  thus  form  a  separate  and  most  im- 
portant section  of  Scripture. 

The  Book  of  Ezra 

B.  C.  536-457- 

357.  Personal  history. — Ezra  was  one  of  the  captives 
at  Babylon,  where,  probably,  he  was  born.  He  was  son 
(grandson)  of  Seraiah  (7^),  the  chief  priest,  who  was  slain  at 
Riblah,  after  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (2  Ki  25^^"^^),  and 
therefore  a  descendant  of  Aaron,  through  Hilkiah,  the 
illustrious  high-priest  in  Josiah's  time.  He  was  a  '  ready 
scribe,'  or  rather  instructor,  in  the  Law  of  God.  He  was 
^  ma»  of  deep  humility  (9^°"^^),  of  fervent  zeal  for  God's 
*  See  §  192,  p.  317. 


540  LATER   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

honour  (7^^  8'^''-~^^),  deeply  grieving  over  the  sins  of  the 
people,  and  sparing  no  pains  to  bring  them  to  repentance 
(9^  106. 10^^  jJq  joined  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  many  years 
after  their  return,  going  up  thither  with  a  second  large  com- 
pany. 

Parts  of  the  book  (4^-6^^  ^12-26^  g^j.^  written  in  Aramaic,  and  show 
incorporated  material  consisting  chiefly  of  conversations  or  decrees  in 
that  tongue.  Ezra  appears  in  the  first  person  as  the  author  of  7'^'^  8-^* 
9  :  other  narrative  portions  of  the  book  speak  of  him  in  the  third 
person.  The  whole  period  comprehended  in  the  book,  which  is 
evidently  a  continuation  of  Chronicles  (2  Ch  362223  ^j^^  j;ze  i^~'), 
extends  from  b. c.  536  to  457,  or  about  seventy-nine  years.  The  Book 
of  Nehemiah,  part  of  Ezra  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  narrates  the  joint 
activity  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  from  445-432. 

The  history  in  this  book  consists  of  two  portions,  separated 
from  each  other  by  fifty-eight  years,  including  the  whole 
reign  of  Xerxes.  The  former  part,  ending  6'^^,  contains  the 
history  of  the  returning  exiles,  and  of  the  rebuilding  of  the 
Temple,  which  had  been  decreed  by  Cyrus,  in  the  year  b.c.  536, 
and  was  completed  in  the  reign  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes 
(generally  distinguished  by  historians  as  Darius  Hystaspes) 
in  the  year  b.c.  515.  The  latter  portion,  from  7^,  contains 
the  personal  history  of  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem,  with  com- 
mission from  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  in  the  year  b.  c.  457  ; 
and  his  exertions  for  the  reformation  of  the  people  ». 

358.  Outline. — The  contents  of  the  book  may  be  divided 
as  follows : — 

I.  The  return  of  the  Jetvs  from  their  captivity  in  Babylon, 
and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  1-6. 

The  proclamation  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  the  Temple  (i).  List  of  the  people  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel,  grandson  of  King  Jehoiachin,  as  governor, 
and  Joshua,  grandson  of  Jehozadak,  as  high-priest,  with 
their  offerings  for  the  Temple  (2).     Erection  of  the  altar  of 

*  For  the  succession  of  Persian  kings  after  Cyrus,  see  CurgnolgoicaIi 
Appendix. 


EZKA  AND   PKOPHECY  641 

burnt-offering  ;  and  laying  the  foundation  of  the  Temple  (3). 
Opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  and  suspension  of  the  build- 
ing for  fourteen  years  (4).  Prophecies  of  Haggai  and  Ze- 
chariah ;  recommencement  of  the  building ;  letter  of  the 
Samaritans  to  Darius  (5).  Decree  of  Darius  reaffirming  that 
of  Cyrus  ;  completion  and  dedication  of  the  Temple  (6). 

In  the  account  given  of  the  Return  and  of  the  Temple  building 
there  appears  a  'Sheshbazzar'  as  well  as  a  'Zerubbabel,'  and  they 
have  often  been  regarded  as  one  and  the  same  person  under  different 
names.  Sheshbazzar  led  the  company  from  Jerusalem,  i^^,  but 
Zerubbabel  also  conducted  them,  2^  32.  Sheshbazzar,  again,  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Temple,  5^^  but  Zerubbabel  superintended  the  work, 
3*-*  Hag  1*2  2^~*  Zee  4^°.  All  this  suggests  identity  (so  Josephus). 
But  some  have  supposed  that  Sheshbazzar  was  a  son  of  Jeconiah 
(perhaps  the  'Shenazzar'  of  1  Ch  3^*;,  brother,  therefore,  of  Salathiel 
and  uncle  of  Zerubbabel.  In  the  apocryphal  i  Esd  2^^  he  is  called 
'Sanabassar.' 

II.  Ezra's  journey  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  reformations 
which  he  effected,  7-10. 

Ezra's  commission  from  Artaxerxes  ;  and  his  journey  from 
Babylon  to  Jerusalem,  with  his  companions  (7,  8).  Ezra's 
mourning  for  the  sins  of  the  people ;  and  confession  and 
prayer  (9).     Kepentance  and  reformation  of  the  people  (10). 

359.  Connexion  with  prophecy. — The  first  part  of  the 
book  should  be  read  in  connexion  with  the  contemporaneous 
prophecies  of  Haggai  and  Zechariah.  The  coincidences  with 
the  former  have  been  thought  to  show  that  Haggai  was  the 
annalist  before  Ezra's  day.  Compare  Ezr  5^-^  with  Hag  i  ; 
Ezr  36.10-12  -^ith  Hag  2^^ ;  as  well  as  the  repeated  references 
in  both  books  to  the  Law  of  Moses  ^. 

In  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  we  see  the  fulfilment  of 
prophecy  (Is  442^  Jer  25'^  29^°).  This  restoration  of  the  Jewish  Church, 
Temple,  and  worship  was  an  event  of  the  highest  consequence,  as 
tending  to  preserve  true  religion  in  the  world,  and  preparing  the  way 

•  See  further  instances  in  the  article  on  the  Book  of  Ezra  by 
Professor  J.  M.  Fuller  in  Smith's  Diet.  Bible,  and  ed. 


542  LATER  HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

for  the  appearance  of  the  Great  Deliverer,  an  ancestor  of  whom, 
Zerubbabel,  was  appointed  in  the  providence  of  God  to  lead  His 
people  from  Babylon. 

The  deliverance  of  tlie  Jewish  people  is  much  spoken  of  by  the 
prophets  as  a  most  glorious  display  of  the  providence  of  God  ;  and, 
like  the  redemption  of  their  forefathers  out  of  Egypt,  it  may  be 
viewed  as  a  type  of  the  great  salvation  of  Christ,  and  of  the  journey 
of  His  redeemed  people  to  the  heavenly  Canaan,  under  the  care  and 
guidance  of  God  their  Saviour,  Is  35^°  42^^  51^^ 

Among  the  remarkable  dispensations  of  Providence  recorded  in  this 
liistory,  we  may  notice  especially  how  wonderfully  God  inclined  the 
hearts  of  several  heathen  princes — Cyrus,  Darius,  and  Artaxerxes  — to 
favour  and  protect  His  people,  and  to  aid  them  in  the  work  of  rebuilding 
their  city  and  Temple  (chs,  i,  4,  6,  7).  We  see,  too,  how  God  overruled 
the  opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  the  decree  of  Darius  being  much  more 
favourable  than  that  of  Cyrus  (Ezr  i  and  5^).  There  is  also  another 
display  of  God's  special  and  discriminating  providence  in  the  fulfil- 
ment of  His  promises  to  His  people.  Whilst  in  the  land  of  Samaria 
colonies  of  strangers  had  been  planted,  which  filled  the  territory  of 
Israel  with  a  heathen  race,  so  as  to  prevent  the  return  of  the  atjv'ient 
inhabitants ;  it  appears  that,  in  the  land  of  Judah,  full  room  was  left 
for  the  return  and  restoration  of  the  Jews. 

360.  Traditions  respecting  Ezra.— Unlike  Nehemiah, 
Ezra  seems  to  have  remained  in  Jerusalem.  Thirteen  years 
after  his  first  visit  there,  he  appears  again  upon  the  scene 
(Ezr  7^  Ne  8^).  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  five  great 
works  are  ascribed  to  him :  (i)  the  foundation  of  the  '  Great 
Synagogue,'  (2)  the  settlement  of  the  canon  of  Scrip- 
ture, with  the  threefold  division  into  Law,  Prophets,  and 
Hagiographa,  (3)  the  substitution  of  the  square  Chaldee 
characters  for  the  old  Hebrew  and  Samaritan,  (4)  the  com- 
pilation of  Chronicles,  possibly  of  Esther,  with  the  addition 
of  Nehemiah's  history  to  his  own,  and  (5)  the  establishment 
of  synagogues. 

But  much  of  this  is  legendary,  and  all  that  is  certain 
about  him  in  these  respects  is  intimated  in  chs.  7-10. 
He  also  zealously  co-operated  for  a  time  with  Nehemiah, 
who  succeeded  him  in  the  government,  in  promoting  the 
reformation  of  the  people. 


THE   BOOK    OF   NEHEMIAH  543 

The  Book  of  Nehemiah 

B.  C.  444-418. 

361.  Authorship. — This  book  is  in  the  Hebrew  canon 
united  with  Ezra.  Ch.  7^-73  ^y^g  probably  extracted  from 
Zerubbabel's  register,  as  in  Ezr  2 ;  and  12^"^^  from  the 
*  book  of  the  Chronicles ' ;  see  verse  23.  There  are  clear 
indications  of  Nehemiah 's  authorship  in  1-7  and  i22^~'*3 
13*"^^ :  the  section  I2**-I3^  uses  the  third  person. 

The  Book  of  Nehemiah  takes  up  the  history  of  the  Jews 
about  twelve  years  after  the  close  of  the  Book  of  Ezra  ;  and 
gives  an  account  of  the  improvements  in  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  of  the  reformations  among  the  people,  which  were 
carried  out  by  Nehemiah. 

Though  the  Temple  had  been  rebuilt  under  the  administration  of 
Ezra,  the  walls  and  gates  of  the  city  were  yet  in  the  state  of  ruin  in 
which  the  Chaldaeans  had  left  them  ;  and  consequently  the  inhabi- 
tants were  exposed  to  the  assault  of  every  enemy.  Nehemiah  was  the 
instrument  raised  up  for  their  protection.  Though  a  Jew  and  a 
captive,  he  had  been,  through  the  overruling  providence  of  God, 
appointed  cupbearer  to  King  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  in  his  royal 
residence  at  Shushan— an  office  which  was  one  of  the  most  honour- 
able and  confidential  at  the  court.  Though  thus  in  the  midst  of  ease 
and  wealth,  yet  when  he  heard  of  the  mournful  condition  of  liis 
countrymen  he  was  deeply  afflicted  by  it.  He  made  it  the  subject  of 
earnest  prayer  ;  and  after  four  months,  the  sadness  of  his  countenance 
having  revealed  to  the  king  his  sorrow  of  heart,  an  opportunity  was 
given  him  of  petitioning  for  leave  to  go  to  Jerusalem. 

362.  Outline. — The  king  appoints  him  governor  of  that 
city,  with  a  commission  to  rebuild  the  walls,  and  protect  the 
people,  1-2^.  Nehemiah  accordingly  travels  to  Jerusalem 
and  makes  by  night  the  circuit  of  the  ruined  walls,  2^~^^. 

The  rebuilding  of  the  city  wall  was  much  impeded  by 
Sanballat  and  Tobiah,  leading  men  in  the  rival  colony  of 
Samaria  ;  they  first  scoffed  at  the  attempt,  then  threatened 
to  attack  the  workmen,  and  finally  used  various  stratagems 
ta  weaken  Nehemiah's  authority,  and  even  to  take  his  life 


544  LATEK   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

(2I9.20  4I-5  61-14).  The  priests  and  people,  however,  divided 
into  companies,  zealously  carried  on  the  work  (3).  But 
in  addition  to  dangers  from  without,  Nehemiah  encountered 
hindrances  from  his  own  people,  arising  out  of  the  general 
distress,  which  was  aggravated  by  the  cruel  exactions  of  the 
nobles  and  rulers,  41^-5''.  These  grievances  were  redressed 
on  the  earnest  remonstrance  of  Nehemiah,  who  had  himself 
set  a  striking  example  of  economy  in  his  office,  5^~^^.  It 
appears,  also,  that  some  of  the  chief  men  in  Jerusalem  were 
at  that  time  in  conspiracy  with  Tobiah  against  Nehemiah, 
517-19^  Thus  the  wall  was  built  in  '  troublous  times ' 
(Dn  9-*),  and  completed  in  fifty-two  days,  6i^-i^  Its  com- 
pletion was  joyously  celebrated  by  a  solemn  dedication 
under  Nehemiah's  direction,  12^'^"'*^. 

Nehemiah  next  turned  his  attention  to  other  measures  for 
the  public  good.  He  appointed  various  officers  (7^^^  12**"*'^) ; 
and  roused  the  people  to  greater  interest  in  religion,  by 
a  public  reading  of  the  Law  by  Ezra,  who  here  reappears. 
This  was  followed  by  an  unexampled  celebration  of  the 
Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  observance  of  a  national  fast, 
and  by  the  entering  into  a  solemn  covenant  *to  walk  in 
God's  law,'  8-10. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  city  being  as  yet  too  few  to  ensure 
its  prosperity,  Nehemiah  brought  one  out  of  every  ten  in 
the  country  to  take  up  his  abode  in  the  ancient  capital, 
which  then  presented  so  few  inducements  to  settlers  that 
*  the  people  blessed  all  the  men  that  willingly  offered  them- 
selves to  dwell  at  Jerusalem,'  7*  iii-'^. 

After  about  twelve  years  {^^'^),  Nehemiah  returned  to 
Babylonia  (12^).  How  long  he  remained  there  is  unknown. 
'After  certain  days,'  by  leave  of  the  king,  he  came  again  to 
Jerusalem,  where  he  exerted  himself  vigorously  for  the 
further  reformation  of  his  countrymen,  particularly  in  the  cor- 
rection of  abuses  which  had  crept  in  during  his  absence,  in 
particular  the  intrusion  of  the  Moabite  and  Ammonite,  espe- 


THE   BOOK   OF   ESTHER  545 

cially  Tobiah,  into  the  precincts  of  the  Temple  ;  the  neglect 
of  proper  provision  for  the  Levites,  the  violation  of  the 
Sabbath  by  trading,  and  the  toleration  of  intermarriages 
with  the  heathen.  On  this  last  point,  see  the  Book  of 
Malachi,  2^^•^^  Whether  Nehemiah  returned  to  his  royal 
master,  or  remained  as  governor  (Tirshatha)  of  Judaea,  is 
unknown.  No  account  is  given  of  his  death.  With  his  book 
closes  the  History  of  the  Old  Testament.  But  in  the  lists  of 
priests  (12)  there  are  additions  by  a  later  editor  ;  as  the 
succession  (verse  22)  is  carried  down  to  the  days  of  *  Darius 
the  Persian'  (Codomannus)  b.  c.  336-331. 

Nehemiah  presents  a  noble  example  of  true  patriotism,  founded  on 
the  fear  of  God  (5^^),  and  seeking  the  religious  welfare  of  the  state. 
His  respect  for  the  Divine  Law,  his  reverence  for  the  Sabbath  (13^*), 
his  devout  acknowledgement  of  God  in  all  things  (i"  a^*),  his  practical 
perception  of  God's  character  (4^*  9*~'^)j  his  union  of  watchfulness 
and  prayer  (4^),  his  humility  in  ascribing  all  good  in  himself  to  the 
grace  of  God  (a^*  7*),  are  all  highly  commendable.  In  the  ninth 
chapter  we  have  an  instructive  summary  of  the  history  of  the  Jews 
in  its  most  important  light,  showing  at  once  what  God  is,  and  what 
men  are.  Few  books,  indeed,  of  the  Bible  contain  a  richer  illustra- 
tion of  Divine  philosophy — that  is,  of  true  religion  taught  by  example. 

The  Book  of  Esther 

C.  B.  C.   473. 

363.  Jews  in  foreign  lands. — Few,  comparatively,  of 
the  Jews  had  availed  themselves  of  the  privilege  to  return 
to  the  land  of  their  fathers.  Most  of  the  existing  race  had 
been  born  in  Babylonia ;  they  had  made  that  country,  as 
well  as  Persia  afterwards,  their  home,  and  had  become 
surrounded  by  associations  and  comforts  not  easily  to  be 
abandoned.  Not  more  than  50,000  persons  had  gone  up 
under  Zerubbabel ;  and  the  second  band,  under  Ezra,  more 
than  seventy  years  later,  numbered  in  all  about  6,000.  Yet 
later,  other  bands  probably  sought  the  city  and  Temple  of 
God,  but  even  still  the  great  bulk  of  the  people  remained  in 
the  land  of  their  exile. 

N  n 


546  LATER   HISTORICAL   BOOKS 

The  Book  of  Esther,  reckoned  by  the  Jews  among  the  Megilloth 
(§  23),  belongs  to  the  period  between  the  completion  of  the  Temple 
and  the  mission  of  Ezra  (516-458).  Xerxes,  called  in  this  book 
'Ahasuerus,'  the  son  of  the  Darius  mentioned  in  Ezra  (Darius 
Hystaspes),  was  now  upon  the  throne.  His  capricious  tyranny  is 
vividly  depicted  by  Herodotus  (ix).  There  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  series  of  festivals  described  in  ch.  i  was  to  inaugurate  Xerxes' 
expedition  to  Greece,  and  that  the  marriage  with  Esther,  '  in  the 
seventh  year  of  his  reign,'  took  place  after  the  great  defeats  at 
Salamis,  Plataea,  and  Mycale,  b.  c.  480-479.  Xerxes,  according  to 
Herodotus,  consoled  himself  under  his  humiliation  by  the  delights  of 
his  harem  (ix.  108). 

The  narrative  may  have  been  taken  substantially  from  the  records 
of  the  Persian  kingdom,  see  2"^^  6^.  This  supposition  accounts  for 
the  details  given  concerning  the  empire  of  Xerxes,  and  for  the  exact- 
ness with  which  the  names  of  his  ministers  and  of  Haman's  sons  are 
recorded ;  also  for  the  Jews  being  mentioned  only  in  the  third  person, 
and  Esther  being  frequently  designated  by  the  title  of  *  the  queen,'  and 
Mordecai  by  the  epithet  of  *  the  Jew.'  It  would  also  account  for  the 
secular  tone  of  the  book,  the  name  of  God  being  not  once  mentioned. 

364.  Outline. — The  book  describes  the  royal  feast  of 
Ahasuerus,  and  the  divorce  of  Vashti  (i).  The  elevation  of 
Esther  to  the  Persian  throne  four  years  afterwards  and  the 
service  rendered  to  the  King  by  Mordecai,  in  detecting  a 
plot  against  his  life  (2).  The  promotion  of  Haman,  and  his 
purposed  destruction  of  the  Jews  in  the  fifth  year  after  the 
King's  union  with  Esther  (3).  The  consequent  affliction  of 
the  Jews,  and  the  measures  taken  by  them  (4).  The  defeat 
of  Haman's  plot  against  Mordecai,  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  Esther ;  the  honour  done  to  Mordecai ;  and  the 
execution  of  Haman  (5,  6,  7).  The  defeat  of  Haman's  plot 
against  the  Jews ;  the  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim, 
in  commemoration  of  this  deliverance ;  and  Mordecai's 
advancement  (8,  9,  10). 

The  Book  of  Esther  shows  how  these  Jews,  though  scattered  among 
the  heathen,  were  preserved,  even  when  doomed  by  a  royal  edict, 
according  to  the  law  of  the  kingdom  irreversible.  The  only  way  for 
the  people  to  preserve  their  lives  was  to  resist  by  force  the  execution 
of  the  decree,  a  fact  which  accounts  for  the  terrible  details  which 


THE   BOOK   OF   HAGGAI  547 

follow.  It  may  be  reverently  said  that,  although  the  name  of  God  is 
not  found  in  the  book,  His  hand  is  plainly  seen,  anticipating  threatened 
evil,  defeating  and  overruling  it  to  the  greater  good  of  the  Jews,  and 
even  of  the  heathen  (i,  2,  4-10).  Let  it  be  remembered  that  it  was  not 
the  safety  of  the  Jews  in  Persia  only  that  was  in  peril ;  if  Haman 
had  succeeded,  as  the  power  of  Persia  was  then  supreme  at  Jerusalem 
and  throughout  Asia,  the  Jews  would  probably  everywhere  have 
perished,  and  with  them  the  whole  of  the  visible  Church  of  God. 

The  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim  *  (*  the  Lots ')  observed  by 
the  Jews  in  all  lands  with  mirth  and  thanksgiving,  a  month  before 
the  Passover,  is  a  standing  memorial  of  this  national  deliverance. 
In  the  morning  the  Megillah  of  Esther  is  read  and  expounded  in  the 
synagogues,  the  rest  of  the  day  being  devoted  to  holiday  amusements. 
According  to  Jewish  tradition,  '  all  the  feasts  shall  cease  in  the  days 
of  the  Messiah,  except  the  Feast  of  Purim.'  Some  have  thought  that 
the  Purim  was  'the  feast'  mentioned  Jn  5^.  Otherwise  there  is  no 
reference  to  the  book  in  the  New  Testament. 


PROPHETS  OF  THE  RESTOEATION 
Haggai,  Zechariah,  ^  Malachi* 

Book  of  Haggai 

B.  C.    520. 

365.  Period  of  these  prophecies. — The  permission  of 
Cyrus  to  rebuild  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem  had  for  several 
years  borne  but  little  fruit.  An  altar  of  burnt-offering  had 
been  erected  ;  and  the  yearly  festivals  were  observed  with 
such  maimed  rites  as  were  possible.  The  foundation  of  the 
Temple  had  now  been  laid  ;  but  the  work  had  been  greatly 
hindered  by  the  Samaritans  and  other  enemies  of  the 
Jews,  even  in  the  days  of  Cyrus,  and  after  his  death  and 
the  accession  of  the  usurper  Smerdis  it  was  altogether 
stopped.  The  dispirited  Jews  made  no  attempt  to  resume 
the  building,  and  the  bare  foundations  remained  for  some 
fourteen  years,  when  two  prophets  were  raised  up  by 
God  to  stimulate  Zerubbabel  and  the  people  to  new  effort. 

'  The  origin  of  the  word  is  uncertain.     See  Hastings'  Bib.  Lid.  a.  v. 
N  n  2 


548  PROPHETS  OF  THE  RESTORATION 

Of  these  prophets  the  first-mentioned  is  Haggai,  other- 
wise unknown.  He  was  probably  born  during  the  Cap- 
tivity, and  was  among  the  number  of  those  who  returned 
with  Zerubbabel  from  Babylon.  In  each  mention  of  his 
name  he  is  termed,  as  if  by  way  of  emphasis,  '  the  prophet ' 
(Ezr  5^  6'^).  The  history  embodied  in  his  book  must  be  read 
in  connexion  with  that  in  Ezra  (5,  6).  The  appeal  to  Darius, 
successful  as  against  the  Samaritans  and  their  abettors, 
had  to  be  followed  by  an  appeal  to  the  people,  who  were 
slow  to  recommence  the  work.  The  time,  they  said,  was 
not  come  for  Jehovah's  house  to  be  built.  They  were  more 
anxious  to  build  and  adorn  their  own  houses,  to  cultivate 
their  fields,  and  multiply  their  flocks.  This  worldliness, 
however,  brought  its  own  punishment.  They  *  looked  for 
much,' and  *  it  came  to  little.'  Drought  and  mildew  were 
sent  to  rebuke  their  neglect  of  what  ought  to  have  been 
their  first  work,  and  Haggai  and  Zechariah  were  raised  up 
to  reform  and  encourage  them,  i*~ii  2^^~^^  Zee  8^"^^^. 

366.  Outline. — This  book  contains  four  prophetic  mes- 
sages (i^  2^*^^*^*^),  all  delivered  in  about  four  months.  They 
are  so  brief  that  they  are  supposed  to  be  only  a  summary 
of  the  original  prophecies. 

In  the  first,  Haggai  reproves  the  Jews  for  neglecting  the 
Temple,  and  promises  that  the  Divine  favour  shall  attend 
its  erection.  Twenty-four  days  after  this  prophecy,  Zerub- 
babel and  Joshua,  and  all  the  people,  resumed  their  work, 
and  were  encouraged  by  a  gracious  message  from  God. 

About  four  weeks  afterwards,  the  zeal  of  the  people 
appears  to  have  cooled  ;  and  many  doubts  arose  in  their 
minds.  To  remove  these,  Haggai  declares  that  the  Lord 
of  hosts  is  with  them ;  and  that  the  glory  of  the  new 
Temple  shall  be  greater  than  that  of  the  former,  2^~^. 

Two  months  later,  Haggai  addresses  them  a  third  time, 
rebuking  their  listlessness,  and  promising  them  the  Divine 


THE    BOOK   OF   ZECHARIAH  549 

blessing  from  the  time  the  foundation  of  the  Lord's  house 
was  laid,  2^*^^^^.  On  the  same  day  another  prophecy  was 
delivered,  addressed  to  Zerubbabel,  the  head  and  repre- 
sentative of  the  family  of  David,  and  the  person  with 
whom  the  genealogy  of  the  Messiah  (see  Mt  i^^  L^  ^2?) 
began  after  the  Captivity,  promising  the  preservation  of  the 
people  of  God,  amidst  the  fall  and  ruin  of  the  kingdoms  of 
the  world,  220--'^ 

These  signal  predictions  were  both  referred  by  the  Jews  to  the  time 
of  the  Messiah,  Eph  a^*  Heb  12'-''--'^  (Grotius).  The  second  Temple  was 
to  witness  the  presence  of  the  Great  Teacher  Himself ;  for  though 
that  Temple  was  nearly  wholly  rebuilt  by  Herod,  Jewish  writers  still 
speak  of  it  as  the  second.  In  the  closing  prediction  (2^'^~23^  Christ  Him- 
self is  spoken  of  under  the  type  of  Zerubbabel ;  and  the  temporal 
commotions  which  preceded  His  first  coming,  and  are  to  precede  His 
second,  are  represented  by  the  shaking  and  overthrow  of  earthly 
kingdoms. 

Haggai  and  the  Neiv  Testament. 

367-  There  is  in  the  New  Testament  but  one  quotation  from 
Haggai :  ch.  2*^,  the  shaking  of  the  heaven,  Heb  12^^"'^'^.  For  the 
meaning  of  the  phrase  in  verse  7,  rendered  in  A.  V.  '  the  desire  of  all 
nations,'  see  §  159. 


The  Book  of  Zechariah 

B.C.    520-518. 

368.  The  prophet  and  his  time. — Zechariah,  the  son 
of  Berechiah  and  grandson  of  Iddo,  was  of  the  priestly 
tribe  (see  Ne  I2"^-^^),  and  returned  from  Babylon,  when 
quite  a  youth,  with  Zerubl)abel  and  Jeshua.  He  began 
to  prophesy  about  two  months  after  Haggai  (t^  Ezr  5^  6^^ 
Hag  i^),  in  the  second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  and  con- 
tinued to  prophesy  for  two  years  (7^).  He  had  the  same 
general  object  as  Haggai,  to  encourage  and  urge  the  Jews 
to  rebuild  the  Temple.     The  Jews,  we  are  told,  '  prospered 


550  PROPHETS    OF  THE  KESTORATIOIN 

through  the  prophesying '  (Ez  6^*),  and  in  about  six  years 
the  Temple  was  finished. 

Zechariah  collected  his  own  prophecies  (i^  2^),  and  is  very 
frequently  quoted  in  the  New  Testament.  Indeed,  next  to 
Isaiah,  Zechariah  has  the  most  frequent  foreshadowings  of 
the  character  and  coming  of  our  Lord. 

It  has  been  held  by  many  critics  that  the  chapters  after  8  are  by 
another  hand,  and  even  by  two  authors.  Certainly  tlie  style  of  the 
two  great  discourses,  9-1 1  and  12-14,  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  former  part  of  the  book.  The  visions  have  ceased  :  the  circum- 
stances are  wholly  changed  :  the  prophecy  rises  to  a  more  solemn 
strain.  The  evangelist  Matthev/,  27^-^",  seems  to  ascribe  Zee  ii^^  to 
the  prophet  Jeremiah.  This,  however,  may  be  an  error  of  some  early 
copyist,  perpetuated  in  later  MSS.  On  the  whole,  the  question  of 
a  double  or  triple  authorship  seems  insoluble.  It  is  noteworthy  that 
among  those  who  attribute  the  latter  part  of  the  book  to  another 
prophet,  some  place  him  long  before  Zechariah's  time,  some  consider- 
ably after.  The  critical  canons  which  lead  from  the  selfsame  data  to 
such  opposite  conclusions  must  be  pronounced  somewhat  uncertain. 
On  the  one  hand,  it  is  quite  supposable  that  Zechariah  himself 
may  have  varied  his  style  accoi'ding  to  his  subject,  especially  after 
the  lapse  of  years,  while  on  the  other,  the  words  of  the  learned 
Joseph  Mede  (1632)  have  much  force.  'It  may  seem,'  he  says,  'the 
evangelist  would  inform  us  that  these  latter  chapters  ascribed  to 
Zachary  are  indeed  the  prophecies  of  Jeremy,  and  that  the  Jews  had  not 
rightly  attributed  them.  ...  As  for  their  being  joined  to  the  prophecies 
of  Zachary,  that  proves  no  more  that  they  are  his,  than  the  like 
adjoining  of  Agur's  proverbs  to  Solomon's  proves  that  they  are 
therefore  Solomon's,  or  that  all  the  Psalms  are  David's  because  joined 
in  one  volume  with  "  David's  Psalms."  '  See  the  whole  question 
discussed  in  Dr.  C.  H.  H.  Wright's  Bampton  Lectures,  1879,  where  the 
unity  of  the  book  is  strongly  maintained  :  also  Dr.  Driver,  Introduction 
to  the  Literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  for  the  opposite  view. 

While  the  immediate  object  of  Zechariah  was  to  encour- 
age the  Jews  in  the  restoration  of  public  worship,  he  has 
other  objects  more  remote  and  important.  His  prophecies 
extend  to  the  '  times  of  the  Gentiles ' ;  but  in  Zechariah 
the  history  of  the  chosen  people  occupies  the  centre  of  his 
predictions ;  and  that  history  is  set  forth  both  in  direct 
prophecy  and  in  symbolical  acts  or  visions. 


OUTLINE   OF   ZECHARIAH  551 

369.  Outline. — The  first  part  of  the  book  falls  into  two 
main  sections : — 

I.  Chapters  i-6,  after  the  warnings  given  in  i^~^,  recount 
eight  visions,  seen  in  one  eventful  night.  The  first,  of 
angelic  horsemen,  Jehovah's  messengers,  who  report  that 
all  the  earth  is  at  rest.  Yet  the  Jews,  after  seventy  years, 
were  still  molested  ;  the  angel  of  Jehovah  asks  how  long  ; 
and  good  and  comfortable  words  are  spoken  in  reply  in 
the  hearing  of  the  prophet,  i"^"^"^.  In  the  second,  the 
prophet  sees  the  four  horns,  by  which  the  Jews  had  been 
scattered  ;  and  also  four  smiths,  by  whose  aid  the  horns 
are  to  be  cast  down,  i^^'^i^  rpj^^  prophet  has  now  a  third 
vision,  of  a  man  with  a  measuring  line,  to  imply  the 
rebuilding  and  enlargement  of  Jerusalem:  she  shall  over- 
flow, or  break  down  her  walls,  and  Jehovah  will  be  at 
once  a  wall  of  fire  round  about  her  and  the  glory  in  the 
midst.  He  exhorts  the  Jews  still  in  Babylon  to  return, 
and  foretells  yet  larger  accessions,  2^~^^.  The /oz^r^/i  vision 
typifies  the  acquittal  and  restoration  of  the  priesthood  in 
the  person  of  Joshua ;  the  great  prophecies  being  then  re- 
peated of  the  Branch  out  of  David's  root  (Is  4^  Jer  23^  33^^) ; 
and  of  a  Stone  for  a  foundation,  having  seven  eyes,  to  indi- 
cate perfect  intelligence  ;  and  divinely  engraven  or  adorned. 
In  the  predicted  day  all  shall  dwell  safely  and  in  peace, 
3^~^^.  In  the  fifth  vision,  the  prophet  sees  a  golden  candle- 
stick, supplied  by  two  olive-trees  dropping  their  oil  into  it ; 
and  these  show  how,  by  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  in  Zerub- 
babel  and  Joshua,  the  restored  community  should  receive 
Divine  grace,  and  the  Temple  be  completed,  'not  by  might 
nor  by  power '  (verse  6),  and  against  all  opposition  (verse  7), 
4^~^*.  The  sixth  vision,  of  a  flying  roll,  teaches  the  swift 
judgements  that  are  to  fall  upon  thieves  and  false  swearers, 
5^"*.  The  seventh,  of  an  ephah,  or  measure,  and  a  woman 
shut  up  in  it  with  a  talent  of  lead  upon  her  (wickedness), 
and    two   winged   women    carrying   the   whole  to   Shiner, 


552  PROPHETS  OF  THE  RESTORATION 

promises  the  removal  of  the  people's  sin  to  Babylon,  the 
land  of  their  captivity,  5^~^^.  In  the  eighth  vision  are  sent 
out  chariots  and  horses,  instruments  of  Divine  judgement, 
6^~^.  Then  is  enjoined  a  closing  symbolic  action,  Joshua 
to  be  crowned  w^ith  two  crowns  of  silver  and  gold,  a  type  of 
the  union  of  the  priestly  and  kingly  offices  in  the  Messiah, 
by  whom  the  true  Temple  of  Jehovah  should  be  consum- 
mated, 6^"'^^. 

2.  Chs.  7,  8.  In  the  second  part,  messengers  from  Babylon 
come  to  learn  from  the  prophet  whether  Jehovah  had  sanc- 
tioned the  new  fasts,  instituted  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Captivity,  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  the  city  and 
Temple.  The  prophet  replies  that  God  had  not  sanctioned 
them,  and  that  what  He  requires  is  a  return  to  obedience, 
which  the  priests  and  people  had  alike  neglected,  7.  Pre- 
dictions of  restored  prosperity,  intermixed  with  warnings, 
follow  :  the  fasting  seasons  are  to  become  cheerful  feasts, 
and  the  Jews  are  to  be  a  universal  blessing,  8. 

The  remainder  of  the  book  is  also  in  two  divisions. 

I.  Chs.  9-1 1.  These,  whether  by  Zechariah  or  some 
earlier  or  later  prophet,  contain  predictions  of  Zion's 
triumph.  The  powers  of  the  world  are  to  be  humbled 
before  her,  her  King  is  to  appear  in  majesty  and  meekness, 
and  (in  the  language  of  Psalm  72)  His  dominion  is  to  be 
from  sea  to  sea,  and  from  the  River  to  the  ends  of  the 
earth  (9,  10).  Chapter  11  is  again  dark;  opening  with  an 
outburst  of  sorrow  for  overwhelming  calamity  (verses  1-4). 
The  reason  is  found  in  the  conduct  of  the  '  shepherds ' 
of  the  people.  In  vision,  or  allegory,  the  prophet  per- 
sonated a  good  shepherd  (verse  7) — '  So  I  fed  the  flock ' — 
'  the  miserable  sheep  ! ' — his  two  staves,  Beauty  and  Bands, 
})eing  an  emblem  of  graciousness  and  union.  But  the 
result  was  failure :  the  shepherd  broke  the  staves,  surrender- 
ing his  thankless  task  ;  and  when  he  applied  for  his  wages 
due    was   mocked  with   the  offer  of  the  price  of  a  slave. 


THE   BOOK   OF   MALACHI  553 

This  was  indignantly  refused — 'cast  to  the  potter';  and 
the  substitution  of  a  '  foolish  '  or  worthless  shepherd  leads 
to  ruin.  The  passage  13^"^  seems  to  belong  to  this  pro- 
phecy. The  whole  delineation  furnishes  an  expressive  type 
of  the  rejection  in  after  ages  of  the  Good  Shepherd,  and 
the  catastrophe  that  followed. 

2.  Chs.  12-14.  This  series  of  prophecies  opens  with 
a  siege  of  confederate  peoples  against  Jerusalem.  They  are 
utterly  defeated,  12^"^*^.  The  Jews  mourn  over  their  sins  ; 
a  fountain  is  opened  for  sin  and  for  uncleanness  ;  the 
idols  shall  be  cut  off ;  false  prophets  shall  cease,  12^^-13^. 
Another  assault  is  made  upon  Jerusalem,  which  is  destroyed, 
and  the  people  scattered.  Jehovah  Himself  appears  to 
deliver  His  people,  standing  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
which  parts  asunder  to  open  up  a  way  for  them  to  escape. 
The  besiegers  are  destroyed,  leaving  only  a  remnant  who 
adopt  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  and  go  up  to  Jerusalem 
every  year  to  celebrate  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles :  on  every- 
thing in  the  city,  down  to  the  very  pots,  shall  be  inscribed, 
*  Holy  unto  the  Lord  '  (14). 

References  to  ZecJiariah  in  the  New  Testament. 

18  Rev  6"*-'*-8. 

3^  Ju  9. 

39  Rev  5». 

816  Eph  42^  la^-io. 

9^  The  entrance  of  the  King  into  Jerusalem,  Mt  ai*  Jn  la^^-^'. 
11^'  The  thirty  pieces  of  silver,  Mt  2-]^-^^. 
12^*^  Looking  to  the  pierced  One,  Jn  ig''^  Rev  i'^. 
138  The  smitten  Shepherd,  Mt  26"  Mk  142^. 
14}^  No  more  curse,  Rev  22^ 

The  Book  of  Malachi 

C.    B.C.    450. 

370.  His  name  and  ministry. — Malachi  (*  My  mes- 
senger') is  the  last  of  the  Old  Testament  prophets,  as 
Nehemiah  is  the  last  of  the  historians  ;  and  the  time  of  his 


654  PROPHETS  OF  THE  RESTORATION 

ministry   may   most   probably  be    placed   in   the    interval 
between  Nehemiah's  two  administrations  \ 

Whether  Malachi  was  the  prophet's  own  name,  or  a  title  expressive 
of  his  mission  (i^  R.  V.  marg. ,  cp.  3^)  is  uncertain.  Most  expositors,  with 
Calvin,  incline  to  the  latter  view  ;  the  prophet,  therefore,  being 
anonymous.     Still,  it  is  convenient  to  retain  his  distinctive  title. 

The  second  Temple  was  now  built,  and  the  service  of 
the  altar,  with  its  offerings  and  sacrifices,  was  established, 
although  perverted  and  profaned.  Priests  and  people  were 
alike  delinquent,  as  Nehemiah  found  them  ;  and  the  pro- 
phet denounces  the  very  evils  which  the  historian  de- 
scribes \ 

371.  Outline. — The  divisions  of  the  book  are  clearly 
marked  : — 

I.  Profanity  in  Divine  service  (ch.  i),  especially  disgrace- 
ful on  two  accounts:  its  ingratitude  for  Jehovah's  favours 
shown  to  Israel,  in  contrast  with  Edom  (i^~^),  and  its  con- 
trast with  purer  worship  outside  the  Holy  Land  (i^'^-^^). 
This  passage  strikingly  foreshadows  the  universal  worship 
of  the  Church :  '  in  every  place  incense  is  offered  unto  My 
name,'  anticipating  our  Lord's  great  declaration,  Jn  4^^ 

II.  Priestly  unfaithfulness  (2^"^).  If  the  people  im- 
piously brought  mean  and  blemished  offerings  to  the  altar, 
the  priests,  by  their  corrupt  teachings  and  respect  of  persons, 
were  guiltier  still. 

III.  Ungodly  marriages  (2^^^^®).  The  great  purpose  of 
God  in  the  marriage  institution,  to  raise  up  a  holy  seed,  was 
flagrantly  transgressed  by  these  alliances  with  the  heathen  ; 
and  the  divorces  to  which  they  led  were  the  source  not 
only  of  bitter  domestic  sorrow,  but  of  weeping  which 
covered  the  altar  of  Jehovah  witli  tears  {2,^'). 

*  It  may  be  gathered  from  i*  '  the  guvernor,'  tiiat  Nehemiah  was 
not  now  in  office.     Cp.  Ne  5^*^*. 

»»  Ne  1310-1'^  (Mai  38-10)  Ne  is^s-'-'s  (Mai  sio-i")  Ne  is'-''-'  (Mai  a^).  Only 
the  desecration  of  the  Sabbath,  Ne  13^^'"^^,  is  omitted  from  the  prof.het's 
catalogue  of  sii^s. 


THE   BOOK   OF   MALACHI  555 

IV.  Such  sins  would  bring  down  judgement  (2'^"^-3'^). 
Jehovah's  messenger  w^ould  come  to  prepare  His  way  :  the 
Lord  Himself  would  appear  in  His  Temple  to  judge  and  to 
purify. 

V.  The  sin  of  the  people  in  withholding  their  gifts  from 
God  is  again  set  forth  ;  with  the  promise  that  faithfulness 
in  this  matter  would  be  followed  by  temporal  blessing : 
and  the  question  of  ungodly  scoffers,  whether  religion  was 
profitable,  would  be  set  at  rest.  In  contrast  with  these 
scoffers  is  set  the  example  of  the  faithful,  who  strengthened 
one  another  by  holy  fellowship  and  had  a  place  in  Jehovah's 
'  book  of  remembrance '  (3^^^^). 

VI.  The  prophet  closes  the  book  with  an  assurance  of 
approaching  salvation,  predicts  the  rising  of  the  Sun  of 
Kighteousness,  and  enjoins  until  that  day  the  observance 
of  the  Law.  To  confirm  it,  and  to  prepare  the  way  foi 
judgement,  a  second  Elijah  would  appear  (4). 

The  last  predictions  of  Old  Testament  Scripture,  there- 
fore, are  like  the  earliest.  They  rebuke  corruption  and 
promise  deliverance.  They  uphold  the  authority  of  the 
first  dispensation  and  reveal  the  second.  The  prophet 
is  still  the  teacher  ;  and  his  last  words  are  of  the  Law  and 
spiritual  obedience,  and  again  of  the  Gospel  and  its  healing 
glory  (42). 

References  to  Malachi  in  the  New  Testament. 

372.  I*.  The  choice  of  Israel  in  preference  to  Edom  is  used  to  illus- 
trate Divine  election,  Ro  9^'. 

The  'messenger  of  God'  (3^)  and  'Elijah  the  prophet'  (45-8)  are 
identified  with  John  the  Baptist,  Mt  ii^o-i*  17I1  Mk  i^  9"-i2  Lu  i^^-^s  ^27^ 

It  is  in  Malachi  (i"^)  that  the  phrase  'the  table  of  the  Lord'  is  first 
used.     Compare  i  Cor  lo'^^. 

The  beautiful  image  of  the  rising  Sun  of  Righteousness  has  its 
parallel  in  'the  Dayspring  from  on  high,'  Lu  i'*.  Compare  Jn  i*  8^^ 
95  ia*«. 


TABULAR  VIEW  OF  THE  PROPHETS,  IN  CHRONO- 


Paasages  chiefly 

'5 

Amos, 
c.  760. 

Hosea, 
755-740 

Isaiah, 
740-701. 

a"  ° 

i6 

It 

Moral,  Devotional. 

General 

. 

25-2711 

2,3.6 

. 

Specially  to  Israel  .     . 

2-8 

4-13 

98-21  28         .        . 

Specially  to  Judah.     . 
Historical 

1-4 

1.S-214 

24.5 

4I5-IO 
122 

1-5,  228-25  29,  30 
7-8436-39    . 

• 

Prkdictivb  (A)— 

Israel 

Judah    

Assyria,  Nineveh    .     . 

3,4 

1-2^7 

2699 
24-5 

71-258,98     1424- 

26,    S2          )    °     ^ 

7 17-25     88-10    jo^- 

34     1420.27    ig23- 

f  1, 7 

'-3 

1-3 

2l'^-15 

Chaldaea,  Babylon .     . 

• 

• 

• 

25       20,      3027-33 
33I-I2  3711-35. 
13,  14,211-10461-2 
47,  48I4-20. 

• 

Egypt 

. 

319 

19,  2o3-6  45I4 

. 

Ethiopia 

. 

. 

2o2-6  45U       . 

212 

Arabia 

. 

2111-17  42II607 

. 

Kdom 

Moab 

3l» 

111.12 
9I2 
2I-3 

ul4  2x11.12  34       . 
iil4i5,  16,2510-12 

■28-11 

Ammon 

. 

1I3-I5 

111*        .          .          . 

. 

28-11 

Philistia 

3* 

,6-8 

9I2  ,il4  ,428-32      . 

Syria,  Damascus     .     . 

l3-5 

78-16  84-9  171-3      . 

. 

Phoenicia,  Tyre  .    .     . 

34-8 

l9.10 

. 

23. 

24-7 

Other  Nations    .    .     . 

• 

.          .           . 

Predictive  (B) — 
Our  Lord's  first  com- 

17 

II1I314 

7X4  96.7  40-63       . 

5- 

ing,    ministry,    and 

work  (Prophecy  and 

Type). 
His  kingdom  .     .     . 
Israel   and    Judah   in 

the  '  latter  d;iys.' 

228 -"2 

9II-I3 

lion 

-,14  23 
34.5 

22   4iil-0  2Bl6  49G 

41 4 

38-20 

Ingathering      of     tlio 
Gentiles. 

• 

223 

22-4     nlO    X9l8^-^' 
42,  495-7  60I-H 

• 

211 
39.10 

LOGICAL  OKDER ;   WITH  THEIR  CHIEF  CONTENTS. 


1! 

Jeremiah, 
627-577. 

Daniel. 

t3   10 

Ezekiel, 
592-570. 

"Is 

.s"   . 

c«  00 

1" 

u 

• 

(Lam.  1-5) 

• 

28,  29,  3al-26  35,   36-43" 
5a 

1-6 

• 

il-ll 

2IO-I9 

1-7 

1.2, 

37-I84 

^ 

30,  31                ^  30-3126 
[     so*-**- 
1-25,  27   29-33.        ^^•^"^' 
34.  44                        ^'-^ 

9 

• 

9-24i  33  i  36, 

i  37 

• 

l7-8,   11 

l5-17 
3^ 

2i4-10       25I2-I4       27I2-22 
28H  3226-44  342.S42III2 

50-  51- 
4310-13  4613-26  492.-1-30       . 
q25.26  438-13  4480  46. 

11*3 

• 

267  2917-20 
30IO-12  32II 

29-32 
3o4-» 

• 

loH 

. 

2523.24  4923-33. 

; 

910-26  271-11  (Lam.  421-22) 
925.20  27I-II  48 
925.26  2521  491-* 

1140.41 
1X40.41 
1140-41 

V.  1-21 

25I2-14  3229 
21 28-32 

■ 

12-6 

. 

25I9-22  474-7     .        .        . 

. 

. 

25^5-17   .          . 

. 

95-7 

. 

4925-^      .... 

. 

. 

• 

. 

9' 

. 

2522  27I-II 474.        .         . 

. 

26-28      . 

92-4 

• 

KajH  4934-3»    , 

2.   7.   II 

• 

Elam  3224      . 

Grecia 
{Javan), 
9I3 

• 

31" 

924-27 

• 

• 

• 

q9.10 
117-14 
136.7 

3» 

• 

235.G  3122-64    . 
3I6.I8  30I-II       . 

244.46  7IS.I4 

v.'i7- 

31 

3425-29  .         . 
37l'»-28    .          . 

26-9 

9IO 

103-12 

12 

2l4 

i61*-2l               .        .         . 

•          • 

• 

.     .     . 

616  820-28 

ill 

CHAPTER  XVI 

POETICAL  BOOKS  AND  'WISDOM- 
LITERATURE' 

On  Hebrew  Poetry 

373.  Characteristics  of  Hebrew  Poetry. — The  divi- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament  Hagiographa,  usually  called  the 
Poetical  Books,  comprises  Job,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs  ;  some 
adding  Ecclesiastes  and  the  Song  of  Solomon.  In  point  of 
date,  some  portions  of  them  are  earlier,  and  others  are  later, 
than  many  parts  of  the  historical  books ;  but  they  are 
classed  by  themselves,  as  being  almost  wholly  composed  in 
Hebrew  verse.  The  writings  of  the  prophets  are,  for  the 
most  part,  also  in  a  poetical  form.     See  §  374. 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  is  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  employment  of  it  in  the  noblest  service, 
that  of  religion.  It  presents  the  loftiest  and  most  precious 
truths,  expressed  in  the  most  appropriate  language. 

There  is  so  much  uncertainty  respecting  the  ancient 
pronunciatian  of  the  lang^aage,  that  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  the  nature  of  the  Hebrew  versification.  But 
much  light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  subject,  in  later 
times,  by  Lowth,  Jebb,  Herder,  and  other  scholars.  The 
leading  characteristics  of  Hebrew  poetry  may  be  described 
generally  as  consisting  in  the  ornate  and  elevated  character 
of  the  style,  in  the  use  of  certain  words  and  forms  of  words, 
in  the  sententious  manner  of  expression,  and  especially  in 
what  is  entitled  parallelism ;  that  is,  a  certain  correspond- 


HEBREW   PARALLELISM  559 

ence,  either  as  to  thought  or  language,  or  both,  between 
the  members  of  each  period.  Sometimes  the  secondary 
expression  is  little  more  than  an  echo  of  the  first :  some- 
times it  excels  it  in  force  and  beauty :  sometimes  it  adds 
to  it  a  new  idea ;  sometimes,  to  heighten  the  impression, 
the  main  idea  is  expressed  in  contrast  with  some  other. 
It  is  in  a  great  measure  owing  to  this  structure  of  the 
sentences  that  our  translation  of  these  books  has  so  much 
of  a  poetical  cast ;  for  being,  for  the  most  part,  literal,  it 
retains  much  both  of  the  form  and  of  the  simple  beauty  of 
the  Hebrew. 

374.  Varieties  of  parallelism. — This  poetical  paral- 
lelism admits  many  varieties,  more  or  less  defined  a. 

In  the  simplest  construction  the  first  member,  forming  the  rise  of 
the  verse,  is  succeeded  by  its  counterpart,  which  forms  the  fall  ;  as  in 
Ps  23I : 

The  Lord  is  my  shepherd  ; 
I  shall  not  want. 
Sometimes  the  second  member  is  an  echo  or  an  expansion  of  the 
first,  expressing  nearly  the  same  sentiment  in  a  varied  form  ;  as  in 
Ps  19I : 

The  heavens  declare  the  glory  of  God  ; 
And  the  firmament  showeth  His  handywork. 
A  part  of  the  former  member  is  often  amplified  in  the  latter  ;  as  in 
Ps  iiai : 

Blessed  is  the  man  that  feareth  the  Lord, 
That  delighteth  greatly  in  His  commandments. 
In  other  cases,  a  proposition  too  long  for  one  member  is  extended 
through  two  or  more,  the  first  breaking  off  abruptly  at  an  important 
part  of  the  sentence  ;  as  in  Ps  no*: 

The  Lord  at  Thy  right  hand 

Shall  strike  through  kings  in  the  day  of  His  wrath. 
Or  an  accessory  sentence  is  subjoined  in  a  second  member  ;   as  in 
Job  13^6 : 

Though  He  slay  me,  yet  will  I  wait  for  Him  ; 
Nevertheless  I  will  maintain  my  ways  before  Him  (R.V.). 

*  See  the  Book  of  Psalms,  R.  T.  S.,  Introduction,  from  which  some  of 
the  following  paragraphs  are  taken. 


560  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

Or,  to  deepen  the  impression,  the  main  idea  is  expressed  in  contrast 
with  some  other  ;  as  in  Ps  i' : 

For  the  Lord  knoweth  «the  way  of  the  righteous  : 

But  the  way  of  the  ungodly  shall  perish. 
This  antithetical  form,  in  which  the  idea  contained  in  the  second 
clause  is  contrasted,  either  in  expression  or  in  sense,  with  that  in  the 
first,  is  found  mostly  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs.     See  chs.  ia-15,  and 
many  similar  instances. 

There  are  numerous  parallel  triplets  :  as  Ps  i^ : 

That  walketh  not  in  the  counsel  of  the  ungodly, 
Nor  standeth  in  the  way  of  sinners, 
Nor  sitteth  in  the  seat  of  the  scornful. 
So  Ps  6818 : 

Thou  hast  ascended  on  high, 
Thou  hast  led  captivity  captive, 
Thou  hast  received  gifts  for  men. 
See  also  Ps  93^*. 

There  are,  again,  double  parallelisms  :  as  Ps  103^^^^  : 
As  the  heaven  is  high  above  the  earth. 

So  great  is  His  mercy  toward  them  that  fear  Him. 
As  far  as  the  East  is  from  the  West, 

So  far  hath  He  removed  our  transgressions  from  us. 

See  also  Ps  30^ 

In  stanzas  of  four  lines,  the  members  often  have  an  alternate  corre- 
spondence, the  first  line  answering  to  the  third,  and  the  second  to  the 
fourth  ;  as  in  Ps  33i^*i* : 

The  Lord  looketh  from  heaven  ; 

He  beholdeth  all  the  sons  of  men. 
From  the  place  of  His  habitation  He  looketh 

Upon  all  the  inhabitants  of  th©  earth. 

See  also  Ps  i9'^-*,  and  for  an  antithetic  instance,  44^ 

Sometimes,  again,  the  parallelism  is  of  the  first  line  with  the  fourth, 
the  second  coriesponding  with  the  third  (compare  the  order  of  the 
rhymes  in  Tennyson's  hi  Memoriam).     Thus  Job  37^'"  : 

Though  he  heap  up  silver  as  the  dust, 
And  prepare  raiment  as  the  clay, 
He  may  prepare  it,  but  the  just  shall  put  it  on, 

And  the  innocent  shall  divide  the  silver. 

This  arrangement  is  sometimes  termed  *  introverted  parallelism.' 

This  method  of  parallelism  also  characterizes  the  Prophetic  Writings, 
although  with  certain  distinctions,  not  necessary  here  to  dwell  upon, 


VALUE   OF   PARALLELISM  561 

which  lead  critics  and  editors  in  general  to  regard  them,  with  the 
exception  of  certain  lyrical  portions,  as  poetic  prose.  In  the  Revised 
Version,  accordingly,  they  are  printed  as  prose,  although  in  the  New 
Testament  the  passages  cited  are  given  in  poetical  form.  Compare,  e.  g., 
the  R.  V.  of  Jer  31^^  with  Mt  2^^,  and  many  other  passages.  The  Anno- 
tated Paragraph  Bible  (R.  T.  S.)  adopts  the  poetical  form  in  bothO.  T.  and 
N.  T.  In  Hebrew  Bibles  generally,  the  poetical  passages  are  printed 
as  prose,  being  distinguished  only  by  the  accents,  excepting  in  the 
four  lyrics — the  song  of  Miriam,  Ex  15  ;  the  song  of  Moses,  Dt  32  : 
the  ode  of  Deborah,  Judg  5  ;  and  the  elegy  of  David  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  2  Sa  22  ;  to  which,  in  Dr.  Ginsburg's  edition,  is  added  the 
Book  of  Psalms. 

375.  Value  of  this  method. — The  parallelism  often 
affords  important  aid  in  Interpretation,  by  exhibiting  the 
salient  points  of  the  passage  in  their  true  relation.  It  is 
especially  useful  where  the  construction  is  complicated  or 
elliptical,  or  where  uncommon  words  occur;  one  member 
of  a  sentence  which  is  clear  assisting  to  determine  the 
meaning  of  another  which  is  ambiguous.  Very  greatly, 
too,  does  this  rhythmic  arrangement  of  the  thought  en- 
hance its  force  and  beauty. 

'The  nervous  simplicity  and  conciseness  of  the  Hebrew  muse,' 
writes  Campbell,  author  of  the  Pleasures  of  Hope,  'prevent  this 
parallelism  from  degenerating  into  monotony.  In  repeating  the  same 
idea  in  different  words,  she  seems  as  if  displaying  a  fine  opal,  that 
discovers  fresh  beauty  in  every  new  light  to  which  it  is  turned.  Her 
amplifications  of  a  given  thought  are  like  the  echoes  of  a  solemn 
melody, — her  repetitions  of  it  like  the  landscape  reflected  in  the 
stream  ;  and  whilst  her  questions  and  responses  give  a  life-like  effect 
to  her  compositions,  they  remind  us  of  the  alternate  voices  in  public 
devotion,  to  which  they  were  manifestly  adapted.' 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  this  characteristic  of  Hebrew 
poetry  is  one  which  is  not  (like  rhyme  and  syllabic  metre) 
lost  in  translation  ;  and  is  therefore  specially  valuable  in 
a  book  destined  to  be  published  in  all  the  languages  of  the 
earth.  It  would,  indeed,  be  going  too  far  to  assert  that 
Hebrew  poetry  is  altogether  without  rhythm  and  cadence ; 
and  there  are  in  fact  some  very  remarkable  instances  of  asso- 

o  o 


562  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

nance ;  but  these  are  not  its  main  features,  and  may  be  lost 
in  translation  with  little  or  no  injury  to  the  effect. 

'Suppose,'  writes  Professor  Binnie,  'the  poetry  of  the  Bible  had 
been  metrical,  what  would  have  been  the  effect  ?  One  half  of  the 
Old  Testament  would  have  been  to  the  Gentiles  a  fountain  sealed. 
"Paradise  Lost,"  turned  into  prose,  is  "Paradise  Lost"  no  more. 
There  are  literal  translations  of  Homer  and  Horace  into  fair  English 
prose,  but  they  convey  no  idea  of  the  spirit  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
originals.  Had  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah  or  the  Psalms  of  David  been 
written  in  the  classical  measures  or  in  our  modern  rhymes,  they 
would  have  fared  as  ill  at  the  hands  of  the  translators.  As  the  case 
stands,  David  and  Isaiah  may  be  transferred  without  material  loss, 
into  any  language  by  any  deft  and  scholarly  pen.  Not  only  their 
sense,  but  their  manner  and  the  characteristic  felicities  of  their  style, 
are  reproduced  not  unfairly  in  our  current  English  Versions.' 

Hebrew  Acrostics. — Besides  the  parallelism,  there  is 
sometimes  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  verses  ;  the 
initial  letters  of  the  successive  lines  or  stanzas  following 
the  order  of  the  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet.  This  is 
found  in  Psalms  9-10,  25,  34,  37,  iii,  112,  119,  and  145, 
often  termed  Hhe  acrostic  Psalms.'  This  device  was  perhaps 
intended  to  assist  the  memory :  it  is  found  chiefly  in  poems 
consisting  of  detached  thoughts  on  one  subject.  The 
greater  part  of  Lamentations  is  composed  on  this  plan. 


The  Book  of  Job 

'  I  call  this  Book,  apart  from  all  theories  about  it,  one  of  the  grandest 
things  ever  written  with  pen.  One  feels,  indeed,  as  if  it  were  not 
Hebrew  ;  such  a  noble  universality,  different  from  noble  patriotism  or 
sectarianism,  reigns  in  it.  A  noble  Book,  all  men's  Book !  It  is  our 
first,  oldest  statement  of  the  never-ending  Problem — man's  destiny, 
and  God's  ways  with  him  here  in  this  earth.  And  all  in  such  free, 
flowing  outlines  ;  grand  in  its  sincerity,  in  its  simplicity  ;  in  its  epic 
melody,  and  repose  of  reconcilement.  There  is  the  seeing  eye,  the 
mildly  understanding  heai-t.  So  true  every  way  ;  true  eyesight  and 
vision  for  all  things  ;  material  things  no  less  than  spiritual.  .  .  .  Such 
living  likenesses  were  never  since  drawn.     Sublime  sorrow,  sublimo 


THE   BOOK   OF  JOB  563 

reconciliation  ;  oldest  choral  melody  as  of  the  heart  of  mankind  ; 
so  soft,  and  great  ;  as  the  summer  midnight,  as  the  world  with  its 
seas  and  stars  !  There  is  nothing  written,  I  think,  in  the  Bible  or 
out  of  it,  of  equal  literary  merit.' — Thomas  Carlyle,  Lectures  on 
Heroes,  iu 

376.  Title  and  Subject. — This  book  takes  its  name 
from  the  patriarch  whose  history  it  records.  Its  antiquity, 
and  the  conciseness  of  its  style,  make  it  confessedly  difficult 
of  interpretation.  But  these  difficulties  seldom  involve 
topics  of  religious  importance. 

Job  is  mentioned  in  Scripture  in  connexion  with  other 
known  saints  (Eze  141*--*^  Jas  5^^) ;  it  may  be  concluded  that 
he  was  a  real  person,  and  that  the  narrative  is  no  fiction. 
This  conclusion  is  sustained  by  the  details  given  of  persons 
and  places,  and  by  other  internal  evidence.  Uz,  the  country 
which  he  inhabited,  was  probably  in  the  north-east  of 
Arabia  Deserta. 

377.  Age  and  Authorship, — The  age  in  which  Job 
lived  is  a  question  that  has  created  much  discussion.  An- 
cient opinion  fixes  it  as  earlier  than  Abraham,  according  to 
which  view  it  would  stand  between  chapters  11  and  12  of 
Genesis,  as  a  supplement  to  the  records  of  the  early  con- 
dition of  our  race,  given  by  Moses. 

On  the  other  hand,  some  think  they  detect  allusions  to 
the  destruction  of  Sodom,  &c.,  in  chs.  15^^  iS^'^  20^^ ;  and 
adduce  the  coincidence  of  many  names  occurring  in  this 
book,  with  those  of  some  of  Abraham's  descendants, 
through  Ishmael  and  Esau,  as  indications  of  a  somewhat 
later  age.  By  some  of  these  writers  it  is  assigned  to  the 
period  of  the  sojourn  in  Egypt.  Other  critics,  on  internal 
grounds,  regard  the  book  as  the  product  of  a  later  period, 
even  of  the  post-exilic  age. 

Respecting  the  author  of  the  book,  a  similar  difference 
of  opinion  prevails.     Some  have  ascribed  it  to  Job  himself, 

002 


564  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

others  to  Elihu,  others  (with  the  Kabbins  generally)  to 
Moses  *.  Whoever  was  its  author,  its  canonical  authority  is 
proved  by  its  place  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  the  re- 
cognition of  the  whole  collection  by  our  Lord  and  His 
Apostles. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  author  of  the  book  may  con- 
ceivably have  lived  much  later  than  its  hero.  There  were  many 
occasions  in  the  history  of  Israel  in  which  the  lessons  of  the  book 
would  be  opportune  ;  and  a  story  from  the  past  may  have  served  the 
purpose  better  than  any  contemporary  record.  Whoever  the  unknown 
writer  may  have  been,  and  wherever  he  may  have  lived,  his  teachings 
are  for  all  time  ;  set  forth  as  they  are  by  the  pen  of  a  philosopher  and 
poet.  How  far  the  speeches  are  literally  reported,  and  how  much  is 
owing  to  the  writer's  inspired  genius,  it  is  impossible  to  say  :  they 
could  hardly  have  been  uttered  extempore  and  taken  down  from  the 
lips  of  the  speakers.  Nothing  again  as  to  the  date  of  the  book  is  to  be 
gathered  with  certainty  from  its  language.  '  Opinions  as  to  the  date 
of  Joh  have  varied  from  the  age  of  the  patriarchs  to  that  of  the 
Captivity,  or  even  later  ;  that  is  to  say,  800  or  1000  years.  As  the 
supporters  of  the  several  theories  have  uniformly  appealed  to  critical 
and  linguistic  reasons,  this  may  serve  to  show  the  vagueness  and 
uncertainty  of  much  that  arrogates  to  itself  the  name  of  criticism  ' 
(Stanley  Leathes). 

378.  Outline. — The  book  naturally  divides  itself  into 
three  parts. 

L  The  Historical  Introduction  in  prose,  chs.  i,  2,  giving 
a  narrative  of  sudden  and  severe  affliction  (through  the 
agency  of  Satan,  represented  as  appearing  in  the  court  of 
heaven,  as  Job's  accuser),  borne  with  exemplary  patience 
and  trust  in  God. 

II.  The  Argument,  or  Controversy,  in  five  scenes  or 
divisions. 

I.  The  first  series  of  discussions,  compiising  Job's  com- 
plaint, 3 ;    the   speech  of  Eliphaz,  4,  5,  and  Job's  answer, 

*  Besides  the  Rabbinical  view  that  Moses  was  the  author  may  be 
quoted  the  opinions  of  those  who  *  with  equal  arbitrariness  ascribe 
it  to  lleman  the  Ezrahite,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  Baruch,  Ezra,  and 
Jeremiah.' 


THE    BOOK   OF   JOB  565 

6,  7;  of  Bildad,  8,  and  Job's  answer,  9,  10;  of  Zophar,  11, 
and  Job's  answer,  12-14. 

2.  The  second  series,  comprising  the  speech  of  Eliphaz, 
15,  and  Job's  answer,  16,  17;  of  Bildad,  18,  and  Job's 
answer,  19 ;  of  Zophar,  20,  and  Job's  answer,  21. 

3.  The  third  series,  comprising  the  speech  of  Eliphaz,  22, 
and  Job's  answer,  23,  24  ;  of  Bildad,  25,  and  Job's  answer, 
26-31.  It  has  been  urged,  with  some  plausibility,  that 
a  part  of  the  speech  attributed  to  Job,  2.f~^^^,  was  really 
a  third  reply  by  Zophar  (wrongly  placed  by  a  transcriber's 
error).  The  symmetry  of  the  speeches  would  thus  be  com- 
plete ;  and  at  the  first  view  the  sentiments  are  more  like 
Zophar's  than  Job's.  The  best  critics,  however,  hesitate  to 
accept  this  view.  (Dr.  A.  B.  Davidson,  Cambridge  Bible, 
pp.  xxxv-xl.) 

The  question  discussed  thus  far  is,  whether  great  suffer- 
ing be  not  an  evidence  of  great  guilt.  Job's  friends  affirm 
it,  and  exhort  him  to  repent  and  rtform.  .Job  denies  it, 
appeals  to  facts,  and  complains  bitterly  of  his  friends  for 
aggravating  his  distress  by  false  charges. 

4.  The  speech  of  EHhu,  32-37. 

Elihu  maintains  that  afflictions  are  meant  for  the  good 
of  the  sufferer,  even  when  not,  strictly  speaking,  the  con- 
sequence of  sin  ;  he  reproves  Job  for  justifying  himself 
rather  than  God,  and  vindicates  the  Divine  character  and 
government. 

5.  The  close  of  the  discussion,  by  the  address  of  the 
Almighty,  not  condescending  to  explain  Ilis  conduct,  but 
illustrating  His  power  and  wisdom,  38-41  ;  and  Job's  re- 
sponse and  penitential  submission,  42^   ^ 

III.  The  conclusion  in  prose,  42" "^"^j  giving  an  account  of 
Job's  acceptance  and  prosperity. 

379.  The  precise  object  of  the  book  has  given  rise  to 
much   discussion.     Mercenary   selfishness   was   the   charge 


566  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

brought  against  Job.  In  the  end  the  charge  is  disproved. 
Job  is  assured  that  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth  will  do  right, 
and  resolves  still  to  trust,  even  to  the  last  extremity, 
1^23-27^  His  restoration  shows  him  not  only  outwardly 
prosperous,  but  as  'raised  to  higher  knowledge  of  God 
through  his  trials  victoriously  borne.* 

'  If  we  bring  the  prologue  and  the  debate  into  combination,  we 
perceive  that  it  was  the  author's  purpose  to  widen  men's  views  of 
God's  providence,  and  to  set  before  them  a  new  view  of  suffering. 
With  great  skill  he  employs  Job  as  his  instrument  to  clear  the  ground 
of  the  old  theories  ;  and  he  himself  brings  forward  in  their  place  his 
new  truth,  that  sufferings  may  befall  the  innocent,  and  be  not  a 
chastisement  for  their  sins,  but  a  trial  of  their  righteousness.'— A.  B. 
Davidson. 

Not  all,  ot  course,  that  even  Job  said  in  these  discussions, 
much  less  the  reasonings  of  his  friends,  is  to  be  com- 
mended. The  principles  advanced  are  often  erroneous,  also 
the  conclusions. 

Those  critics  who  maintain  the  late  origin  of  the  book  regard  it  as 
applicable  to  the  trials  and  struggles  of  Israel.  '  The  elements  of 
reality  in  the  Patriarch's  history  are  common  to  him  with  Israel  in 
affliction,  common  even  to  him  with  humanity  as  a  whole,  confined 
within  the  straitened  limits  set  by  its  own  ignorance,  wounded  to 
death  by  the  mysterious  sorrows  of  life  ;  tortured  by  the  uncertainty 
whether  its  cry  finds  an  entrance  into  God's  ear ;  alarmed  and 
paralysed  by  the  irreconcilable  discrepancies  which  it  discovers 
between  its  necessary  thought  of  Him  in  His  providences  ;  and  faint 
with  longing  that  it  might  come  unto  His  place  and  behold  Him,  not 
girt  with  His  majesty,  but  in  human  form,  as  one  looketh  upon  his 
fellow.' — A.  B.  Davidson,  Encyd.  Brit.  art.  Job. 

The  practical  lessons  suggested  by  the  book  are  obvious 
and  important.  Uncharitableness  is  of  the  devil,  i^-^^. 
Its  origin,  no  less  than  its  unloveliness,  should  put  us  on 
guard  against  it.  .  .  .  Perfect  and  upright  men  are  among 
the  first  to  confess  their  vileness,  i^  40*  42^.  Our  progress 
in  holiness  may  be  measured  by  our  humility.  .  .  .  What 
wisdom  is  needed  to  conduct  controversy  wisely,  when  even 
Job  failed  1  .  .  .  How  needful  is  a  specific  revelation,  when 


THE   BOOK   OF   JOB  567 

even  good  men,  with  an  accurate  knowledge  of  God,  and  of 
many  principles  of  His  government,  misread  the  lessons 
written  upon  His  works !  To  correct  human  misapprehen- 
sion on  such  questions,  God  had  Himself  to  interpose. 

380.  Job  and  other  Books  of  the  Old  Testament.— The  coincidences 
in  expression  between  Job  and  passages  in  the  Psalms,  Proverbs,  and 
Isaiah,  suggest  that  tlie  book  was  familiar  in  the  days  of  the  Hebrew 
monarchy.  The  converse  supposition  that  Job,  as  a  later  writer, 
copied  from  the  others,  is  forced  and  improbable.  The  following  are 
among  the  instances  that  might  be  quoted  : — 


Ps 

Job 

Prov 

Job 

8*          compared 

Avith  7I7 

2* 

compar 

ed  with  3" 

33^^&37"     „ 

520 

3^* 

M 

„       2815 

3,.5.36 

5' 

9I0 

>> 

„       282» 

38^ 

6* 

I028 

)t 

„     813 

39"' 

1020.21 

16* 

>> 

„     «'o 

38« 

3^^ 

88818               ^^ 

19I3.14 

94" 

5" 

Is. 

Job 

io3i« 

^10 

35' 

compared  with  4'* 

iiii° 

2828 

59* 

>) 

,,     i5^» 

119'' 

108 

59^° 

?> 

„     5^*. 

Compare  also  Jer  2oi**'^i^  with  Job  s^n,  Ho  iqI^  with  Job  4*,  and 
Zep  i^^-^8  with  Job  ai^o.  The  phrase,  Job  iii^-^^,  descriptive  of  peaceful 
rest,  is  also  found  Lev  26'^'^  Is  ij"^  Mic  4*  Zep  3!^  Eze  34^8, 

Eeferences  in  the  New  Testament, 

381. — There  is  in  the  N.  T.  but  one  explicit  quotation  from  the 
Book  of  Job,  I  Cor  31^  (prefaced  by  the  formula  'it  is  written'),  from 
5I8.  Compare  also  Phil  i^^  with  13!^  In  Jas  5"  there  is  a  refer- 
ence to  the  '  patience '  (or  endurance)  '  of  Job.'  The  phrase,  *  the  day  of 
wrath,'  Ro  2^,  although  occurring  first  in  Job,  may  have  been  quoted 
by  the  apostle  from  Zep  i^s-is. 


568  THE   POETICAL    BOOKS 


The  Book  of  Psalms 

'What  is  there  necessary  for  man  to  know  which  the  Psalms  are 
not  able  to  teach?  They  are  to  beginners  an  easy  and  familiar 
introduction,  a  mighty  augmentation  of  all  virtue  and  knowledge  in 
such  as  are  entered  before,  a  strong  confirmation  to  the  most  perfect 
among  others.  Heroical  magnanimity,  exquisite  justice,  grave  modera- 
tion, exact  wisdom,  repentance  unfeigned,  unwearied  patience,  the 
mysteries  of  God,  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  the  terrors  of  wrath,  the 
comforts  of  grace,  the  works  of  Providence  over  this  world,  and 
the  promised  joys  of  that  world  which  is  to  come  ;  all  good  necessary 
to  be  either  known,  or  done,  or  had,  this  one  celestial  fountain 
yieldeth.  Let  there  be  any  grief  or  disaster  incident  into  the  soul 
of  man,  any  wound  or  sickness  named,  for  which  there  is  not  in  this 
treasure-book  a  present  comfortable  remedy  at  all  times  ready  to  be 
found.  Hereof  it  is  that  we  covet  to  make  the  Psalms  especinlly 
familiar  unto  all.' — Richard  Hooker,  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  Book  V. 

382.  The  Title.— The  Book  of  Psalms  constitutes,  in 
the  Jewish  canon,  the  first  and  most  important  of  tlie  Old 
Testament  Ilagiographa  (§  9  :  see  Lu  24^*).  The  Hebrew- 
title  {tehilUm)  means  '  praises ' ;  the  English,  taken  from  the 
LXX,  denotes  odes  adapted  to  music  (^//aXXa),  to  strike  a 
stringed  instrument) ;  an  appropriate  name,  as  most  of  the 
pieces  were  intended  not  only  to  express  religious  feeling,  but 
to  be  sung  devotionally  in  public  service.  In  individual 
Psalms,  the  title  generally  employed  is  mizmor,  '  a  song 
with  musical  accompaniment*  (57  times).  The  word  shir, 
*  song '  or  *  ode,'  is  prefixed  to  45,  46  ;  and  in  combination 
with  mizmor  to  30,  48 ;  as  well  as  with  hammaaloth,  '  the 
steps,'  to  120-134  ('Songs  of  Degrees').  To  five  Psalms (17, 
86,  90,  102,  142)  the  word  tephillah,  '  prayer,'  is  prefixed  ;  and 
the  same  word,  in  the  plural,  is  used  in  the  postscript  to  72. 

383.  Arrangement. — According  to  tradition,  the  Psalms 
were  collected  and  arranged  by  Ezra  and  his  com- 
panions' (b.  c.  450),  though  with  certain  additions  after- 
wards. In  the  book  itself  there  is  decisive  evidence  of 
its  having  been  formed  from    several    smaller  collections. 


DIVISIONS   OF   THE   PSALTER  569 

In  the  Hebrew  and  LXX  the  Psalms  are  divided  into  five 
books,  a  division  familiar  to  English  readers,  from  its 
adoption  in  the  R.  V.  and  in  other  modern  editions  of  the 
Psalter*^.  The  distinguished  commentator  Franz  Delitzsch 
observes,  *  The  Psalter  is  also  a  Pentateuch ;  the  echo  of 
the  Books  of  Moses  from  the  heart  of  Israel  ...  It  is  the 
Five  Books  of  the  Church  to  Jehovah,  as  the  Law  is  the 
Five  Books  of  Jehovah  to  the  Church.' 

Characteristics  of  the  Several  Books. 

I.  1-41.  Consists,  with  only  four  exceptions  (r,  2,  10,  33)  ^y 
of  Psalms  attributed  by  their  titles  to  David.  This  book 
is  distinguished  by  the  frequent  use  of  the  name  Jehovah 
(Lokd),  the  Covenant  God. 

II.  42-72.  Psalms  of  *  the  sons  of  Korah,'  42-47,  of 
'  David,'  51-65,  68-70.  Probably  a  compilation  for  the 
Tabernacle  and  Temple  services.  Here  the  name  Elohim 
(God)  predominates,  in  one  Psalm  (53)  being  altered  from 
Jehovah  (14). 

III.  73-89.  -Psalms  of  'Asaph,'  73-83,  and  '  Korah,'  84- 
89,  mostly  supplemental  to  II.  The  names  of  Deity  are 
here  equally  employed.  Only  one  Psalm  in  this  book  (86) 
is  attributed  to  David. 

IV.  90-106.  The  first  attributed  to  Moses,  two  to 
David  (loi,  103),  the  rest  anonymous.  Here  Jehovah  is  the 
prevailing  Divine  name. 

*  In  references  to  the  Psalins,  it  will  be  convenient  to  students  to 
remember  that  in  the  Hebrew,  the  title  often  counts  as  a  distinct  verse; 
the  following  verse-numbers  being  therefore  one  in  advance  of  our 
ordinary  text;  also  that  in  the  Septuagint,  Psalms  9  and  10  are  com- 
bined, so  that  the  following  Psalm-numbers  are  one  short  of  those  in 
our  Psalters,  as  far  as  Ps  114,  which  is  joined  to  115,  the  two  in 
the  LXX  being  113.  Ps  116  is  divided,  and  reckoned  in  the  LXX 
as  114-115.  The  order,  as  we  have  it,  is  restored  at  147,  which  is  also 
divided  (LXX  146,  147). 

**  But  10  and  33  were  each  regarded  as  continuations  of  the  pre- 
ceding, which  are  Davidic. 


570  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

V.  107-150.  Litiirgic,  including  the  Hallelujah  Psalms 
and  the  Songs  of  Degrees  ;  perhaps  collected  for  the  service 
of  the  second  Temple.  Here  again,  Jehovah  is  the  pre- 
dominant name. 

384.  Authorship. — Among  the  authors  mentioned  in  the 
titles,  David  '  the  sweet  Psalmist  of  Israel '  was,  according 
to  uniform  Jewish  tradition  %  the  chief ;  although  not  all 
(73)  to  which  his  name  is  prefixed  in  the  Hebrew,  nor  the 
additional  ones  in  the  LXX  (12)^,  were  written   by  him. 

The  name  of  Asaph,  David's  chief  musician,  or  of  his 
descendants,  is  connected  with  twelve,  50,  73-83.  To  the 
Sons  of  Korah,  another  family  of  choristers,  eleven  more 
are  attributed  or  inscribed :  to  this  family,  Heman,  the 
Ezrahite,  and  grandson  of  Samuel,  belonged  (Ps  88 :  com- 
pare I  Sa  8^,  I  Ch  6^2) :  and  Ethan  is  named  as  the 
author  of  89,  though  erroneously,  if  he  were  a  contempo- 
rary of  David :  see  verses  38-44.  Solomon's  name  is  con- 
nected with  72  and  127  ;  but  probably  he  is  rather  the 
subject  than  the  author  of  the  former.  .  Moses  is  re- 
puted to  be  the  author  of  Ps  90,  and  the  following  ten 
are  ascribed  to  him  by  Jewish  critics,  but  without  good 
ground :  see  97^  and  99^.  The  anonymous  Psalms  have 
been  ascribed  to  various  authors.  The  LXX  mentions 
Jeremiah  as  the  author  of  Ps  137,  and  Haggai  and  Zechariah 
as  the  authors  of  146,  147. 

*  See  a  Mac  2^^,  which  passage  preserves  the  Jewish  tradition 
(although  not  of  inspired  authority) :  '  He  (Nehemiah),  founding 
a  library,  gathered  together  the  books  about  the  kings  and  prophets, 
and  the  books  of  David,  and  letters  of  kings  about  sacred  gifts.' 

^  Psalms  33,  4a,  67,  71,  91,  95,  96,  97,  98,  99,  104,  137.  To  the  title 
of  this  last,  the  name  of  Jeremiah  ia  added;  the  meaning  probably 
being  (as  we  might  express  it)  'a  Davidic  Psalm  by  Jeremiah.'  To 
the  title  of  71,  after  'David,'  the  LXX  has  the  inexplicable  addition 
•of  the  sons  of  Jonadab,  and  of  those  first  carried  captive.'  In  the 
best  MSS.  of  the  Septuagint  David's  name  is  omitted  from  the  headings 
of  laa,  134,  and  131. 


DIVISIONS   OF   THE   PSALTER  571 

385.  Value  of  the  Book. — The  peculiar  value  of  the 
Psalms  is  twofold. 

1.  They  are  models  of  acceptable  devotion.  Other  parts  of  revelation 
represent  God  as  speaking  to  man.  Here,  man  is  represented  as  speak- 
ing to  God.  By  this  book,  therefore,  we  test  the  utterances  and 
feelings  of  our  hearts.  Here  we  have  a  rule  by  -which  we  may  know 
whether  they  are  healthy  and  true,  whether  the  fire  that  rises  from 
within  is  of  God's  kindling  or  of  our  own. 

2.  They  contain  wonderful  foreshadowings  of  our  Lord's  history, 
His  sufferings  and  glory :  for  His  sufferings  see  Ps  22  ;  for  His  glory, 
Ps  2,  45,  72,  no.  Ps  132^^  foretells  His  connexion  with  David;  Ps 
118^^  His  rejection  by  the  Jews,  Ps  68^^  His  ascension  and  the  gift 
of  the  Spirit ;  and  Ps  117  the  call  of  the  Gentiles  :  see  Ro  15". 

Nor  is  the  Messianic  character  of  this  book  restricted  to  such 
directly  proph  etical  Psalms.  Thi'oughout  the  Psalter  we  find  portrayed 
a  personal  ideal,  righteous  yet  suffering,  and  through  sorrow  and 
trial  attaining  to  universal  dominion.  Of  this  ideal,  Jesus  Christ  in 
His  person  and  work  is  the  only  complete  realization.  Thus  in 
Psalm  8  the  honour  conferred  by  God  upon  humanity  is  described, 
'Thou  hast  put  all  things  under  his  feet ' ;  but  the  apostolic  comment 
is,  '  We  see  not  yet  all  things  put  under  him  ;  but  we  see  Jesus,'  &c. 
(Heb  !2^®).  David  again  (Ps  16)  triumphs  in  assured  hope,  'Thou 
wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  Hades,  neither  wilt  Thou  suffer  Thine  holy 
One  to  see  corruption.'  '  Being  a  prophet,''  is  the  comment  of  the  Apostle 
Peter,  '  he  spake  of  the  resurrection  of  the  Christ '  (Ac  2^'^-^^).  Once 
more,  Psalm  40  gives  a  beautiful  picture  of  perfect  consecration, 
fulfilled  only  and  completely  in  Him,  as  shown  in  Heb  10""^°. 

The  Christian  Church,  therefore,  takes  the  Psalms  as  her  own 
language,  or  as  the  language  of  her  Lord.  When  the  writer  speaks 
of  his  enemies,  we  understand  him  as  speaking  of  the  enemies  of 
Christ  and  His  Church*.  Generally,  however,  the  feelings  of  the 
■writer  are  identical  with  the  ordinary  feelings  of  Christians,  as  when 
he  describes  the  confidence  and  love  which  have  been  common  to  true 
believers  in  all  ages. 

•  '  If  we  believe  that  the  imprecatory  passages  are  Divine,  that  they 
belong  to  Him  in  Whose  hands  are  life  and  death,  the  load  is  lifted  off 
and  laid  upon  One  Who  is  strong  enough  to  bear  the  burden  of  their 
reproach.  According  to  Scripture,  evil,  in  the  long  course  of  its 
development  and  reproduction,  concentrates  itself  in  successive 
principles,  persons,  systems,  nations  ;  in  Judas  Iscariot,  who  betrayed 
his  Lord;  in  the  Jews,  who  rejected  the  flower  and  crown  of  all  their 
history  ;  in  that  ordered  system  of  error  and  persecutions,  be  it  what  it 
may,  which  is  calledBabylon.'— Archbishop  Alexander,  Bampton  Lectures, 
1876,  'The  Witness  of  the  Psalms  to  Christ  and  Christianity,'  Lect.  ii. 


572  THE    rOETlCAL    BOOKS 

The  Psalms  as  National  Songs. — In  a  purely  literary 
point  of  view,  the  Psalms  have  been  called,  not  inaptly,  the 
national  ballads  of  the  Hebrew  race.  The  contrast  which, 
so  regarded,  they  present  to  other  '  national  ballads '  is 
sufficiently  striking. 

All  classes  of  writers  have  delighted  to  praise  these  compositions. 
Athanasius,  and  after  him  Lullier,  called  them  an  epitome  of  the 
Bible;  Basil,  and  after  him  Bishop  Hall,  *a  compend  of  theology.' 
'  Not  in  their  Divine  arguments  alone,'  says  Milton,  *  but  in  the  very 
critical  art  of  composition,  they  may  be  easily  made  to  appear  over 
all  the  kinds  of  lyric  poesy  incomparable.'  *  In  lyric  flow  and  fire,' 
says  a  more  modern  authority,  'in  crushing  force  and  majesty,  . . .  the 
poetry  of  the  ancient  Scriptures  is  the  most  superb  that  ever  burnt 
within  the  breast  of  man'  (Sir  D.  K.  Sandford).  To  the  Christian, 
however,  their  highest  praise  is  that  they  embody  the  holiest  feelings, 
have  supplied  utterances  to  the  emotions  of  the  best  men  of  all  ages, 
and  were  sung  by  Him  Who,  though  'He  spake  as  never  man  spake,' 
chose  to  breathe  out  His  soul,  both  in  praise  and  in  His  last  agony, 
in  words  from  the  Psalms. 

386.  Titles  of  the  Psalms. — All  the  Psalms  excepting 
thirty-four  have  titles  prefixed  :  by  whom,  or  at  what  date, 
is  unknown.  Probably  when  the  five  books  were  suc- 
cessively compiled,  the  editor  of  each  recorded  the  tradi- 
tional view.  These  prefixes  are,  however,  not  authoritative, 
although  they  may  often  be  helpful.  They  occur  either 
singly,  or  two  or  more  combined  in  one  title.  The  prefixes 
are  of  different  kinds. 

Prefixes  of  Authorship. — These  have  already  been 
noted ;  see  §  384.  One  source  of  ambiguity  is  that  the 
same  preposition  as  used  in  these  titles  may  signify  q/J  to, 
and /or.  Thus  '  0/ David,'  'To  the  Chief  Musician,'  and 
'  For  the  Sons  of  Korah,'  are  all  similarly  expressed.  The 
connexion  may  show  which  sense  is  intended,  but  this  again 
is  sometimes  doubtful.  Thus  we  cannot  be  certain  whether 
to  read  '  Of  Solomon  '  or  '  For  Solomon  '  in  the  headings  to 
Psalms  72,  127  ;  or  whether  Asaph  (50,  73-83)  was  poet  or 
musician,  or  both  (see  i  Ch  6^^"'*^  16^'^  2  Ch  29^^). 


THE   PSALMS   OF   DAVID  573 

A  modern  theory  *  that  David  was  not  the  writer  of  any  of  the  Psalms 
attributed  to  him,  and  that  in  fact  tlie  whole  Psalter  was  post-exilic, 
'  the  Hymn-book  of  the  secjnd  Temple,'  need  not  here  be  more  than 
mentioned.  It  has  not  commended  itself  to  scholars  generally**. 
The  hypotheses  on  which  it  chiefly  rests  are  unsupported,  as  (i)  that 
the  early  Hebrews  were  not  sufficiently  advanced  in  spiritual  culture 
to  be  capable  of  such  expression,  and  (2)  in  particular  that  the 
character  of  David  was  entirely  out  of  harmony  with  such  exalted 
flights  of  devotion. 

With  regard  to  the  former  point  it  has  been  well  said  :  *  It  is  now 
the  fashion  to  speak  of  the  Psalter  as  the  Psalm-book  of  the  second 
Temple  in  the  sense,  not  that  it  is  a  collection  of  older  religious 
compositions  brought  together  by  the  piety  of  a  later  generation,  but 
that  they  were  composed  purposely  for  use  in  public  worship.  Thus, 
by  one  stroke,  the  tongue  of  ancient  Israel  is  struck  dumb,  as  the 
pen  is  dashed  from  its  hands ;  these  artless  lyrics  are  deprived  of 
their  spontaneousness,  and  a  great  gulf  is  fixed  between  the  few 
which  a  niggardly  criticism  admits  to  be  of  early  date,  and  the  full 
volume  of  devotional  song  which  in  many  tones  was  called  forth  by 
the  shifting  situations  of  olden  times.  Of  course  the  hypothesis  of 
a  low  religious  stage  in  pre-exilic  times  demands  this,  but  it  is  an 
additional  difficulty  which  the  theory  raises  in  the  way  of  its  own 
acceptance  ;  for  even  if  the  Psalms  are  late,  the  influence  that  started 
and  produced  them  must  lie  deeper  than  in  legal  ordinances  and 
formal  ceremonies.' — Dr.  J.  Robertson,  Early  Religion  of  Israel,  p.  474. 
See  the  whole  paragraph  for  a  masterly  criticism  of  the  view  which 
assigns  the  Psalter,  with  few  exceptions  '^^  to  the  post-exilic  period. 

With  regard  to  the  second  point  it  must  suffice  to  remark  that  the 
criticism  betrays  great  want  of  insight  into  the  many-sided  nature  ol 
that  most  wonderful  man  •^,  as  well  as  a  virtual  denial  of  his  inspira- 
tion. Very  probably,  no  doubt,  some  of  the  Psalms  attributed  to  him 
were  compositions  in  his  style  and  spirit,  Lavidic,  though  not  by 
David  himself  (122,  139,  &c.)  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  deprive  hiin 
of  the  character  ascribed  to  him  by  the  sacred  historian,  '  the  sweet 
Psalmist  of  Israel,'  a  Sa  23^. 

*  Professor  Cheyne,  Bampton  Lectures,  '  Contents  of  the  Psalter.' 

**  See  Dr.  Sanday,  Oracles  of  Gud,  Appendix  I  ;  and  Professor  A.  F. 
Kirkpatrick,  lice  Divine  Library  of  the  Old  Testament,  Note  B,  '  The  Date 
of  the  Psalter.' 

*=  The  only  exception,  according  to  Professor  Cheyne,  is  Ps  18. 

^  See  for  a  more  philosophical,  as  well  as  sympathetic,  estimate  of 
David's  character,  the  lines  of  J.  H.  Newman,  Lyra  Aposlolica.  Also 
The  Life  of  iJaoid  as  rejltcted  in  his  Fsalms,  by  Dr.  A.  Maclaren. 


574  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

387.  Historical  Circumstances. — The  headings  of  the 
Psalms  often  afford  an  interesting  clue  to  the  time  and 
occasion  of  their  composition.  They  are  of  value  for  the 
criticism  of  the  Psalter.  For  the  very  difficulty  of  bringing 
many  of  these  titles  into  agreement  with  the  extant  histoiy 
shows  that  they  were  not  invented  to  correspond  with  the 
record. 

Thus,  facts  and  personages  are  mentioned  in  these  titles  as  well 
known  (e.  g.  Psalms  7,  60),  plainly  from  some  6ther  source  than  the 
Biblical  narrative  ;  thus  incidentally  but  convincingly  showing  their 
independence  and  antiquity.  Their  irregularity  also  is  an  indication 
that  they  were  earlier  than  the  editorial  collection  of  the  Psalms  into 
books.  If  the  editors  had  placed  the  titles  they  would,  it  is  reason- 
able to  suppose,  have  followed  some  uniform  plan  *.  Another  note- 
worthy fact  is,  that  when  the  Septuagint  version  was  made,  probably 
in  the  third  century  b.  c,  the  meaning  of  these  titles  had  already 
become,  in  many  cases,  hopelessly  obscure.  The  Greek  translators, 
by  the  renderings  they  give,  often  clearly  confess  their  ignorance, 
while  sometimes  they  deviate  into  obviously  impossible  explanations. 
All  this  proves  that  the  superscriptions  were,  even  in  their  time,  the 
embodiment  of  a  remote  tradition.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  earliest 
testimony  that  we  possess  to  the  current  Hebrew  belief  as  to  the 
origin  and  purport  of  the  Psalms  to  which  they  are  prefixed.  Nor 
are  there  any  Hebrew  copies  in  which  as  a  class  they  are  omitted. 
The  fair  inference  seems  to  be  that  the  title  of  any  given  Psalm, 
unless  clearly  irreconcilable  with  its  contents,  may  be  accepted  as 
presumptive  evidence  ^. 

388.  Character  and  Contents. — See  §382.  Besides 
the    headings   there    noticed,   are   those  to  45,    'a  Song  of 

*  See  an  article  in  the  Church  Quarterly  Revieiv,  January,  1879,  *  The 
Titles  of  the  Psalms.'  Comparison  is  often  made  between  these 
superscriptions  and  the  obviously  incorrect  subscriptions  to  several 
of  the  Pauline  Epistles.  The  comparison,  however,  fails  in  one 
essential  point.  The  latter  are  absent  from  the  most  ancient  MSS. 
of  the  New  Testament ;  the  former  are  found  in  every  recension  of 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 

^  A  notable  instance  is  the  rendering  of  the  prefix,  'To  the  Chief 
Musician'  or  'the  Precentor,'  by  the  phrase  (h  to  t€'Ao?,  'To  the 
end.'  The  Alexandrian  translators  had  lost  the  clue  to  the  Hebrew 
laminats'each  (Flif^Dp). 


HEADINGS   OF  THE   PSALMS  576 

Loves'  ;  37  and  70,  'to  bring  to  remembrance'  ;  to  60,  'for 
teaching';  and  to  100,  'for  thanksgiving.'  The  following 
words  and  phrases  are  more  special,  but  not  always  easy  to 
understand. 

Degrees  ('Ascents'),  Songs  of  (120-134).  Some  refer  this  phrase 
to  the  structure  of  the  Psalm  ascending  from  clause  to  clause  (Ps  121, 
De  Wotte,  Gesenius,  Delitzsch)  ;  but  hardly  applicable  to  others. 
Or  it  is  supposed  to  indicate  the  singing  of  these  Psalms  on  tlie 
fifteen  steps  to  the  inner  court  of  the  Temple  (Jewish  critics  generally). 
But  the  most  probable  explanation  is  that  they  were  Psalms  for  those 
going  up  to  Jerusalem,  especially  on  the  return  from  captivity  (Lowth, 
Hengstenberg,  Ewald,  Perowne,  Kirkpatrick,  &c.).  'Pilgrim  songs,' 
a  little  Hymn-book  within  a  Hymn-book,  peculiarly  sweet  and 
sacred. 

Higfg-aion,  *  Meditation,'  Ps  9^^  [Tlie  word  is  also  found  in  Ps  19^^ 
92^.]     It  calls  the  reader  to  solemn  reflection. 

MascMl,  in  the  heading  of  thirteen  Psalms,  '  didactic '  (Hengsten- 
berg, Tholuck),  or  *  skilful '  (Gesenius,  De  Wette,  Ewald).  [See  Ps  47'^, 
where  the  word  occurs  and  is  rendered  '  with  understanding.'] 

Miclitani,  Ps  16  and  56-60,  a  word  of  uncei'tain  meaning.  It  may 
be  'golden'  (as  A.  V.  margin)  =  a  Psalm  of  unusual  excellence,  or 
*  a  mystery'  (Hengstenberg),  or  more  probably  for  Michtabh,  '  a  written 
poem'  or  'inscription'  (Gesenius,  Rosenmiiller,  De  Wette,  Delitzsch, 
&c.). 

The  general  heading  lamenatseach,  '  to  or  for  the  Precentor,' 
occurs  fifty -five  times  in  the  headings,  and  inscribes  the 
Psalm  to  the  leader  of  the  Temple  choir. 

Musical  Directions. — There  are  also  specified,  in  many 
cases,  the  tune,  the  instrument,  or  an  indication  of  the  choir 
intended. 

The  following  is  an  alphabetical  list  of  such  notes. 

I.  Aijeleth  hash-shachar,  Ps  22,  'the  hind  of  the  morning,'  an 
Eastern  expression  for  the  dawn.  There  was  probably  a  song  begin- 
ning with  these  words,  to  the  tune  of  which  the  Psalm  was  set.  [So 
in  English,  a  hymn  might  conceivably  be  written  to  the  air  of  '  Home, 
sweet  home '  ;  these  words  being  prefixed  to  the  hymn— totally,  of 
course,  unconnected  with  its  meaning.'}  But  some  (as  Luther,  Hengsten- 
berg, Tholuck)  regard  this  prefix  as  a  title  of  David  or  of  the  Messiah. 

a.  Alamoih,  Ps  46,  '  maidens,'  so  'for  treble  voices.' 


676  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

3.  Al-tashcheih,  Ps  57-59,  75.  '  Destroy  not,*  the  first  word  of  a  song 
to  the  air  of  which  these  Psahns  were  adapted.  [Possibly  a  vintage- 
song  so  beginning,  Is  65^.] 

4.  Oittith,  Ps  8,  81,  84,  from  the  name  of  Gath  (*  wine-press*),  the 
city  so  named.  Hence  either  a  Gath  instrument  or  tune,  or  a  vintage 
melody. 

5.  Jonath-elem-rechokim,  Ps  56,  '  the  mute  dove  among  strangers,'  either 
the  tune  of  a  song  so  beginning,  or  with  a  reference  to  David's  position 
for  the  time  at  Gath  (see  further  in  the  title). 

6.  Leannotk,  Ps  88,  '  for  singing'  (R.  V.). 

7.  Mahalath,  Ps  53,  88,  a  tune  so  called,  or  a  lute. 

8.  Muth-lahhen,  Ps  9,  '  Death  of  the  son '  ;  probably  set  to  the  tune  of 
a  song  beginning  with  the  words,  or  (with  a  slight  variation  in  the 
words)  '  with  a  maiden's  voice  for  a  son  '  (boy),  1.  e.  male  trebles. 

l^n^C  ?V,   'Upon  the  death  of,*  might  be  written  as  one  word  with 

change  of  vowels,  ^"-Pi|.]  Some  Jewish  authorities  again  under- 
stand 'the  son'  as  Goliath,  others  as  Absalom  !  So  uncertain  is  the 
meaning.  But  see  note  *  below,  and  Mr.  J.  W.  Thirtle's  essay,  where 
the  title  is  rendered  '  Death  of  the  Champion.' 

9.  Neginoth,  Ps  4,  6,  54,  56,  60,  61,  76,  'stringed  instruments.' 

10.  Nehiloth,  Ps  5,  '  wind  instruments.' 

11.  Selah,  seventy-one  times  in  Psalms,  three  times  in  Habakkuk, 
a  'pause'  in  the  music,  perhaps  a  rest  in  the  vocal  part  during  an 
instrumental  interlude;  or  (less  likely)  '  elevation' =/or^e,  or  else 
'Exalt  Jehovah'  (Ewald,  De  Wette). 

12.  Sheminith,  Ps  6,  12,  'the  eiglith  ' ;  i.e.  octave  =  bass,  or  to  be 
sung  in  parts  :  or  perhaps  an  eight-stringed  instrument. 

13.  Shiggaion,  Ps  7,  'wandering,'  or  excited  song;  dithyrambic  or  an 
elegy  (Gesenius,  Rosenmiiller,  De  Wette,  Tholuck).  Cf.  Hab  3^,  the 
word  in  plural  form. 

*  A  modern  theory  (see  Essay  on  The  Titles  of  the  Psalms,  by  J.  W. 
Thirtle,  1904)  is  that  these  musical  directions,  as  in  the  Psalm  of 
Habakkuk,  3^^,  are  properly  to  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  Psalm, 
and  that  editors  unacquainted  with  this  law  have  wrongly  attached 
them  to  the  beginning  of  the  next.  Thus,  the  present  heading  of  Ps  88 
down  to  '  Mahalath  Leannoth  '  is  really  a  postscript  to  87  ;  '  Alamoth,' 
the  female  choir,  was  intended  fur  Ps  45,  rather  than  46;  'Gittith,* 
'vintage  melody,*  should  similarly  be  placed  at  the  end  of  7,  80  (where 
see  verse  8  seq.),  and  83.  The  lieading,  again,  of  56,  'the  mute  dove 
among  strangers,'  rightly  belongs,  as  a  postscript,  to  55  (see  verses  6,  8). 
Similarly  the  heading,  'Fortlie  Chief  Musician,' should  everywhere 
be  transferred  to  the  preceding  Psalm.  Tlie  theory  at  least  deserves 
consideration. 


THE   PSALMS   CLASSIFIED  577 

14.  Shushan,  plur.  Shoshannhiu  Ps  45,  69,  'Lily,'  'lilies,'  a  lovely  song, 
or  a  lily-shaped  instrument.  With  Edxdh,  Ps  60,  80,  '  lily  or  lilies,'  a 
'testimony,'  perhaps  the  name  of  a  tune,  or  signifying  a  beautiful 
subject  of  well- attested  excellence  (Hengstenberg). 

389.  The  later  Psalms. — Several  of  the  Psalms  (see 
§  391)  are  post-exilic,  and  belong  to  the  Persian  period  of 
Jewish  history.  That  some  are  later  still,  dating  from  the 
times  of  Grecian  rule,  and  even  from  the  Maccabsean  era,  has 
been  maintained  by  modern  critics.  The  question  is  one  of 
special  interest  in  its  bearing  on  the  date  of  the  completion 
of  the  canon.  It  is  held  that  certain  Psalms  describing 
national  disaster,  and  especially  the  persecution  of  the  faith- 
ful, depict  a  state  of  things  to  which  there  is  no  answering 
reality  in  any  epoch  of  the  history  earlier  than  the  great 
oppression  under  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  This  was  B.C. 
170,   or  about  280  years  after  Malachi. 

The  criticism  rests  on  internal  evidence  only,  and  is  applied 
especially  to  Ps  44  (Calvin),  74,  77,  79,  83.  Other  Psalms  claimed 
for  the  Maccabtean  period  may  at  present  be  disregarded  ;  on  these 
five  the  theory  really  rests  *.  And,  apart  from  any  detailed  examina- 
tion of  the  several  Psalms,  it  may  be  remarked  : — 

I.  The    descriptions    of    persecution,    ruin,    and    distress    may   be 

*  The  Macoabaian  Psalms,  according  to  Reuss,  are  44,  54-56,  59,  60,  62, 
64,  71,  74,  75-77,  79,  83,  86,  88-90,  94,  96-102,  115,  116,  118,  132,  138, 
140,  142-144,  148,  149.  According  to  Gratz  they  are  30,  44,  74,  83, 
115-118,  144,  148-150.  Professor  Cheyne  regards  the  following  as 
Maccabsean:  20,  21,  33,  44,  60,  61,  63,  74,  79,  83,  lor,  108,  115- 
118,  135-138,  145-147  (?',  148-150.  The  divergences  in  these  lists, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  earlier  part  of  the  Psalter,  are  very 
instructive  to  all  who  would  rightly  estimate  the  methods  of  criticism 
which  yield  such  results.  See  Cheyne's  Origin  of  the  Psalter,  pp.  455, 
456.  Bishop  Westcott  forcibly  remarks  that  these  Psalms  'do  not 
contain  the  slightest  trace  of  those  internal  divisions  of  the  people 
which  were  the  most  marked  features  of  the  Maccabaean  struggle. 
The  dangers  then  were  as  much  from  within  as  from  without,  and 
pai-ty  jealousies  brought  the  Divine  cause  to  the  greater  peril.  It  is 
incredible  that  a  series  of  Maccabaean  Psalms  should  contain  no 
allusion  to  a  system  of  enforced  idolatry,  or  to  a  temporizing  priest- 

Pp 


578  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

referred  to  earlier  periods  of  tlie  history,  as  to  tlie  incursions  of  tlie 
heathen  nations  surrounding  Palestine  (44,  83),  and  especially  to 
the  Egyptian  and  Chaldiean  invasions  (74,  79).  A  Psalm  written  in 
the  time  of  an  earlier  trouble  might  be  applied  with  new  meaning  to 
subsequent  trials  ;  and  sufferers  under  Antiochus  would  solace  them- 
selves with  words  uttered  by  their  fathers  when  menaced  by  the 
power  of  Sennacherib  or  groaning  under  the  yoke  of  Shishak  or 
Nebuchadnezzar. 

2.  There  is  no  independent  evidence  that  tlie  spirit  of  poetry  or 
prophecy  was  possessed  by  the  Church  in  the  Maccaboean  period.  All 
the  testimony  that  we  have  tends  to  show  that  long  before  that  time 
the  canon  was  closed.  Especially  were  the  earlier  books  of  the 
Psalter  completed  ;  and  the  place  of  a  Maccabisan  Psalm  (as  the  44th) 
in  the  second  Book  would  be  inexplicable.  The  so-called  *  Psalms  of 
Solomon,'  written  within  the  century  after  the  Syrian  oppi-ession, 
instructively  show  the  immeasurable  difference  between  the  inspired 
Psalter  and  the  later  productions  of  Jewish  genius. 

3.  The  fact  already  noticed,  that  the  superscriptions  of  the  Psalms 
had  in  many  cases  become  unintelligible  when  the  Septuagint  version 
was  made*,  forbids  the  supposition  that  the  Psalms  in  question  were 
composed  at  the  same  or  a  later  period.  They  were  by  that  time 
already  ancitnt. 

4.  It  may  be  added  that  the  Prayer  and  Doxology  at  the  end  of  the 
fourth  Book  of  the  Psalter  (Ps  106*^*8^  appear  to  be  transcribed  in 
the  First  Book  of  Chronicles  {i6^^-^^),  indicating  that  when  this  Book 
was  written  the  Psalter  was  thus  far  complete. 

5.  The  evident  quotations  made  from  the  Psalter  in  the  Book  of 
Jonah  (2)  lead  to  the  inference  that  certain  Psalms  already  existed  in 
his  time  (3,  31,  42,  69,  142,  &c.). 

These  considerations  as  a  whole  appear  conclusive  against  the 
Maccabsean  theory  ;  and  the  Psalms  as  well  as  the  Prophets  may 
be  regarded  as  having  assumed  their  final  form  soon  after  the  days  of 
Malachi. 

390.  The  Psalms  classified.— Various  classifications  of 
the  Psalms  have  been  proposed.  Tholuck  divides  them, 
according  to  their  matter,  into  songs  of  praise,  of  thanks- 
giving, of  complaint,  and  of  instruction.  Others  arrange 
them  under  hymns  in  honour   of  God  ;    hymns   of   Zion, 

hood,  or  to  a  faithless  multitude.'     See  also  Professor  Margoliouth'a 
Lines  of  Defence  of  the  Biblical  Revelation,  pp.  188  210. 
•  See  §  387. 


THE   PSALMS   CLASSIFIED  579 

and  the  Temple  ;  hymns  of  the  Messiah  or  King  ;  plaintive 
and  supplicatory  hymns,  and  religious  odes,  as  Ps  23,  91, 
119.  No  very  accurate  classification  can  be  made,  for  the 
contents  are  often  very  various.  The  following  arrange- 
ment is  by  the  Kev.  E.  Bickersteth : — 

1.  Didactic  Psalms :  on  the  character  of  good  and  bad  men,  their 
happiness  and  misery,  i,  5,  7,  9-12,  14,  15,  17,  24,  25,  32,  34,  36,  37, 
50,  52,  53,  58,  73,  75,  84,  91,  92,  94,  112,  119,  121,  125,  127,  128,  133  ; 
on  the  excellency  of  the  Divine  Law,  19,  119  ;  on  the  vanity  of  human 
life,  39,  49,  90  ;  on  the  duty  of  rulers,  82,  loi  ;  on  humility,  131. 

2.  Psalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration :  acknowledgements  of  God's  good- 
ness and  mercy,  and  particularly  of  His  care  of  good  men,  23,  34,  36, 
91,  100,  103,  107,  117,  121,  145,  146;  acknowledgements  of  His  power, 
glory,  and  attributes  generally,  8,  19,  24,  29,  33,  47,  50,  65,  66,  76,  77, 

93,  95-97,  99,  104,  i",  ii3-"5,  I34,  I39,  i47,  148,  150- 

3.  Psalms  of  Thanksgiving  :  for  mercies  to  individuals,  9,  18,  22,  30, 
34,  40,  75,  103,  108,  116,  118,  138,  144;  for  mercies  to  the  Israelites 
generally,  46,  48,  65,  66,  68,  76,  81,  85,  98,  105,  124,  126,  129,  135,  136, 
149. 

4.  Devotional  Psalms  :  expressive  of  penitence,  called,  emphatically, 
the  Seven  Penitential  Psalms,  6,  32,  38,  51,  102,  130,  143  ;  expressive  of 
trust  under  afflictions,  3,  16,  27,  31,  54,  56,  57,  61,  62,  71,  86;  ex- 
pressive of  extreme  dejection,  though  not  without  hope,  13,  22,  69, 
77,  88,  143.  Prayers  in  time  of  severe  distress,  4,  5,  11,  28,  41,  55,  59, 
64,  70,  109,  120,  140,  141,  143.  Prayers  whea  deprived  of  public 
worship,  42,  43,  63,  84.  Prayers  asking  help  in  consideration  of  the 
uprightness  of  his  cause,  7,  17,  26,  35.  Prayers  in  time  of  affliction 
and  persecution,  44,  60,  74,  79,  80,  83,  89,  94,  102,  129,  137.  Prayers 
of  intercession,  20,  67,  122,  132,  144. 

5.  Psalms  eminently  prophetical,  2,  16,  22,  40,  45,  68,  69,  72,  97,  no, 
118,  mostly  Messianic. 

6.  Historical  Psalms,  78,  105,  106. 

391.    Approximate    Chronological    Arrangements. — 

The  endeavour  has  been  frequently  made  to  arrange  the 
Psalms  chronologically,  but  as  many  of  them  have  no 
internal  indications  of  their  age  and  occasions  the  work  has 
been  largely  one  of  dubious  conjecture.  Dr.  Townsend  in 
his  Arrangement  assigns  a  date  to  every  Psalm,  and  connects 
it  with  a  passage  in  the  Old  Testament  History  ;  but  a  closer 

p  p  2 


580  THE    POETICAL   BOOKS 

analysis  has  made  his  list  to  a  large  extent  obsolete'*. 
The  Psalms  Chronologically  Arranged,  bij  Four  Friends,  1867, 
is  a  more  interesting  attempt  in  a  similar  direction,  but  too 
largely  adopts  the  doubtful  conclusions  of  Ewald.  On  the 
whole  it  would  appear  that  no  certainty  in  the  matter  is 
attainable ;  while  yet  in  many  cases  there  is  a  high  degree 
of  probability.  The  Psalms  which  belong  to  David's  life- 
time have  been  indicated  in  the  note  on  the  Books  of 
Samuel,  §  281.  Of  the  later  Psalms,  those  which  bear 
the  name  of  Solomon,  with  a  few  that  seem  to  refer  to  the 
Assyrian  and  the  Chaldaean  invasions,  are  noted  under 
§299. 

The  following  additional  enumeration,  although  in  many  cases  con- 
fessedly uncertain,  may  be  helpful  to  the  student  :— 

Chaldvaan  Invasion  and  the  Captivity,  74,  79,  80,  137,  102,  120,  121. 

The  Joyful  Restoration,  85,  107,  123,  126,  and  perhaps  87,  92. 

Troubles  after  the  Return,  124,  125,  129. 

Building  of  tht  Second  Temple  (Hallelujah),  iii-iiB  (113-11S,  the 
'Hallel'"). 

The  Temple  Service  Restored,  134-136  (136,  the  'Great  Hallel '). 

Temple- Sony s  (Hallelujah),  146-150  (used  in  the  daily  Morning 
Service  of  the  Synagogue). 

Psalms  of  Editorship,  i.  Preface  to  Book  i.  119.  I'raises  of  tlic- Divine 
Word  {attributed  to  Ezra). 

There  is  one  Psalm  in  particular  (45)  which  evidently  has  an 
historical  reference,  but  all  attempts  have  failed  to  assign  with  any 
certainty  the  royal  marriage  which  it  celebrates.  This  impossibility 
serves  to  accentuate  its  Messianic  application. 

Neiv  Testament  references  to  the  Psalms. 

392.  I.  The  New  Testament  writers  show  their  familiarity  with  tiie 
Book  of  Psalms  not  only  by  direct  citation,  but  by  their  frequent 
employment  of  its  phraseolog-y  in  scattered  sentences  and  phrases. 
The  following  are  instances  : — 

•  This  arrangement,  modified,  was  given  in  the  former  edition  of 
this  Handbook.  The  Book  of  Fsahns  with  Notes,  R.  T.  S.,  contains  in  its 
Introduction  another  proposed  chronological  classification. 

^  Probably  the  Hymn  which  Jesus  and  the  Disciples  sang  before 
going  out  to  the  Mount  of  Olives,  Mt  26'". 


CHRONOLOGY   OF   PSALTER  581 

Eph  4'-*  'Be  ye  angry  and  sin  not'  is  from  Ps  4*  (LXX),  where  the 
Hebrew  reads  *  Stand  in  awe  and  sin  not.'  In  Ps  34*  the  phrase 
'  taste  and  see  *  is  echoed  in  i  Pet  2^  So  39^  '  a  bridle  upon  the 
mouth,' reproduced  in  Jas  i'^^  The  'horn  of  salvation,'  18'^  132^"^,  is 
a  figure  found  in  the  song  of  Zacharias,  Lu  i®^.  The  thought  of  46*, 
*  the  city  of  God '  reappears  in  many  well-known  New  Testament 
passages.  So  69^*  '  the  book  of  the  living '  ;  78*^°  '  the  tabernacle  of 
(xod  with  men  '  ;  the  phrase  '  cast  thy  burden  upon  the  Lord,'  55^^,  is 
found  in  i  Pet  s^.  The  phrase  107^  'the  hungry  soul  filled  with  good' 
is  reproduced  in  Lu  i^'.  'Every  man  a  liar,'  116^^,  suggested  the 
Apostle's  phrase  in  Ro  s*-  So  118^"  'chastened,  not  killed'  (cp. 
2  Cor  6^)  ;  119''^  'the  heart  enlarged'  (see  2  Cor  6^^)  ;  'Peace  upon 
Israel,'  125^  Gal  6^^.  The  appeal  '  Have  mercy '  {(Xerjaov),  as  123^, 
recurs  in  many  New  Testament  passages  :  and  the  '  new  song '  in 
144^  appears  again  in  Rev  5^.  Some  of  these  parallels  might  be  mere 
coincidence,  but  the  number  of  them  seems  to  show  how  the  Psalter 
was  the  constant  familiar  companion  of  inspired  men. 

2.  There  are  also  many  avowed  quotations,  often  with  the  formula 
'it  is  written.'  Thus,  the  collection  of  passages,  Ro  3'""'^,  setting 
forth  the  wickedness  of  mankind  is  mostly  taken  from  the  Psalms 
(as  14^"'',  &c.).  'Their  line  is  gone  out  through  all  the  earth,'  19*,  13 
cited  Ro  10^^  ('  sound'  for  '  line')  in  reference  to  the  diffusion  of  the 
Gospel.     Other  instances  are  as  follows  : — 

Ps  32  'babes  and  sucklings,'  Mt  21^®  ('perfected'  for  '  ordained'). 
24^  The  earth  and  its  fullness,  i  Cor  lo-*^-^*'. 
32^-'^  Transgression  covered,  Ro  4^"^ 
34^2-iB  Conditions  of  a  prosperous  life,  i  Pet  3**^". 
37^'  'Tlie  meek  shall  inherit  the  earth,'  Mt  5^. 
4422  '  Killed  all  the  day  long,'  Ro  8^^ 
51*"^  God  'justified'  before  men,  Ro  3*. 
78-  '  I  will  open  my  mouth  in  a  parable,'  Mt  13^'. 
82^  '  I  said,  Ye  are  gods,'  Jn  10^*. 
869-10  The  worshipping  nations,  Rev  15*. 
8920  '  I  have  found  David,'  &c.  Ac  13'^'^. 
90*  A  thousand  years  as  yesterday,  2  Pet  3'. 
gjii.i2  Guardianship  of  angels,  Mt  4"  (misapplied  by  Satan). 
94I1  '  The  Lord  knoweth  the  thoughts  of  men,'  i  Cor  3^". 
95"^  'To-day  if  ye  will  hear  His  voice,'  Heb  3^^  .|'^. 
jQ22fi-27  Maker  of  the  earth  and  heavens,  Heb  i^**"^^. 
104*  God's  angels  and  ministers,  Heb  i*^. 
109^  '  His  bishopric  (office)  let  another  take,'  Ac  i^^ 
112^  Liberal  gifts  described,  2  Cor  9^. 
ii6^°  '  I  believed,  therefore  have  I  spoken,'  2  Cor  4^'. 
117^  Pr&ise  from  all  nations  (Gentiles),  Ro  15^^ 


582  THE   POETICAL   BOOKS 

1 18''  ^The  Lord  is  my  helper,*  Heb  is". 

H825.C6  i  Hosanna,'  Mt  ai^i*. 

143-  *  Men  not  justified  before  God,'  Ro  320  Gal  2". 
3.  Several  passages  from  the  Psalms  are  specifically  referred  to 
Christ,  to  His  Person,  sufferings,  and  kingdom.  Such  passages  aie 
of  two  classes.  Some  Psalms  containing  these  are  distinctly  Messianic 
—  prophetical  in  the  highest  sense;  others  refer  to  personages  and 
events  of  the  time  when  they  were  uttered,  which  variously  pre- 
figured Christ  and  His  redemption,  even  when  the  inspired  writers 
themselves  were  unconscious  of  their  deeper  meaning.     See   i    Pet 

jll.l2 

Ps  2  Messianic  Psalm :  predicting  the  conquests  and  sovereignty  of 
the  Divine  Son,  repeatedly  quoted  in  the  New  Testament, 
Ac  425  1353  Heb  t5  55  Rev  22627  128^  in  the  first  of  these 
passages  attributed  by  the  Apostles  to  David.  Ps  16,  the 
Resurrection  of  the  Holy  One,  Ac  2^''  (Peter)  13'^  (Paul). 

S^-"^  Man  the  lord  of  creation,  an  ideal  realized  only  in  Christ, 
Heb  25-». 

227.8.1R  ^n  innocent  Sufferer,  Mt  ^f^-^^-'^^. 

22^2  Testimony  of  the  Saviour  to  His  own  work,  Heb  2^^^^^ 

31''  .Tesus  commends  His  departing  spirit  to  God,  Lu  23*^. 

35'"  Hated  without  a  cause,  Jn  152''. 

40"  Incarnation,  obedience,  and  sacrifice,  Heb  lo-^"^''. 

41^  The  Traitor  amid  professed  friends,  Jn  13!^ 

456  Messianic  Psalm  :  The  Son's  eternal  Throne,  Heb  i^-^ 

68'^  His  Descent  and  Ascension,  Eph  4*. 

69^  Zeal  for  His  Father's  House,  Jn  2^"^. 

6g2i-25  Christ  and  His  enemies,  Mt  27^<*«  Ro  ii^-'"  (Mt  23^^-^''). 
no  Messianic  Psalm:  attributed  by  Ciirist  Himself  to  David,  Christ 
the  Conqueror,  and  Priestly  King,  Mt  22*"',  fee,  Ac  2^*  i  Cor 
15-^  Heb  i"  5"  7^''. 
,  1822.23  Ti^e  Stone  which  the  builders  rejected,  Mt  21*2^  &c.,  Eph  a^*. 
132^^  The  Inheritor  of  David's  throne,  Ac  2'". 


THE   WISDOM-LITERATUKE  583 


THE  WISDOM-LITERATURE  OF  THE  OLD 
TESTAMENT 

393.  The  *  Chokhmah.' — A  section  of  the  Hagiographn 
has  in  modern  times  been  designated  by  the  specific  term 
Chokhmah  ('l?? 0-  and  is  for  the  most  part  composed  in  verse. 
To  this  part  of  the  Old  Testament  the  Books  of  Proverbs 
and  Ecclesiastes »  severally  belong.  In  many  important 
.points  they  are  distinguished  from  the  prophetic  literature 
of  Israel.  They  express  the  philosophy  of  reflective  minds 
rather  than  the  express  messages  of  Jehovah.  There  is  no 
*  Thus  saith  the  Lord '  in  their  dealing  with  human  ex- 
perience and  the  problems  of  existence.  The  religion  of 
the  '  Wise  Men '  is  of  a  different  character  from  the  intense 
high-wrought  devotion  of  the  prophets  :  it  is  more  practical 
— an  ethical  philosophy  rather  than  an  irresistible  en- 
thusiasm. The  Divine  Spirit  that  prompted  them  made 
their  own  thoughts  subservient  to  the  highest  purposes. 
These  teachers  of  Israel  often  uttered,  like  the  prophets, 
truths  deeper  than  they  knew,  and  words  which  awaited 
the  interpretation  of  time.  They  are  cosmopolitan,  uni- 
versal. It  has  been  noted  that  in  the  whole  Book  of 
Proverbs  the  word  Israel  does  not  once  appear,  and  the 
name  of  Jehovah  is  entirely  absent  from  Ecclesiastes. 

394.  Solomon  and  Ms  followers.— "What  is  known,  or  reasonably 
conjectured,  as  to  the  writers  will  appear  in  the  Introductions  to  the 
several  books.  The  name  of  Solomon  is  pre-eminent  among  the  Wise, 
probably  because  he  founded  a  school  or  became  its  chief  representa- 
tive. In  later  times,  and  perhaps  very  gradually,  they  became  a 
recognized  class.  Uninspired  books,  as  the  Wisdom  of  the  Apocrypha 
and  Ecdesiasdcusj'were  framed  upon  the  models  of  the  earlier  Chokhmah- 
literature.      The   wise    man   went   about    among     the    people,    held 

*  Some  would  class  with  these  the  Book  of  Job.  But  the  Book  of 
Job  is  really  unique. 


584  THE   WISDOM-LITERATUKE 

classes  for  instruction,  delighted  in  colloquies  and  discussions  ;  in 
fact,  the  words  spoken  of  Wisdom  in  the  abstract  had  probably  a 
literal  fulfilment  in  the  habits  and  methods  of  its  professors  : — 

In  the  .top  of  high  places  by  the  way, 

Where  the  paths  meet,  she  standeth  ; 

Beside  the  gates,  at  the  entry  of  the  city, 

At  the  coming  in  at  the  doors,  she  crieth  aloud: 

'  Unto  you,  0  men,  I  call ; 

And  my  voice  is  to  the  sons  of  men.* 

Pr  82-'»  R.  V. 

The  Book  of  Proverbs 

395.  Contents  of  the  Book.— The  Book  of  the  Pro- 
verbs of  Solomon  contains  more  than  the  title  indicates. 
A  proverb  is  a  short  sentence,  conveying  some  moral  truth 
or  practical  lesson  in  a  concise,  pointed  form  ;  and  some- 
times the  name  is  applied  to  enigmatical  propositions  of 
similar  moral  or  practical  tendency.  The  Hebrew  word  ^V'? 
maslial  means  not  only  such  terse  aphoristic  sentences,  but 
similitude,  parable  (Eze  17^  21^  24^),  or  even  prophetic 
strain  (Num  23"^  24^'"-").  In  this  book  we  have,  in  addi- 
tion to  such  sayings,  many  exhortations  to  prudence  and 
virtue,  with  eulogies  on  true  wisdom.  These  latter  form 
the  subject  of  the  first  nine  chapters.  The  book  takes  its 
name  from  its  principal  author  :  other  *  wise  men,'  however, 
contributed  to  it,  and  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish 
the  several  writers.  The  sections  that  are  Solomon's  are 
part,  probably,  of  the  3,000  proverbs  he  is  recorded  to  have 
spoken,  i  Ki  4"'^,  from  which  they  are  an  inspired  selection. 
He  sought  wisdom  rather  than  any  other  gift,  and  God 
honoured  his  request  by  granting  him  a  larger  measure  of 
it  than  was  enjoyed  by  any  of  his  contemporaries.  To 
communicate  a  portion  of  what  he  had  received  for  the 
lasting  benefit  of  others  was  his  aim.  The  proverbs  from 
the  25th  to  the  29th  chapters  inclusive  were  collected  by 
the  'men  of  Hezekiah,'  among  whom  were  probably  Isaiah 
and  Micah.     See  also  2  Ch  31^^. 


THE   BOOK   OF   PROVERBS  585 

Proverbial  instruction  is  common  in  the  early  history  of  most 
nations,  and  especially  in  the  East.  This  style  of  communication 
excites  attention,  exercises  ingenuity,  is  favourable  to  habits  of  re- 
flection, and  fastens  truth  upon  the  memory  in  a  form  at  once 
agreeable  and  impressive.  The  elegance  and  force  of  the  proverbs 
of  Solomon  are  increased  by  the  poetic  parallelisms  in  which  they 
are  written.  Nearly  every  sentence  is  antithetical  or  explanatory, 
and  attention  to  corresponding  clauses  will  often  fix  the  reading  and 
determine  the  sense. 

The  leading  aim  of  the  writer  is,  as  stated  at  the  outset, 
to  *  give  a  young  man  knowledge  and  discretion.'  This 
book  is,  for  practical  ethics,  what  the  Book  of  Psalms  is 
for  devotion.  It  has  lessons  for  every  age  and  condition. 
All  may  draw  from  it  the  most  excellent  counsels ;  and  the 
man  who,  possessed  of  the  sound  principles  of  piety,  shall 
form  his  life  by  the  rules  of  this  volume,  cannot  fail  to 
attain  honour  and  happiness.  The  wisest  authors  have 
done  little  more  than  dilate  on  the  precepts  and  comment 
on  the  wisdom  of  Solomon. 

Religions  basis  of  the  whole. — Though  most  of  his 
rules  are  based  chiefly  on  considerations  of  prudence,  strictly 
religious  motives  are  either  presupposed  or  expressly  en- 
joined. *  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is,'  with  him,  'the  beginning 
of  wisdom,'  i"  9'*^.  His  morality  is  based  on  religion.  Vice, 
moreover,  is  condemned,  and  virtue  enforced,  by  appeals  to 
the  holiest  motives ;  as  the  authority  of  God,  16^ ;  Plis 
exact  knowledge  of  men's  hearts  and  ways,  5^^  15^^  ;  the 
rewards  of  righteousness,  and  the  punishment  of  \vicked- 
ness,  by  His  just  appointment,  19^^  23^'^"^^  26^0.  Practical 
wisdom,  therefore,  resting  upon  and  rising  out  of  religious 
character,  is  the  aim  of  this  portion  of  the  inspired  volume. 

396,  Outline. — The  book  may  be  divided  into  five 
parts : — 

i.  A  connected  discourse  on  the  value  and  attainment  of 
true  wisdom,  1-9. 


586  THE   WISDOM-LITERATURE 

ii.  Proverbs,  strictly  so  called,  expressed  in  couplet  form, 
with  much  force  and  simplicity,  10-^2^^.  Headed,  'The 
Prove rl3s  of  Solomon.' 

iii.  Renewed  admonitions  on  the  study  of  wisdom,  as  in 
part  i,  22^"^-24.     Headed  (22^^),  '  The  Words  of  the  Wise.' 

iv.  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  selected  by  'the  men  of  Heze- 
kiah,'  25-29. 

V.  The  wise  instructions  of  Agur,  the  son  of  Jakeh,  to  his 
pupils  Ithiel  and  Ucal,  and  lessons  taught  to  King  Lemuel 
by  his  mother,  30,  31.  Who  these  persons  were  is  not 
known.  The  proverbs  of  eh.  30  are  chiefly  enigmatical,  and 
eh.  31,  verses  10-31,  an  alphabetical  acrostic,  gives  a  picture 
of  female  excellence  adapted  to  that  age  and  country. 

The  descriptions  of  Wisdom  in  120-^3  g  ^nd  9^"^  ''^Pply 
emphatically  to  the  wisdom  of  God,  revealed  and  embodied 
in  His  Son,  and  to  the  Son  Himself,  as  the  eternal  Word. 
Compare  ch.  8  with  Jn  i^  14^^.  Pre-intimations  of  immor- 
tality are  also  given  in  4^^  12^^  14^^  15^*. 

The  nature  and  consequences  of  sin  are  implied  in  the 
very  terms  which  describe  holiness,  i^^:  see  also  i-*  16^ 
21*  24^ ;  and  that  holiness  is  a  Divine  gift  is  plainly  implied 
in  1^3. 

397.  Knles  for  applying  the  Proverbs. — In  expound- 
ing and  applying  the  maxims  of  this  book  there  are  two 
golden  rules. 

I.  Like  other  general  laws,  some  of  them  have  occasional  exceptions. 
Not  all  are  unlimited  or  universal.  For  example,  lo^"^,  *The  fear  of 
the  Lord  prolongeth  days,  but  the  years  of  the  wicked  shall  be 
shortened.'  Such  is  often  the  rule  :  but  Abel  was  murdered  and  the 
life  of  Cain  prolonged.  Jonathan  and  Saul — the  one  a  very  brother 
of  David,  the  other  an  apostate — perish  in  the  same  battle  :  *  the  corn 
cut  down  with  the  weeds,  though  to  better  purpose.'  Men  are  less 
likely  to  harm  us  if  we  be  followers  of  that  which  is  good,  and  yet 
persecution,  because  of  our  goodness,  is  supposed,  i  Pet  3^'.  In  truth, 
God  has  to  teach  us  a  double  lesson — that  He  certainly  will  punish,  and 
that  He  will  punish  hweafUr.     The  shortening  of  the  years  of  the 


HISTOKICAL    ILLUSTKATIONS  587 

wicked— present  punishment — teaches  the  jfirst :  the  lengthening  of 
their  years — the  postponement  of  punishment — the  second.  Hence 
both  the  exception  and  the  rule.  16"^,  *  When  a  man's  ways  please  the 
Lord,  He  maketh  even  his  enemies  to  be  at  peace  with  him.'  So  it  was 
with  Abraham  and  the  Israelites,  Avith  Solomon  and  Jehoshaphat ;  so 
it  was  not  with  David,  nor  with  Paul. 

2.  The  force  and  significancy  of  these  maxims  will  be  most  clearly 
seen  and  felt  if  they  be  studied  in  the  light  of  Scripture  examples. 
They  are  comprehensive  laws,  understood  best  when  examined  in 
particular  cases. 

Historical  Illustrations. — The  following  instances  from 
Nicholls'  Help  to  the  Reading  of  the  Bible  are  instructive  : — 

i"^  *  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  knowledge :  but  the 
foolish  despise  wisdom  and  instruction.'  (Rehoboam,  i  Ki  la^';  Eli's 
sons,  I  Sa  2!^^  ;  Athenian  philosophers,  Ac  17'^) 

jio  i  jyjy  g^jj^  jf  sinners  entice  thee,  consent  thou  not.'  (Adam, 
Gen  3"  ;  Balaam,  Num  22  ;  Jehoshaphat,  i  Ki  22*  ;  prophet  of  Judah, 
I  Ki  i3ifi-'^-24  J  Micaiah's  firmness,  i  Ki  22'3^*,) 

i^'^  'The  prosperity  of  fools  shall  dcsti'oy  them.'  (The  Israelites, 
Dt  32I5-25  Hos  i3« ;  Tyre,  Sodom,  Eze  16'^  ;  Eze  28-i«-^^) 

2-5.6  <  Trust  in  the  Lord  with  all  thine    heart,  and  lean  not  upon 
thine  own  understanding  :  in  all  thy  ways  acknowledge  Him,  and  He 
shall  direct  thy  paths.'     (Asa,  2  Ch  14^^''  ;  Hezekiah,  2  Ki  19^*,  &c. 
Abraham's  servant,  Gen  24^2-27  j^^  ^^  Yzy  821-23;  David,  i  Sa  30'''^.) 

4I*  '  Enter  not  into  the  path  of  the  wicked.'      (Lot,   Gen  1310-13 
David,  I  Sa  27I.) 

^18.10  ( The  path  of  the  righteous  is  as  the  shining  light.'  (Nathanael, 
Jn  1*6-51  ;  Cornelius,  Ac  10  ;  Paul,  a  Cor  3^'.)  *  The  way  of  the  wicked 
is  as  darkness :  they  know  not  at  what  they  stumble.'  (Ahab, 
I  Ki  iBi^ ;   the  Jews,  Eze  i829  Jer  5"-25.) 

522  '  His  own  iniquities  shall  take  the  wicked.'  (Agag,  i  Sa  15^^  ; 
Adoni-bezek,  Judg  i'^ ;  Haman,  Est  71°  ;  Judas,  Mt  27'-^.) 

9*  *  Eeprove  a  wise  man,  and  he  will  love  thee.'  (David  loved 
Nathan,  i  Ki  1^2-34 .  pef^gj.  loved  our  Lord,  Jn  ai^'^;  the  two  disciples 
constrained  their  reprover  to  abide  with  them,  Lu  242520-) 

io2  'Treasures  of  wickedness  profit  nothing.'  (Tyre,  Eze  261"  27  28  ; 
the  rich  man,  Lu  i623.)  'But  righteousness  delivereth  from  death.' 
(Noah,  Gen  7^  with  Heb  ii'^  Dan  5'',  Belshazzar  contrasted  with 
Daniel.) 

10'^  'The  memory  of  the  just  is  blessed.'  (Elisha,  a  Ki  1321  ; 
Jehoiada,  2  Ch  241'',  &c.  ;  Dorcas,  Ac  9^",  &c.  ;  Mary,  Mk  14^.)  '  But  the 
name  of  the  wicked  shall  rot.'  (Absalom,  a  Sa  iS'"^ ;  Jehoiakim,  Jer 
3218.19  .  Jezebel,  2  Ki  9"  ;  Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat,  a  Ki  13^*1'*.) 


588  THE    WISDOM-LITERATURE 

lo"  '  The  wise  in  heart  will  receive  commandments.'  (David,  2  Sa  7  ; 
tl)e  nobleman,  .In  4"*^.)  *But  a  prating  fool  shall  fall.'  (Amaziah, 
a  Ki  14'-".) 

10^*  'The  fear  of  the  wicked,  it  shall  come  upon  him.'  (The 
Canaanites,  Jos  5  ;  Belshazzar.  Dn  5  ;  Ahab,  i  Ki  22  ;  Haman, 
Est,  7''"^^.)  'But  the  desii-e  of  the  righteous  shall  be  granted.' 
(Hannah,   i  Sa  i  Est  4!^  S^^-i^  ;   Simeon,  Lu  229-3o  ;   see  also  Ps  37* 

Jo   1623-24.) 

jo25  'When  the  whirlwind  passeth,  the  wicked  is  no  more.'  (Elah, 
I  Ki  16^ ;  Zimri,  i  Ki  16^^'^^.)  '  But  the  righteous  is  an  everlasting 
foundation.'     (Abraham,   Gen   17!"* ;    David,   2  Sa  7^^  :    see  also  Mt 

-24.'25  N 

jjS  I  "When  pride  cometh,  then  cometh  shame.'  (Miriam,  Niim  12^®  ; 
Uzziah,  2  Ch  26^^~2i  .  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dn  4^^,  &c.)  *  But  with  the 
lowly  is  wisdom.'     (Daniel,  Dn  2^*^ ;  Joseph,  Gen  41^®.) 

jj5.6  <The  righteousness  of  the  perfect  shall  direct  his  way:  hut 
the  wicked  shall  fall  by  his  own  wickedness.  The  righteousness  of 
the  upright  shall  deliver  them  :  but  they  that  deal  treacherously 
shall  be  taken  in  their  own  mischief.'  (Haman,  Est  7^"  8'^ ;  Daniel's 
accusers,  Dn  6^'*,  &c.  ;  Ahithophcl's  death,  2  Sa  17^3,  contrasted  with 
David's  restoration  to  his  throne.) 

jjio  <when  it  goeth  well  with  the  righteous,  the  city  rejoiceth.* 
(Mordecai,  Est  8^^.)  *  When  the  wicked  perish,  there  is  shouting.' 
(Athaliah,  2  Ki  ri^s^o :  see  Rev  ig^-^.) 

jj25  <The  liberal  soul  shall  be  made  fat  :  and  he  that  watereth  shall 
be  watered  also  himself.'  (Abraham,  Gen  i3^'i*  ;  widow  of  Zarephath, 
I  Ki  17'*^,  &c. ;  the  Shunammite,  2  Ki  4.) 

12''  'The  counsels  of  the  wicked  are  deceit.'  (Geshem,  Ne  6"; 
Ishmael,  Jer  41^  "^ ;  Daniel's  accusers  to  Darius,  Dn  6^  ;  Herod's  to  the 
wise  men,  Mt  2  ;  the  Pharisees  respecting  the  tribute  money,  Mt  22'^  ; 
the  Jews  laying  wait  for  Paul,  Ac  23^^.) 

12^^  '  The  lip  of  truth  shall  be  established  for  ever.'  (Caleb  and 
Joshua,  Num  13^*  ;  Nathan  to  David,  2  Sa  7i2~n^  ^^ith  Lu  i^^.)  'But 
a  lying  tongue  is  but  for  a  moment.'    (Gehazi,  2  Ki  5  ;  Ananias,  Ac  5.) 

la^'i  '  Heaviness  in  the  heart  of  man  maketh  it  stoop  ;  but  a  good 
word  maketh  it  glad.'  (Nehemiah,  Ne  2^-^  ;  the  woman  that  was 
a  sinner,  Lu  738-50  .  jyi^ry  Magdalene,  Jn  20^^"^^  :  see  also  Lu  24^^*32 ) 

13''  '  There  is  that  maketh  himself  rich,  yet  hath  nothing.'  (Haman, 
Est  5^3  .  church  of  Laodicea  contrasted  with  the  church  of  Smyrna, 
Rev  3"  2«  ;  Ahab,  i  Ki  zi^-'^'^-'^'K)  '  There  is  that  maketh  himself  poor, 
yet  hath  great  wealth.'     (Matthew,  Lu  527-28  .  pj^^i^  ^  q^^,  510  p^ii  38.) 

132*  '  He  that  spareth  his  rod  hateth  his  son  :  but  he  that  loveth 
him  chasteneth  him  betimes.'     (Eli,  i  Sa  3"  ;  David,  i  Ki  i''-^) 

14'  'A  scorner  seeketh  wisdom,  and  findeth   it  not.'     (Athenian 


BOOK    OF   ECCLESTASTES  589 

philosophers,  Ac  17^** ;  Herod,  Lu  23* ;  the  Jews  looking  for  the 
Megsiah,  and  yet  rejecting  Christ,  Ac  13*^  Jn  g^^.)  *  But  knowledge  is 
easy  unto  him  that  hath  understanding."     (See  Ps.  ngis.gs-ioo  j^g  ^5 

Mt  Il25.) 

14^  '  The  wisdom  of  the  prudent  is  to  understand  his  way.'  (Job 
28'-^8  Dt  46  Eccl  12I3.)  '  But  the  folly  of  fools  is  deceit.'  (Gehazi, 
2  Ki  520.27  .  Daniel's  accusers,  Dn  6^*  ;  Ananias  and  Sapphira 
Ac  5^-".) 

j^32  "j'lie  wicked  is  thrust  down  in  his  evil-doing.'  (Hophni  and 
Phinehas,  i  Sa  4^^.)  *  But  the  righteous  hath  hope  in  his  death.' 
(Jacob,  Gen  49^8 ;  Stephen,  Ac  f"^-'^^  ;  Paul,  2  Tim  46-8  ;  Peter,  2  Pet, 

jl4.16  ol3  N 

15*  'A  soft  answer  turneth  away  wrath.'  (The  Reubenites,  Jos 
2215.21-30  .  Gideon,  Judg  8'"^;  Abigail,  i  Sa  25'".)  'But  a  grievous 
word  stirreth  up  anger.'  (Rehoboam,  2  Ch  10^^,  &c. ;  Paul  and 
Barnabas,  Ac  is"** ;  Saul  and  Jonathan,  r  Sa  20"""^^.) 


The  Book  of  Ecclesiastes 

398.  Title  and  Authorship.— The  English  name  of  this 
book,  which  is  taken  from  the  Greek  version,  signifies  one 
who  convenes  or  addresses  an  assembly,  and  is  expressed  by 
the  term  '  the  Preacher.'  Probably  this  represents  the  sense 
of  the  Hebrew  title,  QoJieleth,  a  feminine  derivative  from 
a  word  meaning '  assembly' ;  or  it  may  be  rendered  '  She  who 
is  an  assembly  '  (Tyler) ;  represented  as  speaking  through 
the  voice  of  one  person.  The  person  is  identified  as  Solomon, 
but  ideally,  as  though  his  spirit  spoke:  'I  teas  king.'  The 
belief  has  been  very  general  that  he  was  the  actual  author, 
and  that  the  book  contains  the  penitent  reminiscences  and 
wise  conclusions  of  his  old  age.  The  book  would  thus  be  an 
interesting  addition  to  the  history  which  nowhere  speaks  of 
Solomon  as  repentant.  According  to  this  view,  that  illus- 
trious prince,  though  so  richly  endowed  with  wisdom,  turned 
away  from  God,  and  sought  happiness  in  earthly  and  idola- 
trous practices,  i  Ki  ii^'^^;  but  in  his  latter  years,  being 
made  sensible  of  his  folly,  he  here  records  his  experience : 
the  truths  here   given  liaving  been  '  proclaimed  '   by  him 


500  THE   WISDOM-LITERATURE 

in  public  to  those  who  crowded  from  all  parts  to  his  court 
to  be  instructed  by  his  wisdom. 

Modern  criticism,  however,  places  the  composition  of  the 
book  at  a  much  later  period.  The  evidence  of  language 
alone  seems  decisive.  *  We  could  as  easily  believe,'  writes 
Dr.  Ginsburg,  '  that  Chaucer  is  the  author  of  Rasselas 
as  that  Solomon  wrote  Qoheleth.'  '  If  the  Book  of  Eccle- 
siastes,'  writes  Delitzsch,  '  was  written  in  the  age  of 
Solomon,  there  is  no  history  of  the  Hebrew  language.'  The 
indications  of  date  and  authorship  drawn  from  the  con- 
tents, in  the  opinion  of  many  expositors,  confirm  the  same 
conclusion,  and  point  rather  to  the  Persian  age.  But  this 
point  is  open  to  discussion  ;  the  main  teaching  and  great 
moral  of  the  book  remain  unaffected  by  the  question  of 
authorship. 

399.  Design  of  the  Book.-  Its  intention  is  evidently 
to  show  the  utter  insufficiency  of  all  earthly  pursuits  and 
objects,  as  the  chief  end  of  life,  to  confer  solid  happiness  ; 
and  to  draw  men  off  from  apparent  good  to  the  only  real 
and  permanent  good — the  fear  of  God  and  communion 
with  Him.  *  Vanity  of  vanities,  all  is  vanity'  is  its  first 
lesson.  'Fear  God,  and  keep  His  commandments'  is  its 
last.  In  accomplishing  this  design  Solomon  is  represented 
as  giving  a  dramatic  biography  of  his  own  life,  not  only 
recording,  but  re-enacting  the  successive  scenes  of  his  own 
search  for  happiness ;  reciting  past  experience,  and  in  his 
fervour  reproducing  the  various  phases  of  his  former  self. 
He  shows  incidentally  how  men  ought  to  demean  them- 
selves amidst  the  various  disappointments  with  which 
they  will  have  to  contend.  Hence  the  warnings  and 
counsels  with  which  the  descriptions  of  vanity  and  exhor- 
tations to  make  the  fear  of  God  and  the  performance  of 
moral  and  religious  duties  the  chief  good  abound. 

Both  the  vividness  and  the  difficulty  of  the  narrative  are  increased 
by  the  form  in  which  it  is  wiitten.     The  autlior  appears  to  be  for  the 


DESIGN   OF    ECCLESIASTES  591 

moment  what  he  himself  describes.  He  seems  to  have  (what  our 
older  writers  call)  'fyttes' of  study  (i^-~^^),  of  luxury  (2^"^^),  of  grossness 
and  refinement,  of  conviviality  and  misanthropy  ;  fyttes  of  building, 
and  of  book-making,  all  ending  in  collapses  of  bitterest  disappoint- 
ment. We  have  in  succession  the  man  of  science  and  the  man  of 
pleasure  becoming  fatalist,  materialist,  epicurean,  stoic  ;  speaking  in 
each  character  much  truth,  and  interposing  some  earnest  enlightened 
interludes,  the  fruits  of  his  maturer  Avisdom  ;  and  at  last  we  have  the 
noblest  style  of  man — the  humble  and  penitent  believer. 

If  this  fact  be  kept  in  view  the  meaning  of  several  passages  will  be 
plain.  Many  conclusions  indicated  arc  the  exi^ressions  of  strong 
slirewd  sense  ;  others  of  them  contain  glimpses  of  deep  spiritual 
truth  (5^"^  7^^  11°  12^-'^)  ;  others,  again,  are  but  partially  true,  and 
some  are  absolutely  false  (2^^  3^^  9'^).  A  strain  of  pessimism  pervades 
the  whole.  Many  efforts  have  been  made,  in  vain,  to  harmonize 
this  with  other  parts  of  Scripture.  It  is  not  thus  that  the  melancholy 
sayings  of  Qoheleth  are  to  be  explained.  Each  picture  is  the  likeness  of 
a  sagacious  disappointed  worldling,  with  added  lights  thrown  in  from 
a  Divine  source.  The  book  is  a  narrative  of  fantastic  hopes  and  blank 
failures,  with  descriptions  even  stronger  than  truth.  The  conclusion 
of  the  whole  matter  is,  that  we  are  to  fear  God  and  keep  His  com- 
mandments. That  conclusion  is  true,  as  are  many  of  the  incidental 
warnings  and  appeals  ;  but  much  of  the  argument  is  not.  A  com- 
parison may  illustrate  both  the  argument  and  the  end.  As  the  forty- 
fifth  Psalm  is  a  lesser  Canticles,  so  we  have  a  lesser  Ecclesiastes  in 
the  seventy-third. 

While  all  agree  that  the  main  design  of  the  book  is  to 
exalt  religion  as  man's  'chief  end/  different  views  have 
been  taken  of  the  illustrations  and  arguments.  Some 
have  held  that  the  grand  lesson  is  the  vanity  of  everything 
earthly  apart  from  godliness,  and  with  such  every  illustra- 
tion and  every  part  is  true.  Luther,  on  the  other  hand, 
thought  the  lesson  of  the  book  to  be — be  godly,  and  con- 
cerning everything  else,  be  tranquil ;  for  life  is  not  worth 
your  care.  Within  certain  limits  both  views  are  just. 
Apart  from  religion  all  things  are  vain,  though  not  equally 
vain  ;  and  with  religion  nothing  can  harm  us,  though  even 
then  wisdom  and  folly  are  not  indifferent :  nor  does  one 
thing   happen    alike    to   all.     Some    have    discovered   two 


592  POETIC  LITEKATURE 

speakers    in    the    different    parts    of   the    book.     Compare 
Tennyson's  Tivo  Voices. 

The  canonicity  of  Ecclesiastes  is  recognized  by  the  early 
Christian  writers,  and  though  the  book  is  not  formally 
quoted  by  our  Lord  or  His  Apostles,  there  are  several 
references  to  it  in  the  New  Testament. 

By  the  Jews  it  was  not  reckoned  one  of  the  poetical  books,  and 
indeed  the  whole,  except  s'"  7I-1*  ii^^  ^^i ^  jy  written  in  prose. 

The  Song  of  Songs 

400.  Authorship  and  canonicity.  —The  universal  voice 
of  antiquity  ascribes  this  poem  to  Solomon.  His  songs, 
we  are  told,  were  a  thousand  and  five,  i  Ki  /\."^  ;  and  this 
is  called,  in  Hebrew  idiom,  the  song  of  songs,  the  best, 
that  is,  of  them  all. 

Many  modern  critics  have  questioned  the  tradition  of 
Solomonic  authorship,  chiefly  on  two  grounds  (i)  the  later 
words  and  idioms  which  occur  in  the  Song,  and  (2)  some 
expressions  which  have  seemed  incongruous  as  uttered  by 
the  king  (see  3®"^^  8^^-^-j.  The  unusual  words  in  ques- 
tion, however,  are  regarded  by  some  Hebraists  as  northern 
provincialisms :  and,  at  any  rate,  whether  Solomon  were 
the  actual  writer  or  not,  the  weight  of  criticism,  based 
upon  internal  evidence,  assigns  the  work  to  his  period 
(Ewald).  Dean  Farrar  well  enumerates  points  on  which 
every  reader  can  judge,  such  as  the  marked  resemblance 
in  thought  and  diction  to  passages  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs'^, 
the  acquaintance  with  articles  of  foreign  commerce,  the 
allusion  to  Pharaoh's  chariots  as  in  Palestine  (i^),  the 
mention  of  the  Tower  of  David  as  still  hung  with  a 
thousand  shields  (4*),  the  reference  to  Heshbon  (7*), 
which   in   Is  i^^  belongs  not  to  Israel  but  to  Moab ;    the 

'  Solomon  ('  Men  of  the  Uibie  '  series),  p.  17a. 


THE  SONG   OF   SONGS  593 

allusion  to  Tirzah  (6'*)  as  a  lovely  abode,  like  Jerusa- 
lem, whereas  Tirzah  ceased  to  be  the  northern  capital 
after  the  reign  of  Omri  K  The  cumulative  force  of  these 
passages,  with  others  only  less  significant,  is  decisive 
against  the  theory  of  a  late  origin  advanced  by  some 
modern  critics.  The  expressions  supposed  to  be  incon- 
sistent with  Solomon's  authorship  may  be  explained  by 
the  dramatic  character  of  the  composition. 

This  book  has  always  been  ranked  among  the  canonical 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  not  quoted,  indeed, 
in  the  New,  but  it  formed  part  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures, 
is  cited  in  the  Talmud  as  canonical,  was  translated  by 
the  authors  of  the  LXX,  is  included  in  all  ancient  cata- 
logues, and  is  attested  expressly  by  JMelito  (second  century), 
Origen  (d.  253),  Jerome  (fifth  century),  the  Jewish  Talmud, 
and  Theodoret  of  Cyprus  (450  a.  d.).  In  the  Hebrew  canon 
it  ranks  with  the  Hagiographa,  and  is  one  of  the  five 
Megilloth.     It  is  read  annually  at  the  Feast  of  the  Passover. 

Occasion  of  the  poem.^-On  what  occasion  it  was 
written  is  not  certain.  The  imagery  seems  derived  from 
the  marriage  of  Solomon,  either  with  Pharaoh's  daughter 
(i  Ki  3^  7^  9^*,  compared  with  Song  i^  6^^),  or  with  some 
native  of  Northern  Palestine,  espoused  some  years  later  (2'), 
of  noble  birth  (7^),  though  inferior  to  her  husband  (i*^). 

401.  Personages  of  the  poem.— Whatever  the  occasion 
of  the  poem,  we  find  in  reading  it  two  characters  who 
speak  and  act  throughout ;  the  one  Solomon  (Shelomoh, 
the  peaceful),  and  the  other  Shulammith  (the  Shulammite) ; 
possibly,  as  many  interpreters  have  thought,  a  feminine 
form  of  the  king's  name.  It  is  now,  however,  generally 
held  to  be  equivalent  to  Shunammite,  a  damsel  of  Shunem, 
like  Abishag,    i   Ki   1^.     It   is   even  a  modern  conjecture 

*  Compare  2*  with  Pr  4"  ;  4^  aaul  7^  with  Pi-  5^^  ;  4^^  with  Pr  5^  and 
24I3;  5I  with  Pr  9';  56  with  Pr  i"^*' ;  7^  with  Pr  aa'i  (K.V.  uiarg.)  ; 
8^2  with  Pr  37". 


594  POETIC   LITERATURE 

that  Solomon  married  Abishag,  as  Adonijah  vainly  and 
fatally  aspired  to  do  (i  Ki  2-^~-'"').  The  scenery  of  the 
whole  poem  is  that  of  the  Northern  Kingdom.  Shunem 
was  on  the  south-western  slope  of  Little  Hermon.  There 
is  also  a  chorus  of  virgins,  daughters  of  Jerusalem,  2"^  3^  ^^■'\ 
Towards  the  close  two  brothers  of  Shulammith  appear, 
8^*^,  see  i^  As  in  ancient  poems  generally,  there  are  no 
breaks  to  indicate  change  of  scene  or  of  speakers.  In 
detecting  these  changes  we  are  guided  partly  by  the  sense, 
but  chiefly  by  the  use  in  the  original  of  feminine  and 
masculine  pronouns,  of  the  second  or  third  j)erson.  A 
neglect  of  this  distinction  has  much  obscured  the  English 
version.  In  some  editions,  however,  as  in  the  Annotated 
Paragraph  Bible,  the  different  scenes  and  characters  are 
indicated.  The  following  scheme  may  serve  as  at  least 
a  help  to  the  understanding  of  the  drama  : — 

Scenes  and  dialogue. — Scene  L  In  SoIomon*s  Gardens. 
The  damsels  of  Jerusalem,  as  chorus,  celebrate  the  praise 
of  the  royal  bridegroom,  i^~*.  The  Shulammite  excuses  her 
rusticity,  and  asks  where  she  may  find  the  bridegroom  :  the 
damsels  reply,  i^~^.  Solomon  enters,  and  an  affectionate 
dialogue  ensues  {Solomon,  i^~^^  ;  Bride,  ii-^i-^ ;  S.  i^^ ; 
B.  1I6-2I  ;   S.  22  ;   B.  2^-^). 

II.  The  Shtclammite,  alone.  She  describes  first  a  happy 
visit  from  her  beloved  ;  and  then  a  dream,  in  which  he 
appears  as  lost  and  found,  2^-3"'. 

III.  The  Royal  EsiJousals.  Inhabitants  of  Jerusalem 
describe  the  approach  of  the  King  and  Bride,  3^  "^^  A 
scene   of   mutual    endearment    follows    (S.     4^"^  ;    B.    4'^  ; 

s.  4'"^'^ ;  ^'  4'"^ ;  S.  5I). 

IV.  The  Palace.  The  Shulammite  narrates  a  dream  to 
the  damsel  chorus,  5^"^.  They  reply,  5'.  She  responds, 
extolling  her  beloved,  5^*^^^^.  The  chorus  responds,  6^ 
The  Bride  replies,  6-"^.  Solomon  enters,  and  descants  upon 
her  charms,  6^"'-'. 


THE   SONG   OF   SONGS  595 

V.  The  Palace,  continued.  Dialogue  between  the  damsel 
chorus  and  the  Bride  [Chorus,  6^^;  B.  6^i-^2.  ^  and  J5.  al- 
ternately, 6^^).  Damsels  continue,  7^"^.  Solomon  enters 
and  again  expresses  his  delight,  ^^~^^.  The  Bride  invites 
her  beloved  to  visit  her  childhood's  rural  home,  7^^-8*. 

VI.  The  Shulammites  Home.  Inhabitants  of  the  country, 
8^ii ;  Solomon,  S^b ;  the  Bride,  8«-^  ;  her  Brothers,  B^-'^ ;  the 
Bride,  8'o-i2 ;  Solomon,  8^3  .  the  Bride,  8^*. 

The  above  arrangement  presupposes  what  has  been 
generally  held,  that  the  Shulammite  is  represented  as 
Solomon's  Bride. 

402.  Other    interpretations:    the    Shepherd-lover. — 

A  modern  interpretation,  however,  which  has  found  much 
favour,  gives  an  entirely  different  turn  to  the  drama.  Ac- 
cording to  this  view,  the  heroine  of  the  poem  is  represented 
as  betrothed  to  a  shepherd  youth  in  Northern  Palestine, 
where  she  is  seen  and  wooed  by  Solomon,  who  takes  her 
in  his  train  to  Jerusalem ;  but  she  proves  inaccessible  to 
his  advances,  remaining  faithful  to  her  rustic  lover,  to 
w^hom  in  the  end  she  is  happily  united,  with  the  sanction 
of  the  king.  The  poem  thus  depicts  the  beauty  of  true 
and  steadfast  love.  The  arrangement  would  vary  from 
that  given  above  chiefly  in  transferring  the  language  of 
the  Shulammite  in  scenes  i-v  to  her  absent  shepherd-lover, 
whose  memory  so  fills  her  heart  that  there  is  no  room  for 
the  king. 

Wedding-songs. — It  should  be  added  that  some  expositors 
have  regarded  the  book  not  as  a  continued  dramatic  idyll,  but 
as  a  succession  of  lyrics,  composed  to  be  sung  at  a  marriage 
feast.  Hence  the  name  Canticles.  Undoubtedly  this  inter- 
pretation gets  rid  of  some  difficulties  ;  but  upon  the  whole 
it  seems  preferable  to  regard  the  poem  as  a  connected 
whole. 

403.  Allegorical    use    of    the    poem. — Literally,    the 

Q  f]   2 


696  POETIC   LITERATURE 

whole  is  a  description  of  wedded  love,  one  of  the  noblest 
of  human  affections.  In  this  aspect  the  book  gives  a  beauti- 
ful representation  of  the  sentiments  and  manners  which 
prevailed  among  the  Israelites  on  conjugal  and  domestic 
life.  But  the  poem  had,  no  doubt,  a  higher  aim.  And  so, 
from  the  earliest  times,  Jews  and  Christians  have  applied 
the  whole  to  the  history  of  the  chosen  people  of  God,  and 
their  relation  to  Him.  In  view  of  such  allegorical  inter- 
pretation its  place  in  the  canon  became  unquestioned. 
These  views  are  in  accord  with  the  fact  that  throughout 
the  Bible  the  union  of  Christ  and  His  Church,  or  of  God 
and  His  ancient  people,  is  represented  under  the  same  en- 
dearing relation  as  that  which  the  book  discloses ;  see 
especially  Ps  45  Is  54^-*^  62^  Jer  2'^  3^  Eze  i6^o-^"  Ho  2^^~^^ 
Mt  91^  22^  25I-11  Jn  32^  2  Cor  ii^  Eph  ^^'^  Rev  19"^-^ 
2i2-9  22^7. 

Much  of  the  language  of  this  poem  has  been  misunder- 
stood by  early  expositors.  Some  have  erred  by  adopting 
a  fanciful  method  of  explanation,  and  attempting  to  give 
a  mystical  meaning  to  every  minute  circumstance  of  the 
allegory.  In  all  figurative  representations  there  is  always 
much  that  is  mere  costume ;  it  is  the  general  truth  only 
that  is  to  be  examined  and  explained.  The  headings  pre- 
fixed in  the  Authorized  Version  to  the  several  chapters 
indicate  the  views  of  early  evangelical  expositors,  and  are 
so  far  interesting.  For  a  sober  and  beautiful  allegorical 
application  the  Speaker's  Commentary  may  be  consulted. 


CHAPTER  XYII 

HISTORY  FROM  MALACHI  TO  JOHN 
THE  BAPTIST 

Civil  History 

404.  The  Successive  Periods. — The  history  of  the  Jews 
between  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  annals  and  the 
Advent  may  be  arranged  in  five  periods,  i.  The  Persian 
supremacy,  as  continued  after  the  da^'s  of  Nehemiah  to  the 
subjugation  of  the  empire  by  Alexander  the  Great,  b.  c.  330. 
2.  The  Gr^co-Macedonian  rule,  330-167.  This  period  may 
again,  be  divided  into  two  parts,  the  Egyptian  and  the 
Syrian  supremacy,  divided  by  years  of  conflict  between  the 
two  powers  for  the  mastery  of  Palestine.  3.  The  great 
struggle  under  the  Maccabees  for  national  independence, 
167-141.  4.  The  rule  of  the  Hasmon^ean  Priests,  even- 
tually Priest-Kings,  up  to  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by 
Pompey,  141-63.  5.  Final  subjection  to  the  Romans, 
B.C.  63-B.c.  4  (Herod  the  Great,  tributary  king  of  Judaea, 
from  B.C.  37  to  B.C.  4). 

The  Persian  Supremacy. 

405.  Duration  and  character  of  the  Persian  Rule. — 
For  nearly  a  century  after  Nehemiah's  time  Judaea  con- 
tinued subject  to  the  kings  of  Persia  •'^.  The  Persian  kings 
appear  to  have  treated  the  Jews  with  contemjDtuous  tolera- 

*  Persian  Kings  after  Arfaxerxes  Longimanus. 
(Xerxes   II   and    Sogdianus)   b.  c.       Artaxerxes  Ochus.  b.  c.  350. 

425.  (Revolt  under  Arses),  b.c.  338. 

Darius  II  (Nothus),  B.C.  424,  Darius  III  (Codomannus),  b.c.  336. 

Artaxerxes  II  (Mneinon),B.c.  405.       (Battle  of  Arbela,  B.C.  331.) 


598  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

tion ;   permitting  them  to   exercise  their  worship   without 
hindrance,  and  to  observe  their  ceremonial  law. 

The  union  of  the  civil  government  and  the  pontificate 
soon  made  the  office  one  of  high  ambition  to  the  different 
members  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  gave  occasion  to 
many  violent  and  disgraceful  contests. 

One  of  these  contests,  narrated  by  Josephus,  is  almost  the  only 
distinct  incident  recorded  during  the  whole  century.  The  high- 
priest  Jochanan,  son  of  .Joiada  (Ne  12^'^),  in  a  fit  of  jealous  passion 
assassinated  his  brother  .Joshua  in  the  very  Temple.  The  Syrian 
governor,  Bagoses,  hastening  to  the  scene,  was  about  to  enter  the 
sacred  building,  but  was  repelled,  as  for  an  act  of  sacrilege,  when  he 
indignantly  replied,  '  Surely,  as  a  living  man,  I  am  purer  than  that 
corpse ! '  As  a  penalty  for  the  crime  Bagoses  imposed  a  tax  of 
50  drachmas  for  every  lamb  offered  in  the  Temple  for  seven  years, 

406.  Rise  of  Samaritan  worship. — Jochanan  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  high-priesthood  by  his  son  Jaddua,  whose 
brother  Manasseh,  according  to  Josephus,  married  the 
daughter  of  Sanballat,  governor  of  Samaria,  and  was  induced 
by  him  to  establish  a  sanctuary  on  Mount  Gerizim  in 
rivalry  to  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem.     See  further,  p.  626. 

This  Sanballat,  if  the  account  be  accepted,  cannot  have 
been  the  Horonite  mentioned  by  Nehemiah  ;  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  there  is  some  confusion  in  the  account  of  Josephus. 
What  is  certain  is,  that  the  rival  worship  was  now  estab- 
lished at  Samaria,  and  attracted  a  great  number  of  priests 
and  other  Jews  from  the  distracted  capital  of  Judaea. 

407.  Persia  and  Egypt. — The  period  was  also  one  of 
constant  struggle  of  the  Persian  with  Egyptian  powers. 
Judaea,  lying  '  between  the  anvil  and  the  hammer,'  suffered 
much.  As  subjects  of  Persia  many  Jews  were,  from  time 
to  time,  impressed  into  its  army,  a  serious  grievance  to  the 
worshippers  of  the  One  God.  In  the  days  of  Artaxerxes  III 
(Ochus)  many  thousands  of  Jews,  having  been  implicated 
in  a  Phoenician  revolt,  were  deported  to  Babylonia  and  the 
shores  of  the   Caspian.     Others  were   carried    into  Egypt, 


PERSIAN    SUPREMACY  599 

which  kingclom  finally  submitted  to  Ochus  in  346,  and 
became  a  satrapy  of  the  Persian  empire,  Nectanebo  II,  of 
the  Thirtieth  dynasty,  being  '  the  last  of  the  Pharaohs.' 

Ch'CECo-Macedonian  Supremacy 

408.  Alexander  and  his  successors. — Upon  the  over- 
throw of  the  Persian  army  by  Alexander  the  Great  (b.c.  333) 
Syria  fell  under  his  power;  and  Tyre  was  taken  after  an 
obstinate  resistance.  Alexander  then  marched  into  Judaea 
to  punish  the  Jews,  who,  out  of  respect  for  their  oath  to 
the  King  of  Persia,  had  granted  the  Tyrians  supplies  of  pro- 
visions and  refused  them  to  him.  But  (it  is  related)  as  he 
approached  Jerusalem,  and  saw  a  solemn  procession  of  the 
people  coming  to  meet  him,  headed  by  the  high-priest 
Jaddua  and  all  the  priests,  in  their  robes  of  office,  God 
turned  his  heart  to  spare  and  favour  them.  In  its  pictur- 
esque particulars,  as  described  by  Josephus,  the  incident  is 
doubtful :  what  is  certain  is  that,  for  some  reason  or  other, 
Alexander  treated  the  Jews  with  extraordinary  favour. 
He  continued  to  them  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  laws 
and  religion  ;  granted  them  exemption  from  tribute  during 
their  sabbatical  years  ;  and  when  he  built  the  city  of 
Alexandria  (b.c.  331)  placed  a  great  number  of  Jews  there 
and  gave  them  the  same  privileges  as  his  Greek  subjects. 

409.  Egyptian  Rule^^. — On  the  division  of  Alexander's 

*  TaNe  0/  the  Grceco- Egyptian  Kings  :   'Kings  of  the  South,'  Dn.  it. 

Ptolemy  I,  surnamed  Soter,   '  De-  FtolemyYll  (Philometor),  b.c.  181. 

liverer,'  B.C.  323.  Ptolemy  VIII  {Philopator  II),  B.C. 
Ptolemy  II  (PhiladeJphus),  Septua-  146. 

gint  begun,  b.  c.  285.  Ptolemy  IX  (^Physcon,  Euergetes  II), 
Ptolemy    III    (Euergetes,     'Bene-  b.c.  145. 

factor'),  B.C.  247.  Ptolemy  X  {Lathyrus),  b.c.  117. 

Ptolemy    IV    {Philoimtor)    attacks  Ptolemy    XI     and    XII,    rivals, 

the  Temple,  b.c.  222.  b.c.  81. 

Ptolemy  V  {Epiphanes,    '  Illustri-  Ptolemy  XIII  (^We/'es  ,  b.  c.  80. 

ous'),  B.C.  205.  Cleopatra,  b.c.  51. 

Ptolemy  VI  ,i^wj?a tor),  B.C.  182.  Egyptmade a  Roman Pr ovince, 9. c.^o. 


600  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

empire  aftor  his  death,  B.C.  323,  Judaoa  was  at  first  subject 
to  the  kingdom  of  Syria  under  Antigoniis,  but  it  ultimately 
fell  under  the  power  of  Ptolemy  I,  son  of  Lagus,  surnamed 
'  Soter  '  or  '  Deliverer,'  who  seized  Jerusalem  b.  c.  320,  with- 
out a  blow,  on  a  sabbath  day  when  the  Jews  were  unarmed 
and  resting.  From  that  time  Judaea  formed,  with  a  brief 
twelve  years'  interval  (b.  c.  3x4-302)  a  part  of  the  monarchy 
of  Egypt  up  to  the  time  of  the  Syrian  Antiochus  the  Great 
(see  §  410).  Ptolemy  removed  many  of  the  people  to  Alex- 
andria, confirmed  their  privileges,  and  even  advanced  some 
of  them  to  offices  of  authority  and  trust.  By  successive 
deportations  and  voluntary  removals  Egypt  became,  and 
long  continued,  an  important  seat  of  the  Jewish  popula- 
tion. The  moral  influence  of  this  change  will  be  noticed 
in  a  succeeding  section.  The  part  which  Ptolemy  II 
(Philadelphus)  took  in  originating  the  Septuagint,  or  Greek 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  is  especially  noticeable. 
See  Part  I,  §  29.  Ptolemy  IV  (Philopator)  in  one  part 
of  his  reign  appeared  as  a  persecutor  of  the  Jews  in  Alex- 
andria ;  having  been  offended,  during  a  visit  to  Jerusalem, 
by  his  exclusion  from  the  Temple.  But  his  designs  were 
providentially  frustrated.  Having  shut  up  a  large  number 
of  Jews  in  the  hippodrome,  and  turned  wild  elephants  upon 
them,  the  beasts  in  a  panic  broke  away  from  their  destined 
victims,  and  rushed  among  the  spectators,  inflicting  many 
injuries. 

During  the  time  of  Ptoh.niy  I  llie  prosperity  of  the 
Jews  was  much  promoted  by  the  internal  administration  of 
an  excellent  high  priest,  Simon  the  Just,  whose  character 
and  administration  are  brilliantly  recorded  by  the  Son  of 
Sirach  (Ecclus  50^^^^).  He  was  high-priest  for  about 
twenty  years  (b.c.  cir.  310-290).  He  repaired  and  fortified 
Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  with  strong  and  lofty  walls,  and 
made  a  spacious  reservoir  of  water,  Sn  compass  as  a  sea.' 
Xie  is  said  to  hgive  completed  the  canon  of  the  Qld  Testa- 


SYRIAN    RULERS  601 

ment  by  the  addition  of  the  Books  of  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zecha- 
riah,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  and  Malachi.  The  Jews  also  affirm 
that  Simon  was  'the  last  of  the  great  sjmagogue,'  which  is 
described  as  having  consisted  of  120  individuals,  among 
whom  were  Ezra,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  Nehemiah,  and 
Malachi.  But  see  §  24,  p.  23.  Simon  died  in  the  year 
B.  c.  29T. 

410.  Syrian  Rule  ". — After  the  Jewish  nation  had  been 
tributary  to  the  kings  of  Egypt  for  about  a  hundred  years 
(during  the  last  sixty  of  which  it  enjoyed  almost  uninter- 
rupted tranquillity  under  the  shadow  of  their  power),  it 
became  subject,  in  the  reign  of  Antiochus  III  (the  Great), 
to  the  kings  of  Sj^ria  (b.  c.  198),  whose  seat  of  government 
was  at  Antioch.  They  divided  the  land  into  five  provinces ; 
three  of  which  were  on  the  west  side  of  Jordan,  namely, 
Galilee,  Samaria,  and  Judaea  (though  the  whole  country 
was  frequently  called  Judcea  after  this  time)  ;  and  two  on 
the  eastern  side,  namely,  Trachonitis  and  Per?ea :  but  the 
Jews  were  still  allowed  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws, 
under  the  high-priest  and  council  of  the  nation. 

At  first  the  Syrian  kings  wece  well  disposed  to  the  Jews.  Seleucus 
Philopator,  son  and  successor  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  even  maintained 
the  cost  of  the  Temple  sacrifices  out  of  his  own  revenues.     His  mind, 

*  Table  of  the  Grceco- Syrian  Kings:  'Kings  of  the  Korth,'  Dn  ii. 
Seleucus  I  (Mcator),  B.C.  312.  trious '),   Great  Persecution,    B.C. 

Antiochus  I  (Soter,   'Deliverer'),  175. 

B.C.  280.  Antiochus  V  (Enpator),  B.C.  164. 

Antiochus     II      {Theos,     'God'),  Demetrius  I  (So^erj,  B.C.  162. 

B.C.  260.  Demetrius  II  (Nicator),  B.C.  146. 

Seleucus    II    {Callinicus,    'victori-  Antiochus  VI  (Trr/p^jo),  a  child. 

ous'),  B.C.  246.  Antiochus  VII  [Sidetes  ,  B.C.  137. 

Seleucus  III  [Ceraunus,  'tliunder-  Demetrius  II  restored,  b.  c.  129. 

bolt '),  B.C.  225.  Antiochus  VIII  {Grypus),  b.  c.  125. 

Antiochus  III,    'the  Great,'  b,c.  Seleucus  V  (Epiphanes),   civil  con- 

223.  tests,  B.C.  96. 

Seleucus  IV  (Philopator),  B.C.  187.  Tigranes,  the  Armenian,  B.C.  83. 

Antiochus  IV  {EpiphaneSf  '  111  us-  Syria  a  Roman  Province,  b-c.  6^, 


602  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

however,  became  poisoned  by  Simon,  a  Bonjamite,  'governor  of  the 
Temple,'  at  whose  instigation  an  attempt  was  made  to  seize  upon  the 
accumulated  treasures  of  the  sanctuary*.  The  royal  commissioner, 
Heliodorus,  was  struck  down  in  the  endeavour  to  execute  his  sacri- 
legious task — it  was  said,  by  an  angelic  apparition,  but  probably  by 
a  more  earthly  defender  of  the  sacred  shrine — and  for  a  time  the  work 
of  plunder  was  frustrated.  Onias  III,  the  high-priest,  as  a  rigorous 
and  devout  upholder  of  the  Law,  was  an  object  of  animosity  to  the  now 
growing  Hellenistic  party  in  Judaea,  and  the  strife  was  accentuated 
by  the  watchful  jealousy  of  the  two  kingdoms.  The  strife  had  seemed 
allayed  when  Antiochus  made  over  the  reveniies  of  Coele-Syria  and 
Palestine  to  Ptolemy,  the  young  King  of  Egypt,  on  his  marriage  with 
the  Syrian  princess  Cleopatra.  But  she  died  early  (b.c.  171),  and 
Antiochus  IV,  who  had  succeeded  his  brother  Seleucus  upon  the 
throne,  reclaimed  his  sister's  dowry,  defeating  Egypt  near  Pelusium, 
and  became  undisputed  master  of  Palestine.  'Epiphanes,' tV^Ms^noMs, 
was  his  surname;  but  the  Jews  of  after  days  changed  it  to  *Epi- 
manes,'  madman,  as  a  memorial  of  his  justly-detested  name. 

Antiochus  Epiphanes. — The  determination  of  Antiochus 
from  the  first  was  to  'Hellenize'  every  part  of  his  domi- 
nions. Incensed  by  the  resolute  opposition  which  his 
plans  encountered  from  the  Jews  he  proceeded  to  depose 
the  high-priest  Onias  III,  appointing  the  priest's  younger 
brother,  Joshua  (under  the  Graecized  name  of  Jason),  to  the 
office.  The  new  high-priest's  first  step  was  to  procure  the 
enrollment  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  as  citizens  of 
Antioch,  followed  by  a  superfluous  act  of  apostasy  in  the 
form  of  a  contribution  towards  the  worship  of  the  Tyrian 
Hercules !  But  Jason  overshot  his  mark,  and  was  dis- 
possessed in  less  than  two  years  by  one  Menahem  (in  Greek 
form,  Menelaus),  who,  to  make  his  position  secure,  procured 
the  assassination  of  Onias.  The  partisans  of  Jason  rallied 
to  the  strife,  and  Antiochus  interfered  between  the  rival 
claimants.  Marching  to  Jerusalem  he  plundered  the  city 
and  Temple  with  every  circumstance  of  cruelty  and  pro- 
fanation, and  slew  or  enslaved  great  numbers  of  the  inhabi- 
tants (b.  c.    170).     For    three  years   and   a  half  they  were 

*  See  2  Mac  3  for  the  whole  story,  embellished  by  marvellous 
accompaniments. 


ANTIOCHUS   EPIPHANES  603 

altogether  deprived  of  their  civil  and  religious  liberties. 
The  daity  sacrifice  was  prohibited,  and  upon  the  great 
altar  of  burnt-offering  a  small  altar  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus 
was  erected.  On  the  25th  of  Chisleu  (December),  168.  the 
desecration  was  consummated  in  the  offering  of  a  sow  upon 
the  great  altar,  and  in  the  sprinkling  of  the  liquor  in  which 
a  portion  of  it  had  been  boiled  over  the  copies  of  the  Law 
and  every  available  2:)art  of  the  Temple.  Such  was  the 
'  Abomination  of  Desolation,'  which  became  proverbial ; 
Dn  9^^  12^^  Mt  24^^  Mk  13^"*.  The  observance  of  the  law 
of  God  was  forbidden  under  the  severest  penalties ;  every 
copy  of  the  sacred  writings  which  could  be  seized  was 
burned  ;  and  the  people  were  required,  under  pain  of  death, 
to  join  in  heathen  worship  and  to  eat  swine's  flesh.  Never 
before  had  the  Jews  been  exposed  to  so  furious  a  persecu- 
tion. Numerous  as  were  the  apostates,  a  remnant  continued 
faithful :  and  these  events  were  doubtless  made  instru- 
mental in  calling  the  attention  of  the  heathen  around  to 
those  great  principles  for  which  many  of  the  Jews  at  that 
time  were  willing  to  lay  down  their  lives. 

411.  The  Maccabaean  uprising. —At  length  God  raised 
up  a  deliverer  for  Ilis  people  in  the  family  of  the  Has- 
monaeans".  Mattathias,  a  priest  at  Modin,  a  small  town 
about  fifteen  miles  west  of  Jerusalem,  a  man  eminent 
for  piety  and  resolution,  and  the  father  of  five  sons, 
encouraged  the  people  by  his  example  and  exhortations 
'  to  stand  up  for  the  Law.'  With  his  own  hands  he  struck 
down  an  apostate  Jew  at  the  idol  altar,  as  well  as  the 
Syrian  officer  who  presided  at  the  ceremonial.  Mattathias 
then  fled  to  the  mountains  and  rallied  around  him  a  devoted 
band  of  men  pledged  to  free  the  nation  from  the  oppression 
and  persecution  of  the  Syrians,  and  to  restore  the  worship 
of  Jehovah.     Being  very  old  when  engaged  in  this  arduous 

*  So  called  from  Chasm  on,  an  ancestor  ;  priest  of  the  order  of 
Joiarib.     See  i  Ch  24^  Ne  12  ". 


604  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

work,  he  did  not  live  to  see  its  completion ;  and  the 
address  of  the  dying  hero  to  his  sons,  in  which  he  com- 
mitted to  them  the  cause  of  their  country  and  their  God 
(i  Mac  2*^"''^),  is  a  noble  utterance  of  patriotism  and  piety. 

On  his  death  his  third  and  most  distinguished  son, 
Judas,  succeeded  to  the  command  of  the  army  (b.  c.  163), 
in  which  he  was  assisted  by  his  four  brothers,  especially  by 
Simon,  the  eldest  of  them,  a  man  of  remarkable  prudence. 

The  name  by  which  Judas  became  known  in  history  is  that  of 
Maccabaeus,  the  meaning  of  which  is  obscure.  The  conjecture  that  its 
consonants  are  the  initial  letters  of  the  Hebrew  words  Mi  Khamo- 
Kha  Baclim  lahveh,  a  sentence  from  Ex  15^',  '  Who  is  like  unto  Thee 
among  the  gods,  O  Jehovah  ?'  and  that  these  letters  were  inscribed 
on  his  standard,  is  now  set  aside  for  a  more  probable  derivation  from 
makkdhdh,  '  hammer,'  in  the  sense  that  Edward  I  was  known  as 
Scotorum  Malleus,  and  Thomas  Cromwell  as  the  Malleus  Monachorum. 

412.  Reconsecration  of  the  Temple  (b.  c.  164). — After 
several  victories  over  the  troops  of  Antiochus,  Judas  gained 
possession  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple.  His  first  care 
was  to  purify  both  from  all  traces  of  idolatry.  The  Temple 
was  consecrated  anew  to  the  service  of  God,  and  the  daily 
sacrifices  were  resumed.  This  reconsecration  of  the  Temple 
and  revival  of  worship  (e.g.  165)  was  ever  afterwards  cele- 
l)rated  by  an  annual  feast  for  eight  days,  beginning  the  25th 
of  Chisleu,  the  anniversary  of  the  day  on  which,  three  years 
before,  the  altar  had  been  polluted,  and  was  called  the 
Feast  of  the  Dedication,  Jn   lo'^^. 

413.  The  Jews  in  Egypt. — Whilst  the  Maccabaean 
princes  were  thus  contending  in  Judasa  for  faith  and  free- 
dom, their  brethren  who  had  from  time  to  time  settled 
in  Egypt  enjoyed  for  the  most  part  the  protection  and 
favour  of  the  Ptolemies.  The  son  of  the  high-priest, 
Onias,  having  escaped  from  the  persecution  to  which  his 
father  had  fallen  a  victim,  found  a  home  in  Alexandria  ; 
and,  perhaps  despairing  of  Jerusalem  in  those  days  of 
tyranny  and  slaughter,   sought  to  establish  a  new  centre 


JEWS   IN   EGYPT  606 

of  worship  in  the  land  which  had  nurtured  Moses  and  Aaron. 
The  reigning  Ptolemy  (Philometor)  gave  his  willing  con- 
sent ;  a  disused  heathen  temple  furnished  an  appropriate 
site,  and  the  new  temple  of  Jehovah,  modelled,  on  a  smaller 
scale,  after  the  Temple  in  Jerusalem,  was  consecrated  at 
Leontopolis  in  the  Egyptian  Delta.  Inspired  prophecy  was 
quoted  to  justify  this  new  enterprise.  The  '  City  of  Destruc- 
tion,' Is  19'^  (A.  v.),  according  to  another  reading  (K.  V. 
marg.),  is  the  'City  of  the  Sun,'  in  Greek,  Heliopolis, 
the  ancient  On  (see  Gen  4i^'°),  and  thus,  it  was  urged, 
the  prophet's  prediction  was  fulfilled.  This  temple  and 
its  services  remained  as  a  welcome  refuge  and  sanctuary 
for  the  Jewish  people  from  their  oppressors  in  Palestine  ; 
and  it  was  not  closed  until  about  220  years  afterwards,  in 
the  days  of  Vespasian  *. 

Palestine  under  Maccdbcean  Bule. 

414.  The  Maccabsean  Brothers. — Antiochus  died  soon 
afterwards  in  Persia,  whither  he  had  undertaken  an  ex- 
pedition. It  is  affirmed  by  the  author  of  i  Maccabees  that 
he  died  of  grief,  on  hearing  of  the  successes  of  the  Jews 
(541.42J .  ^jj(j  jjj  2  Maccabees  there  is  an  embellished  narra- 
tive, not  only  of  the  great  persecutor's  dreadful  end,  but  of 
his  late  repentance  (9^"^^).  Such  accounts  are,  however,  to 
be  taken  with  caution.  Antiochus  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Antiochus  Eupator  ;  and  the  struggle  with  the  Maccabaeans 
was  carried  on  under  different  kings,  with  varying  success, 
for  more  than  twenty  years.  In  the  course  of  these 
struggles  the  sons  of  Mattathias  successively  passed  away. 
Judas  was  slain  in  battle  (April,  b.c.  161),  his  brother  Jona- 
than succeeded  to  the  command  and  was  eventually  ordained 
to  the  priesthood,  which  had  been  held,  up  to  159,  by 
Alcimus  (Eliakim),  a  Levite  of  Hellenistic  tendencies.  The 
dignities  of  ruler  and  priest  were  thus  united  in  Jonathan's 
*  Joseplius,  Wars,  vii.  10  §  3. 


606  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

person,  although  it  was  not  until  nearly  fifty  years  later 
that  the  royal  title  was  formally  assumed.  Jonathan  was 
treacherously  murdered  in  143,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  Simon,  who  finally  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Syria, 
and  maintained  his  peaceful  sway  until  135,  when  he  too 
was  assassinated,  one  Ptolemy,  his  own  son-in-law,  com- 
mitting this  crime  of  double  baseness.  The  two  elder  sons 
of  Simon  being  slain  with  him,  the  third,  John  Hyrcanus, 
succeeded  and  maintained  his  twofold  character — secular 
and  sacred — with  much  resolution  and  success. 

415.  Hyrcanus  I  and  his  Successors. — Under  Simon 
and  Hyrcanus  I.  Judaea  became  a  free  state,  supported  by 
regular  troops,  strong  garrisons,  and  alliances  with  other 
powers,  including  even  Eome,  with  which  Judas  himself 
had  opened  negotiations,  little  dreaming  of  the  issue.  The 
country  began  to  enjoy  its  former  prosperity  and  peaceful- 
ness ;  and  the  boundaries  of  the  state  were  extended  in  the 
direction  of  Syria,  Phoenicia,  Arabia,  and  Idumaea.  Hyrcanus, 
among  other  exploits,  made  himself  master  of  Samaria, 
and  utterly  destroyed  the  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,  where 
the  successors  of  the  schismatical  priest  Manasseh  had 
officiated  for  more  than  300  years. 

Iiine  of  priest-kings. — The  son  of  Hyrcanus,  Aris- 
tobulus  I,  first  expressly  assumed  the  title  'King  of  the 
Jews ' ;  but  he  did  not  long  enjoy  the  dignity.  He  w^as 
succeeded  by  his  young  brother,  Alexander  Jannaeus,  the 
tyranny  and  cruelty  of  whose  rule  disgraced  the  Hasmonaean 
name,  and  left  results  which  subsequent  years  of  delusive 
prosperity  could  never  eiface.  Dying  at  the  age  of  forty- 
nine,  he  bequeathed  the  kingdom  to  his  widow  Alexandra, 
by  whom  the  priesthood  was  devolved  upon  their  elder  son 
Hyrcanus  II.  After  her  death,  however,  the  younger  son, 
Aristobulus,  a  strong  and  ambitious  man,  dispossessed  his 
brother,  who  at  first  peacefully  retired.  But  Antipater, 
governor   of   Idumaea,  who  now  appeared   upon   the  scene 


LINE   OF   PRIEST-KINGS  607 

with  notable  results,  espoused  the  cause  of  Hyrcanus ;  and 
the  case  was  at  length  referred  to  the  Roman  general 
Pompey.  He  pronounced  in  favour  of  the  elder  brother : 
Aristobulus  fell  back  upon  Jerusalem,  which  he  vainly 
strove  to  defend  against  the  Roman  legions.  Pompey,  it  is 
said,  gained  a  great  advantage  by  preparing  his  munitions 
and  engines  of  war  beneath  the  very  walls  on  the  Sabbath, 
when  the  inhabitants  were  precluded  by  their  religious 
scruples  from  attacking  him.  Be  this  as  it  may,  the  Roman 
general  took  the  city  with  great  slaughter,  entered  the 
Temple  and  penetrated  to  the  veiy  Holy  of  Holies,  amazed 
to  find  there  no  visible  representation  of  Deity.  Whether 
impressed  by  this  fact,  or  from  any  other  cause,  he  left  the 
Temple  treasures  untouched^,  and  retired,  having  reinstated 
Hyrcanus  in  a  nominal  sovereignty.  Aristobulus  and  his 
son  Alexander,  offering  fresh  resistance,  were  taken  and 
slain. 

416.  Intervention  of  Rome. — In  this  stage  of  the 
conflict  the  celebrated  Mark  Antony  appears,  as  a  supporter 
of  the  cause  of  Hyrcanus.  Later  on  Julius  Caesar  took 
part  in  the  strife,  resisting  the  claims  of  Antigonus,  second 
son  of  Aristobulus.  But  the  murder  of  Caesar,  followed  by 
that  of  Antipater  (father  of  Herod),  who  for  twenty  years 
had  been  the  real  ruler  of  the  country,  insj^ired  the  ad- 
herents of  Antigonus  with  a  transient  hope.  He  was 
even  placed  upon  the  throne  of  the  priest-kings,  Hyrcanus 
being  foully  dispossessed.  Herod  fled  to  Rome,  but  soon 
returned  and  conciliated  the  people  by  his  marriage  with 
Mariamne,  the  beautiful  grand- daughter  of  Hj^rcanus. 
Antigonus  was  taken,  and  executed  like  a  common  male- 
factor. An  obscure  Babylonian  priest,  one  Ananel,  was 
nominated  by  Herod  in  his  stead,  but  Herod  was  com- 
pelled by  popular  feeling  to  restore  the  Maccabaean  line  by 

*  Josephus,  Wurs,  i.  7  §  6. 


608  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 


appointing  Aristobulus  III,  the  brother  of  his  queen 
Mariamne.  In  the  midst  of  the  rejoicing  of  the  Jews  at 
this  apparent  restoration  of  the  royal  priesthood  Aristobulus 
was  drowned  in  bathing  near  Jericho — it  was  more  than 
suspected,  at  Herod's  instigation.  So  passed  away  the 
once  famous  Hasmonaean  race. 

417,  A  brief  Genealogical  Table  will  here  assist  the 
reader.  The  names  of  the  priest-kings  are  printed  in  small 
capital  letters,  and  the  dates  given  are  those  of  death. 

Tlie  Hasmoncean  family  of  Priestly  Eulers. 

Mattatli'uis,  167. 

\ 

I  I  I  I  I 

John,  161.       Simon,  135,      Judas,  161.      Eleazar,  163.      Jonathan,  143. 

I 


Judas,  135, 


I 
John  Hyrcanus,  106. 


Mattathias,  135. 


Aristobulus  I,  105.     Antigonus,  105.      A.  Jann^us,  78  =p  Alexandra. 


Hyrcanus  II,  30. 


I 
Aristobulus  II,  49. 


I  I 

Alexandra  =p  Alexander,  49. 


I 
Antigonus,  37. 


Mariamne  =  Herod. 


I 
Aristobulus  III,  37. 


List  of  High  Priests  under  Syru-Eyyplian  ride. 


Jaddua  (in  the  time  of  Alexander 

the  Great),  b.c.  c.  335. 
Onias  I  (son  of  Jaddua),  330. 
Simon,  '  the  Just '  (soii  of  Onias  I), 

310. 
Eleazar  (brotlier  of  Simon),  290. 
Manasseh    (brother    of    Simon), 

276. 
Onias  II  (son  of  Simon),  350. 

Interruption  till  153. 
Jonathan  (iir^t  priest  uf  the  Macuabu:^ua  Imu  :  as  in  the  abovu  labiv) 


Simon  II  (son  of  Onias  II),  219. 
Onias  III  (son  of  Simon  II),  198. 
Joshua  ( Greek  name  Jason ,  bought 

tlie  office),  175. 
Onias     IV,     'Menelaus'     (outbid 

Jason),  172. 
Jacimus  or  Alcimus  (appointed  hy 

Antioc'hus  V),  163. 


HEROB   THE   GREAT  609 

V.  Supremacy/  of  Borne. 

418.  Herod  'the  Great.' — The  record  of  Roman  as- 
cendancy in  Judaea  up  to  the  time  of  the  Advent  is  the 
history  of  Herod's  rule.  When  Mark  Antony  was  over- 
thrown by  Augustus  at  the  battle  of  Actium,  b.c.  31,  Herod 
lost  no  time  in  seeking  the  conqueror,  who  confirmed  him 
in  the  possession  of  the  whole  Maccabaean  kingdom,  in 
five  districts :  Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Galilee,  west  of  the 
Jordan ;  Peraea  and  Idumaea  on  the  east.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  strange  contrasts.  On  the  one  hand  he  sought 
to  propitiate  the  Jews  by  the  enlargement,  fortification,  and 
adornment  of  their  city.  On  the  other,  he  manifested  a 
desire  to  'Romanize,'  as  Antiochus  IV  long  before  had 
sought  to  '  Hellenize '  the  people.  He  erected  an  amphi- 
theatre in  Jerusalem,  instituted  public  games,  and  even 
gladiatorial  contests,  rebuilt  Samaria,  calling  it  Sebaste 
(Augusta),  erecting  sumptuous  temples,  both  there  and  at 
Caesarea  Philippi  [Panias],  in  honour  of  the  emperor.  He 
also  rebuilt  Stratonice  on  the  western  coast,  and  gave  it 
the  now  well-known  name  of  Caesarea.  When  a  famine 
broke  out  in  Judaea  and  Samaria  (b.  c.  25)  Herod  spared  no 
cost  for  the  alleviation  of  its  horrors,  contributing  the  gold 
and  silver  ornaments  of  his  palaces  to  equip  corn -laden 
vessels  from  Egypt.  At  length,  to  crown  his  exertions  on 
behalf  of  the  people,  he  began  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his 
reign  (b.  c.  20)  the  reconstruction  of  the  Temple  on  a  most 
magnificent  scale.  '  Forty  and  six  years, '  it  was  said  long 
after  his  death,  'was  this  temple  in  building %'  nor  was 
it  even  then  complete  in  all  its  details  ^. 

With  all  this,  the  relentless  ambition  and  jealous  cruelty 
of  the  king  have  given  him  a  place  among  the  worst 
tyrants  of  all  time.     To  clear  an  undisputed  way  to  the 

*  Jn  220. 

^  See  the  description  in  Josephus,  Ant.  xv.  §  ii. 
R  r 


610  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

throne  he  put  to  death  the  venerable  Hyrcanus  (b.c.  31). 
Mariamne  and  her  two  sons  afterwards  fell  victims  to 
his  insensate  jealousy.  The  execution  of  Antipater, 
his  son  by  another  wife,  he  ordered  from  his  death-bed. 
And  when  the  end  was  near  he  directed  that  the  elders 
of  the  chief  Jewish  cities  should  be  shut  up  in  the  amphi- 
theatre and  slain  as  soon  as  the  breath  was  out  of  his  body, 
'  that  there  might  at  least  be  some  tears  at  his  funeral ! '  This 
order  was  wisely  and  happily  disobeyed.  It  was  a  short 
time  before  his  death  that  Jesus  Christ  was  born  at  Beth- 
lehem, and  the  massacre  of  '  the  Innocents '  was  but  of  a 
piece  with  the  character  of  the  jealous  and  passionate  king. 

419.  Governors  of  Judaea. — Herod  was  succeeded,  as 
tributary  to  Eome,  in  the  government  of  Judaea,  with 
Samaria  and  Idumaea,  by  his  son  Archelaus,  who  acted  with 
great  cruelty,  and  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  reign,  upon 
a  complaint  being  made  against  him  by  the  Jews,  was 
banished  by  Augustus  to  Vienne,  in  Gaul,  where  he  died. 
Publius  Sulpitius  Quirinius  (who,  according  to  the  Greek 
way  of  writing  the  name,  is  by  Luke  called  Cyrenius),  the 
President  of  Syria,  was  then  sent  to  reduce  to  a  Roman 
province  the  countries  over  which  Archelaus  had  reigned  ; 
and  a  governor  of  Judaea  was  appointed  under  the  title  of 
'procurator,'  subordinate  to  the  President  of  Syria.  During 
our  Saviour's  ministry  Judaea  and  Samaria  were  governed 
by  this  Roman  procurator,  who  had  the  power  of  life  and 
death  ;  while  Galilee  was  governed,  under  the  authority  of 
the  Romans,  by  Herod  Antipas,  a  son  of  Herod  the  Great, 
with  the  title  of  'tetrarch.'  Antipas  brought  ruin  upon 
himself  through  his  unhallowed  alliance  with  Herodias, 
whom  he  married  in  the  lifetime  of  her  husband,  Herod 
Philip  I.  At  her  instance  he  sought  from  Rome  the  formal 
title  of  '  king/  but  was  deposed  and  died  in  exile  (Jos.  Ant. 
xviii.7,  §  2). 


THE   HERODIAN   FAMILY 


611 


The  Herodian  family  as  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 

Herod  *  the  Great '  (Mt  2^),  son  of  Antipater,  Idumaean  by  descent, 

ni.  Mariamne  (i],            m.  Mariamne  12),            m.  Malthace  m.  Cleopatra. 
gr.-d.  of  Hyrcanus  II.       d.  of  Simon,  h. p.          (Samaritan). 
I                      I        I 

I  I  I  I 

Aristobulus.     Herod  Philip  I,     Archelaus     Herod  Antipas.     Herod  Philip  II 
m.  Herodias  (Mt  2-'^).     Hetrarch,'  'king,'  (Lu  3^) 

(Mt  14^).  m.  Herodias         m.  Salome,  d.  of 

(Mt  14^^-12).*       Herod  Philip  I. 


I 
Herod  Agrippa  I  (Ac  12^) 
m.  Oyproa. 


Herodias  (Mt  14^) 
m.  (i)  Herod  Philip  I. 
(2)  Herod  Antipas. 


Agrippa  II 

(Ac  25I3). 


Bernice 
(Ac  25"). 


Drusilla,  m.  Felix 

f  Ac  242*). 


Moral  and  Religious  History 

420.  Adherence  to  Mosaisni. —  During  this  whole 
period  the  Jews  appear  in  a  somewhat  new  light.  Their 
intercourse  with  Gentiles  in  Babylon  and  elsewhere,  and 
the  severe  chastisements  they  had  undergone,  checked  their 
tendency  to  idolatry,  and  confirmed  them  in  their  own  faith, 
as  has  been  already  shown.  The  voice  of  prophecy  indeed 
was  silent,  but  the  Scriptures  were  systematically  read  in 
the  synagogues,  which  were  established  in  most  of  the 
cities  of  Palestine.  These  places  of  assembly  and  worship 
(where  no  sacrifices,  of  course,  were  offered)  seem  gradually 
to  have  superseded  the  worship  in  the  Temple. 

The  intercourse  of  the  Jews  with  other  nations  had  become  during 
the  same  period  more  general.  As  early  as  the  time  of  the  Captivity 
a  colony  was  formed  in  Egypt  ;  thus  violating  the  Law  (Dt  12),  and 
weakening  the  ties  which  bound  them  to  the  holy  city.  Their 
earlier  connexion  with  Egypt  had  been  a  scourge,  and  now  it 
became  a  siiure.     From  choice  or  neceasity  settlers  established  them- 

s  r  2 


612  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

selves  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Greece,  in  Africa,  and  in  Italy,  so  that  when 
our  Lord  aj^peared  there  was  scarcely  a  country  in  the  whole  Roman 
empire  in  which  a  Jewish  colony  might  not  be  found.  It  was  well- 
nigh  literally  true  that  Moses  had  in  every  city  those  that  preached 
him  (Ac  15-I). 

As  a  consequence  of  this  intercourse  the  original  language  of 
Palestine,  which  had  been  subject,  as  we  have  seen,  to  variou? 
influences,  was  forgotten  by  many  of  the  Jews,  and  Greek  became  a^ 
familiar  in  the  towns  of  Judsea  as  Aramaic.  Hence,  not  only  tlie 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  but  the  admission  by 
the  Jews  into  their  purer  faith  of  some  of  the  absurdities  of  heathen 
philosophy.  Hence,  also,  an  extensive  acquaintance  among  the 
Gentiles  with  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  a  general  expectation 
throughout  all  the  East  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah. 

421.  The  Septuagint. — By  far  the  most  important  result 
of  this  colonization  was  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Scriptures  into  Greek.  An  account  of  the  Septuagint 
has  been  given  in  the  former  part  of  this  Avork  (§  29),  and  it 
need  only  be  added  here  that  the  translation  was  gradually 
made,  from  the  accession  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  by  whom 
it  was  originated  about  b.  c.  285  (a  century  and  a  half  after 
Malachi).  The  names  of  the  translators,  the  order  of  their 
work,  and  the  time  of  its  completion,  are  entirely  unknown. 
What  is  certain  is,  that  it  came  into  general  use  among  the 
Greek-speaking  Jews,  that  it  was  introduced  into  Palestine, 
and  that,  by  the  time  of  our  Lord  and  His  Apostles,  it  was 
the  Bible  of  the  educated  Jewish  community.  It  was 
adopted  by  Philo  and  Josephus,  and,  as  we  have  seen, 
was  continually  quoted  by  the  New  Testament  writers. 

422.  The  Apocrypha. — It  was  in  Alexandria,  also, 
that  the  books  termed  Apocryphal  were  for  the  most  part 
written. 

It  may  be  convenient  here  to  enumerate  these  books, 
in  their  usual  order.  See  Part  I,  §  10,  also  the  Sixth 
Article  of  the  Church  of  England. 

I  (or  II)  Esdras  (Greek  form  for  Ezra).  Incidents  from  the  Bible 
history  (Josiah  to  Ezra),  related  with  some  deviations.     A  debate  ou 


THE   APOCRYPHA  613 

•  What  is  greatest  ?  ' ;  the  court  of  Darius  Hystaspis  is  introduced 
(3-4*1)  .  and  the  commission  of  Zerubbabel  is  made  the  reward  of 
his  ability  in  the  discussion. 

II  (or  IV)  Esdras,  chiefly  a  series  of  apocalyptic  visions,  assigned 
by  many  critics  to  the  time  of  Domitian  (a.  d.  81-96),  and  partly  of 
Jewish,  partly  of  Christian  origin  :  found  only  in  a  Latin  version. 

Tobit :  a  fictitious  narrative  intended  to  show  how  a  pious  Jew 
living  in  Gentile  Nineveh  might  yet  be  true  to  his  faith,  and  obtain 
the  privilege  of  angelic  companionship.  It  was  probably  written  in 
Hebrew,  though  the  original  is  lost.  An  Aramaic  version  has  been 
discovered. 

Judith,  a  story  of  the  days  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  showing  how  'its 
heroine,  like  another  Jael,  slew  her  country's  foe,  the  Chaldaean 
general,  Holofernes.  It  was  probably  written  in  the  Maccabscan 
period. 

The  rest  of  Esther,  a  kind  of  appendix  to  the  canonical  book,  with 
additional  details  and  professedly  original  documents.  A  note  in  the 
LXX  ascribes  its  authorship  to  one  Lysimachus,  'in  the  reign  of 
Ptolemy  and  his  wife  Cleopatra.'  But  this  is  indefinite,  as  four  of  the 
Ptolemies  had  wives  of  that  name.  The  book  is  supposed  to  have 
been  written  in  the  second  century  B.C. 

The  Wisdom  of  Solomon.  A  Greek  imitation  of  the  earlier  part  of 
P)-overbs.  It  contains  some  fine  passages,  as  3^"^  4^"^',  the  immortal 
life  of  the  godly,  and  7,  8,  the  praises  of  wisdom.  The  book  is 
evidently  Alexandrian,  and  is  thought  to  belong  to  the  Christian  era. 

The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus,  written 
originally  in  Hebrew  *,  and  translated  into  Greek,  as  appears  by  the 
Preface,  in  the  thirty-eighth  year  of  King  Euergetes.  There  were  two 
kings  of  this  name,  but  as  the  first  reigned  only  for  twenty-five  years 
the  second  must  be  meant,  Physcon,  brother  of  Ptolemy  VII,  with 
whom  he  exercised  joint  power  from  b.c.  170,  which  would  make  the 
date  of  the  translation  b.c.  132,  the  original  being  perhaps,  say,  fifty 
years  earlier,  or  about  b.c,  180.  The  book  is  the  choicest  monument 
we  have  of  uncanonical  Jewish  literature.  Some  parts  of  it  are 
nobly  written,  as  the  Praise  of  Creation,  42^^-43^',  and  the  Eulogy  of 
Famous  Men,  44-50-^  The  book  was  first  termed  '  Ecclesiasticus '  by 
Cyprian,  in  the  third  century  a.d. 

Baruch  and  the  Epistle  of  Jeremiah :  a  feeble  imitation  of  Old 
Testament  literature  and  of  the  great  prophet's  language.  It  purports 
to  have  been  written  from  Babylon,  in  the  fifth  year  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.     Its  date  is,  however,  quite  unknown. 

"  A  portion  of  the  original  was  discovered  in  1896,  and  was  printed 
at  the  Oxford  University  Press,  under  the  editorship  of  A.  E.  Cowley 
«nd  A.  Neubauer,  1897. 


614  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

The  Song*  of  the  Three  Holy  Children,  placed  in  the  LXX  after 
Dan  323.  This  Psalm,  purporting  to  have  been  uttered  in  the  furnace 
by  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego,  is  familiar,  from  the  use  of  the 
greater  part  of  it  (verses  28-68)  as  the  Benedicile. 

The  History  of  Susanna. 

Bel  and  the  Drag-on. 

These  two  narratives  are  likewise  supplementary  to  the  Book  of 
Daniel.  The  engrafting  of  such  legends  on  this  book  suggests  that  it 
had  long  been  known  and  recognized  as  canonical  in  the  Jewish 
church. 

•The  Prayer  of  Manasseh,  King  of  Judah,  a  compilation,  of  unknown 
date,  from  penitential  passages  of  Scripture.  See  2  Ch  33^--^^  It  is 
not  in  the  LXX. 

I  Maccabees.  An  accurate  and  valuable  history  of  Jewish  affairs 
from  the  accession  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  b.c.  175,  to  the  death  of 
Simon  the  Maccabee  (135).  It  was  written  in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic: 
but  the  original  is  lost.  It  is  useful  as  giving  the  dates  of  the  Seleucid 
era,  from  b.c.  312.  See  Part  I,  §  201.  The  author  is  unknown,  but  as 
he  mentions  the  achievements  of  John  (Hyrcanus),  16^3^*,  it  was 
probably  written  about  the  time  of  that  ruler's  death  (105). 

II  Maccabees.  The  abridgement,  in  part,  of  a  longer  History, 
written  by  one  Jason  of  Cyrene  in  five  books  (2^^).  The  book  covers 
fifteen  years  of  the  period  chronicled  in  the  First  Book  (b.c.  175-160). 
The  two  histories  are,  however,  quite  independent.  There  is  in  this 
book  a  long  discursive  Preface  (i,  2),  which  contains  some  strange 
legends,  notably  that  of  the  concealment  of  the  ark  in  a  cavern 
until  the  time  of  the  Eeturn,  2''"^  The  history  itself  is  rheforical 
and  diffuse,  but  may  be  usefully  compared,  in  places,  with  the  First 
Book. 

It  should  be  added  that  for  the  adequate  study  of  the  English 
*  Apocrypha '  the  use  of  the  Revised  Version  is  essential.  Commentaries 
on  these  books  are  not  numerous,  but  that  in  the  Speaker's  Commentary, 
2  vols.,  is  copious  and  useful. 

The  eighteen  so-called  Psalms  of  Solomon,  not  included  in  the 
'Apocrypha,*  are  Palestinian,  and  refer  to  some  period  of  national 
disaster  ;  either  to  the  aggressions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  as 
formerly  supposed,  or,  more  probably,  to  the  invasion  of  Pompey, 
about  B.C.  63.  The  difference  in  tone  and  style  between  these  and 
the  inspired  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  is  very  marked  ;  and  for 
this  reason  among  others  the  '  Psalms  of  Solomon '  are  deserving  of 
careful  study  '. 

*  See  the  edition  by  Kyle  and  James,  Cambridge,  1891. 


THE   PHARISEES  615 

423.  Jewish  Sects. — Towards  the  close  of  this  period 
there  arose  a  variety  of  Sects,  of  which  the  principal  were 
the  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes :  the  last,  although 
not  mentioned  by  name  in  the  New  Testament,  had  a 
recognized  power  in  the  religious  life  of  the  times. 

The  Pharisees  were  the  spiritual  successors  of  the 
Hasidaeans,  or  Chasidim,  *  mighty  men  of  Israel,  every 
one  that  offered  himself  willingly  for  the  Law.'  i  Mac  2*^ 
R.V.  They  were  most  anxious  to  keep  the  nation  true 
to  its  traditions  of  the  past.  But  when  Jonathan,  the  son 
of  Mattathias,  began  to  carry  on  the  struggle  no  longer  for 
the  cause  of  God  but  for  his  own  interest,  and  Simon  was 
shosen  by  the  people  high-priest,  the  Scribes  and  the 
Hasidseans  withdrew  themselves  from  the  party  of  the 
Maccabees.  *  There  can  be  no  doubt,'  says  Wellhausen, 
'  that  from  the  legal  point  they  were  perfectly  right  in 
contenting  themselves  as  they  did  with  the  attainment 
of  religious  liberty.  The  Hasmonaeans  had  no  hereditary 
right  to  the  high-priesthood,  and  their  politics,  which 
aimed  at  the  establishment  of  a  national  monarchy,  were 
contrary  to  the  whole  spirit  and  essence  of  the  second 
theocracy.'  It  was  deep  attachment  to  the  ancient  Mosaic 
constitution  that  led  to  the  open  rupture  between  John 
Hyrcanus,  grandson  of  Mattathias,  and  the  Pharisees.  At 
a  state  banquet  one  of  their  number  told  Hyrcanus  that  he 
ought  to  resign  the  high -priesthood  and  confine  himself 
to  the  civil  government  of  the  people. 

Meaning  of  the  Name. — The  name  Pharisees,  or 
*  Separatists,'  was  given  to  them,  probably  by  their  enemies, 
to  mark  the  exclusiveness  of  their  attitude  towards  the 
common  people,  the  'people  of  the  land.'  Separateness 
was  in  truth  essential  to  the  Pharisaic  ideal  of  the  religious 
life.  The  Law  as  expounded  by  the  Scribes  was  so 
elaborate,  that  to  keep  it  perfectly  was  beyond  the  power 
of  the  average  Jew.     The    Pharisees   were   the  men  who 


616  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

gathered  round  the  Scribes,  accepted  their  teaching,  and 
made  it  the  chief  business  of  their  lives  to  reduce  it  to 
practice.  'It  was,'  says  Dean  Stanley,  'a  matter  both 
of  principle  and  policy  to  multiply  the  external  signs  by 
which  they  were  distinguished  from  the  Gentile  world  or 
from  those  of  their  own  countrymen  who  approached 
towards  it.  Tassels  on  their  dress ;  scrolls  and  small 
leather  boxes  fastened  on  forehead,  head,  and  neck,  inscribed 
with  texts  of  the  Law ;  long  prayers  offered  as  they  stood 
in  public  places ;  rigorous  abstinence  ;  constant  immer- 
sions— these  were  the  sacramental  badges  by  which  they 
hedged  themselves  round.'  Yet  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  the  thoughts  and  lives  of  the  Pharisees  were  wholly  de- 
voted to  external  ordinances.  It  is  important  to  remember 
that  they  did  much  to  keep  alive  the  expectation  of  the 
approaching  coming  of  the  Messiah  ;  that  they  emphasized, 
if  they  often  distorted  the  truth,  that  God  would  reward 
obedience  to  the  Law,  and  comforted  those  who  suffered 
in  its  vindication  with  the  assurance  of  the  recompense 
of  the  life  eternal,  while  they  warned  the  wicked  of  an 
eternity  of  retribution  in  the  life  to  come.  Of  all  the 
Jewish  sects,  the  Pharisees,  though  not  the  most  numerous, 
were  the  most  prominent,  the  most  popular,  and  the  most 
truly  national  in  spirit.  Patriotism  was  the  point  from 
which  they  started  ;  the  restoration  of  the  Divine  rule  was 
their  object,  but  since  Pharisaism  did  not  measure  men  by 
the  heart,  but  only  by  external  performance,  it  was  sternly 
denounced  by  our  Lord,  and  amongst  its  exponents  were 
his  bitterest  enemies. 

424.  The  Sadducees,  the  great  rival  party  of  the 
Pharisees,  took  their  name  either  from  Zadok,  the  high- 
priest  set  up  by  Solomon,  i  Ki  2^^,  or  '  because  they  laid 
claim,  in  opposition  to  the  mere  zealots  of  Separatism,  to  be 
the  true  Teaddikim,  or  righteous  ones,  who  laid  more  stress 


THE   ESSENES  617 

on  the  moral  than  the  ceremonial  Law.'  They  denied  the 
authority  of  tradition,  and  regarded  with  suspicion  all 
revelations  made  later  than  Moses.  They  objected  to  all 
development  of  Divine  truth,  even  of  such  truth  as  was 
plainly  implied  in  the  Pentateuch,  so  that  they  often  mis- 
understood the  very  books  they  professed  to  receive.  On 
this  ground  they  denied  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection 
and  the  immortality  of  the  soul.  Their  denial  of  the 
existence  of  angels  and  spirits  (Ac  23^)  is  hardly  ex- 
plicable on  any  principle,  except  that  when  once  men  have 
become  sceptical  their  unbelief  is  closely  allied  to  credulity. 
The  precepts  of  the  Law  were  the  only  parts  they  regarded 
as  clear,  all  else  they  thought  uncertain.  To  the  Messianic 
hope  they  were  profoundly  indifferent.  The  Sadducees 
were  mostly  persons  of  high  position  and  wealth.  From 
the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus,  we  find  that  they  often  held 
the  office  of  high-priest.  Annas  and  his  son-in-law,  Caiaphas, 
who  took  the  leading  part  in  the  trial  of  Jesus,  were 
Sadducees ;  and  it  is  illustrative  of  the  tenets  of  this  sect 
that  they  were  more  prominent  than  the  Pharisees  in 
the  subsequent  persecution  of  the  Apostles,  who  '  taught 
the  people  and  preached  through  Jesus  the  resurrection 
from  the  dead.' 

425.  The  Essenes. — The  reserve  of  the  New  Testament 
writers  concerning  the  third  of  the  great  Jewish  sects  of  this 
period  is  remarkable,  as  some  of  their  characteristics  are 
closely  allied  to  those  of  the  teaching  of  John  the  Baptist 
and  even  of  Christ  Himself.  Essenism  was  a  reaction  from 
the  mechanical  forms  into  which  Pharisaism  was  stiffening. 
Its  followers  took  no  part  in  public  affairs,  and  passed  their 
lives  in  retired  and  lonely  places,  where,  in  the  pursuits  of 
agriculture,  by  ascetic  habits,  by  celibacy,  ablution,  and 
prayers,  they  sought  to  realize  their  ideal  of  Levitical  purity. 
Excepting  a   solemn   oath    of   initiation   into    their    order 


618  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

the  Essenes  abstained  from  oaths,  disdained  riches,  and 
manifested  the  greatest  abhorrence  of  war  and  slavery.  Yet 
while  jealous  for  the  Law,  they  were  likewise  its  transgressors 
in  the  rejection  of  animal  sacrifices  and  in  their  adoration 
of  the  sun.  In  matters  of  belief  they  held  the  Scriptures 
in  the  highest  reverence,  interpreting  them,  however,  by 
an  allegorical  system  of  their  own  ;  they  believed  also  in 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  but  did  not  hold  the  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection  of  the  body  \ 

Later  than  the  time  of  our  Lord  these  sects  were  known  by  different 
names.  The  Pharisees  were  called  successively  Kabbinists  (disciples, 
that  is,  of  the  rabbis,  or  great  teachers),  Cabalists  (i.e.  traditionists), 
and  Talmudists.  Those  who  held  the  doctrine  of  the  Sadducees  on 
the  supremacy  of  the  literal  text  of  the  Pentateuch,  though  not  hold- 
ing their  other  errors,  were  called  Karaites,  or  Scripturists.  The 
Essenes  also  are  known  in  history  as  Therapeutse  (i.  e.  soul-physicians), 
though  some  think  that  this  name  was  given  to  a  distinct  but  similar 
sect.  For  fuller  information  on  the  subject  of  this  section,  see  the 
chapters  on  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes  in  Schiirer's  Jewish  People 
in  the  Time  oj  Christ,  Part  II,  vol.  ii ;  and  that  on  the  Religious  Commu- 
nities in  the  Holy  Land  in  Keim's  Jesu  von  Nazara,  vol.  i.  On  the 
Essenes  especially,  see  Bishop  Lightfoot's  dissertation  in  his  Com- 
mentary on  Colossians,  and  the  Lectures  of  Dr.  H.  R.  Reynolds  on  John 
the  Baptist. 

It  is  instructive  to  observe  that  while  the  Pharisees 
used  tradition  for  the  discovery  of  truth  the  Sadducees 
used  rationalistic  logic  for  the  same  purpose,  as  did  the 
schoolmen  in  later  times ;  and  that  these  sects  owed  their 
origin  to  the  tendencies  of  human  nature  and  the  decay  of 
spiritual  religion.  The  great  question  between  them,  more- 
over, was  on  the  extent  and  authority  of  tradition.  The 
Sadducee,  though  willing  to  compare  it  with  so  much  of 
Scripture  as  he  believed,  denied  its  authority.  The 
Pharisee  received   it  as   Divine. 

*  An  Essay  by  De  Quincey,  in  which  that  brilliant  writer  argues 
that  '  the  Essenes '  were  really  the  early  Christians,  misunderstood 
by  the  narrators  of  the  period,  has  failed  to  command  general  assent. 


THE   MASSORA  619 

426.  Tradition:  the  Talmud. — The  body  of  tradition 
referred  to  in  these  disputes  was  collected  in  the  second 
century  a.  d.,  or  later,  by  Jewish  doctors,  and  especially  by 
R.  Judah  the  Holy,  a  descendant  of  Gamaliel  (J.  Lightfoot), 
and  a  favourite  of  one  of  the  Antonines. 

The  collection  is  called  Mishna,  or  the  repetition*.  Later  doctors 
added  to  its  various  comments  under  the  name  of  Gemara  (the  com- 
pletion), and  the  two  works — Mishna  and  Gemara — are  together 
called  the  Talmud,  from  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  to  teach.  The 
Mishna,  with  the  comments  collected  by  Palestinian  rabbis,  living 
chiefly  in  Galilee,  from  the  end  of  the  second  till  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifth  century  x.d.,  has  the  name  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud.  The 
comments  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud  embody  the  discussions  of  hundreds 
of  doctors  living  in  various  places  in  Babylonia  from  about  igo  to 
nearly  the  end  of  the  sixth  century.  The  Mishna,  or  text,  is  the 
same  in  each.  Of  the  comparative  value  and  characteristics  of  the 
two  Talmuds.  Dr.  Schiller-Szinessy  observes  that  whilst  the  discus- 
sions in  the  Palestinian  or  Jerusalem  Talmud  are  simple,  brief,  and 
to  the  point,  those  in  the  Babylonian  Talmud  are  subtle,  long-winded, 
and,  though  always  logical,  are  sometimes  far-fetched.  The  Pales- 
tinian Talmud,  besides  containing  legal  and  religious  discussions,  is 
a  storehouse  of  history,  geography,  and  archaeology,  whilst  the  Baby- 
lonian Talmud,  taking  into  consideration  that  it  is  treble  the  size  of 
its  fellow  Talmud,  contains  less  of  these.  On  the  other  liand  it 
bestows  more  care  upon  the  legal  and  religious  points,  and  being  the 
later  is  more  studied,  and  is  also  more  trustworthy.  To  the  orthodox 
Jew  the  Talmud  is  law,  philosophy,  literature,  and  doctrine.  To  the 
student  of  Hebrew  literature  it  is  at  once  an  inspiration  and  a 
despair. 

427.  The  Massora. — In  the  Talmud  are  found  many 
critical  and  grammatical  comments  on  the  text  of  Scripture. 
These  comments,  with  others  which  tradition  had  handed 
down,  were  brought  together  into  one  book  under  the  title 
of  Massora  (or  tradition).  When  these  Massoretic  comments 
originated  is  not  known. 

The  great  Rabbinical  scholar,  David  Kimchi  of  Narbonne  (c.  1200), 
whose  writings  were  the  chief  fountain  of  knowledge  for  the  Christian 
Hebraists   of  the   sixteenth  century,  and   whose   influence   may  be 


620  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

traced  on  every  page  of  our  English  Bible,  thinks  that  they  commenced 
with  the  revision  of  MSS.  of  Scripture  effected  by  Ezra ;  others,  among 
them  the  celebrated  Ibn  Ezra  of  Toledo  (1092- 1 167),  the  Rabbi  Ben  Ezra 
of  Browning's  great  poem,  a  man  of  great  originality  and  freedom  of 
view,  think  that  they  had  their  origin  in  the  great  seat  of  Jewish  learn- 
ing at  Tiberias,  between  the  third  and  sixth  centuries  after  Christ. 
Other  scholars  think  it  demonstrable  that  they  are  not  the  production 
of  any  one  age,  but  were  written  at  long  intervals,  and  some  of  them 
in  comparatively  modern  times.  The  first  printed  edition  of  the 
Massoretic  text  was  published  in  the  Great  Rabbinical  Bible,  edited 
and  issued  by  Bomberg  at  Venice  (1518-36).  The  notes  are  printed 
by  the  side  of  the  text  and  at  the  end  of  each  book.  Extracts  from 
them  are  found  in  nearly  all  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 
Dr.  Ginsburg's  folio  work,  The  Massorah,  compiled  from  MSS.  Alphabetically 
and  Lexically  Arranged,  is  the  great  modern  authority  on  the  subject. 

To  the  Massorites  we  owe  the  points,  accents,  and  most 
of  the  corrections  of  the  printed  text,  together  with  a  large 
mass  of  curious,  though  unimportant  information,  on  the 
words  and  letters  of  Scripture.  Some  of  their  corrections 
are  critical',  they  suggest  the  right  division  of  words, 
Ps  55^^  123*  ;  the  transposition,  alteration,  and  omission 
of  consonants,  i  Ki  7*^  Eze  25"^  Am  8^  ;  grammatical  or 
orthographical,  as  in  various  passages  of  the  Pentateuch 
and  Ez  27^  ;  and  euphemistic  or  explanatory,  i  Sa  5^  6* 
Dt  28^'^  2  Ki  18-"^  Is  36^2^  These  corrections  are  made 
chiefly  in  the  margin '\ 

The  Massorites  notice  seven  passages  in  which  words  are  read  {qeri) 
in  the  Hebrew  which  are  not  written  (kethibh),  2  Sa  8'  16^^^;  yzve  where 
words  are  written  but  not  read,  2  Ki  5^',  &c. 

They  made  it  their  business  also  to  count  the  words  and  letters  of 
each  book,  as  well  as  unusual  constructions  and  forms,  and  to  mark 
many  facts  of  no  importance,  except  that  the  care  thus  exercised  in 
accumulating  them  tended  to  guard  the  purity  of  the  sacred  text. 
Thoy  note,  for  example,  that  the  middle  letter  of  the  Law  is  in  Lev  11*2  j 
the  middle  words  in  Lev  lo^' ;    the  middle  veise,   Lev   13^^.     Of  the 

"  An  example  may  be  given  from  the  Book  of  Ruth,  where  at  the 
close  we  read,  '  The  number  of  verses  in  the  Book  of  Ruth  is  eighty 
and  five  ;  and  its  symbol  is  nc  (in  4^ :  D  =  80,  rr  =  5) ;  and  its  middle  is 
(^two  worJb  quoted  from  a'^').' 


THE   MASSORA  621 

Psalms,  the  middle  letter  is  in  80^*,  and  the  middle  verse,  78^^.  They 
also  state  how  often  each  letter  occurs  in  each  book  and  in  all  the 
Bible. 

428.  The  term  Kablaalah  primarily  denotes  reception, 
and  those  doctrines  received  ly  tradition.  In  the  older 
Jewish  literature  the  name  is  applied  to  all  the  traditions 
which  the  Jews  profess  to  have  received  from  their  fathers, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Pentateuch,  thus  including  the 
Prophets  and  Hagiographa,  as  well  as  the  oral  tradition. 
Ultimately,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  it  is  applied  to  a 
species  of  theosophy,  made  up  of  mystical  interpretations  and 
metaphysical  speculations  concerning  the  Deity,  the  Divine 
emanations  or  Sephiroth,  the  cosmogony,  the  creation  of 
angels  and  man,  their  destiny,  and  the  import  of  the  re- 
vealed Law  said  to  have  been  handed  down  by  a  secret 
tradition  from  the  earliest  age. 

Books  of  Reference. — Emanuel  Deutsch's  famous,  brilliant,  but 
one-sided  article.  What  is  the  Talmud  ?  first  contributed  to  the  Quarterly 
Review,  and  republished  in  his  Literary  Remains,  should  be  read. 
Professor  W.  H.  Bennett,  in  his  Mishna  as  Illustrating  the  Gospels,  takes 
up  special  subjects,  e.g.  the  Pharisees,  the  Sabbath,  the  status  of 
women,  &c.,  and  exhibits  the  Gospel  and  the  Mishnaic  treatment 
of  each  topic.  A  number  of  illustrative  extracts  that  give  some  idea 
of  the  nature  and  scope  of  the  Talmud,  translated  by  H.  Polano,  are  in 
a  volume  of  the  Chandos  Qassics  series. 

429.  The  Scribes. — These  constituted  a  learned  pro- 
fession and  not  a  religious  sect.  As  an  organized  body, 
known  as  the  Sopherim,  whose  duty  it  was  to  copy  and 
explain  the  Law,  they  had  their  origin  in  the  time 
of  Ezra.  '  The  one  aim,'  says  Professor  Plumptre,  '  of 
those  early  Scribes  was  to  promote  reverence  for  the  Law, 
to  make  it  the  groundwork  of  the  people's  life.  They 
would  write  nothing  of  their  own,  lest  less  worthy  words 
should  be  raised  to  a  level  with  those  of  the  oracles  of  God.' 
Their  successors  in  our   Lords   time   were  usually  called 


622  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

Tanaim,  that  is  '  lawyers  '  and  '  teachers  of  the  law  * ' ;  they 
were  addressed,  according  to  rank,  by  the  titles  Rah,  Rabbi, 
Rabban,  the  last  being  the  highest.  Slavish  dependence 
on  precedent  and  authority  was  the  characteristic  of  their 
teaching  ;  hence  the  marked  contrast  between  their  teaching 
and  that  of  our  Lord.  While  they  repeated  the  traditions 
of  the  elders,  *  He  spake  as  one  having  authority,'  and  with 
the  constantly  recurring,  '  I  say  unto  you.'  As  religionists 
they  generally  favoured  the  Pharisees,  and  are  therefore 
often  mentioned  with  them  (Mt  23),  though  all  sects  had 
their  friends  in  the  profession. 

430.  Synagogues. — Intimately  associated  with  the  Scribes, 
as  an  institution  for  the  instruction  of  the  people  in  the 
Law  and  its  application  to  daily  life,  was  the  Synagogue. 
Local  '  assemblies  '  for  instruction  in  the  Law  and  worship 
existed  from  early  times,  e.  g.  'the  schools  of  the  prophets' 
(i  Sa  10^^  iq2u-24  2  Ki  4^),  and  during  the  Captivity  meet- 
ings of  the  elders  of  Israel  were  not  infrequent  (Cf.  Eze 
8^  and  parallel  passages).  After  the  Exile,  probably  from 
the  time  of  Ezra,  the  systematic  organization  of  these 
assemblies  rapidly  developed,  and  buildings  set  apart  for 
religious  services  multiplied.  In  the  synagogues  the  costly 
scrolls  of  the  Scriptures  written  by  the  Scribes  were 
carefully  j^reserved  in  a  chest  or  ark  conspicuously  facing 
the  seats  of  the  people.  Stated  services  were  held  every 
Sabbath,  also  on  the  second  and  fifth  days  of  the  week. 
Special  prominence  was  given  in  these  services  to  the 
reading  of  the  Law  and  the  Prophets ;  prayers,  exhorta- 
tions, exposition  and  almsgiving  were  also  observed.  As 
the  knowledge  of  ancient  Hebrew  gradually  died  out,  the 
reading  of  the  appointed  portions  of  Scripture  had  to  be 
accompanied  by  translation    into    the   vernacular  Aramaic 

*  The  three  N.T.  terms,  ypafxfxartvs,  scribe,  vo^ikos,  lawyer,  and  vofioZi- 
SdaxaXoi,  teacher  of  Ihe  Law,  denote  three  functions  of  one  and  the  same 
class. 


THE   SANHEDRIN  623 

or  into  Greek,  which  seems  in  the  time  of  our  Lord 
to  have  been  generally  understood  and  spoken.  Not  only 
were  the  synagogues  places  of  worship,  they  were  also 
schools  for  teaching  children  to  read,  and  likewise  minor 
courts  of  justice  in  which  the  sentence  was  not  only 
pronounced  but  executed  (Mt  lo^"^).  The  general  manage- 
ment of  the  synagogue  was  under  the  direction  of 
'  elders '  (Lu  7^),  the  chief  members  of  which  were  '  rulers  ' 
(Lu  13^*  Ac  13^^).  The  seats  of  the  elders  and  rulers  were 
in  front  of  the  ark  and  facing  the  congregation.  The 
disciplinary  powers  of  excommunicating  and  of  scourging 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  elders,  and  it  was  they  or  the 
rulers  who  in  the  service  called  on  fit  persons  to  read, 
pray,  and  preach.  Alms  were  collected  by  two  or  more 
'collectors,'  and  a  'minister'  (attendant,  R.V.),  Lu  4-^,  had 
charge  of  the  sacred  books,  and  fulfilled  the  general  duties 
of  verger  or  caretaker.  The  order  of  service  in  a  synagogue 
much  resembles  that  described  in  Ne  8^"*^,  with  which 
compare  Lu  4^'^"'^'^. 

431.  The  Sanhedrin. — It  is  hardly  possible  to  over- 
estimate the  predominant  influence  of  the  Scribes  upon  the 
religious  life  of  the  people  in  connexion  with  the  synagogue 
worship,  and  to  this  must  be  added  their  connexion,  as  the 
trained  doctors  of  the  Law,  with  the  great  court  of  justice, 
legislative  and  administrative,  the  Sanhedrin  ».  The  origin 
of  this  council  may  be  traced  to  the  time  of  Jehoshaphat 
(2  Ch  19^),  some  say  to  the  seventy  elders  whom  Moses 
was  directed  to  associate  with  him  in  the  government 
of  the  Israelites  (Num  ii^^-^'^).  The  members  were 
seventy  or  seventy-two  in  number,  and  consisted  (i)  of 
the  chief  priests  or  heads  of  the  twenty-four  priestly 
courses,   (2)   the    scribes    or    lawyers,    (3)    the    elders,    i.  e. 

*  The  word  is  really  Greek,  avvtSpiov,  'assembly,'  put  into  an  Aramaic 
shape.     It  is  sometimes  written,  less  correctly,  Sanhedrim. 


624  BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

princes  of  tribes  and  heads  of  families,  who  were  the 
representatives  of  the  laity.  The  high-priest  generally  filled 
the  office  of  president,  besides  whom  there  was  a  vice- 
president  who  sat  on  his  right  hand,  and  according  to  some, 
a  second  vice-president,  who  sat  on  his  left  hand.  The 
other  members  were  seated  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  semi- 
circle. According  to  the  Talmudists  their  council-chamber 
was  within  the  precincts  of  the  Temple,  but  according  to 
Dr.  Ginsburg  their  usual  place  of  assembly  was  on  the  east 
side  of  Mount  Zion,  not  far  from  the  Temple.  At  the  trial 
of  Christ  the  council  met  in  the  palace  of  the  high-priest, 
an  act  altogether  exceptional  and  illegal.  The  authority  of 
the  council  from  time  to  time  varied  much  ;  at  first  accord- 
ing to  the  measure  of  self-government  left  the  nation  by  its 
foreign  lords,  and  afterwards  according  to  the  more  or  less 
aristocratic  power  claimed  by  the  native  sovereign.  In  the 
time  of  Christ  its  powers  had  been  much  limited  by  the 
interference  of  the  Romans.  It  still  retained  the  right  of 
passing  sentence  of  death,  but  the  ]30wer  of  executing  it 
rested  with  the  Roman  procurator  (Jn  i8^^). 

432.  Other  Distinctions. — Closely  akin  to  the  Pharisees 
in  their  religious  views  were  the  Galilseans,  though  differ- 
ing in  their  political  tenets.  They  sprang  from  Judas  of 
Galilee  (Gamala),  who,  in  'the  days  of  the  taxing,'  taught 
that  all  foreign  domination  was  unscriptural,  and  that  God 
was  the  only  King  of  the  Jews.  Deeming  it  unlawful  to 
pray  for  foreign  princes,  they  performed  their  sacrifices 
apart.  As  our  Lord  and  His  disciples  were  from  Galilee, 
the  Pharisees  attempted  to  identify  Him  with  this  sect. 

Of  this  party,  the  most  violent  were  called  Zealots. 
Simon  the  Canaanite  (R.V.  Cananaean,  Mt  lo'^)  is  really 
Simon  the  Zealot  (see  6^^),  the  surname  being  from  the 
Hebrew  qdnd',  to  glow,  be  zealous,  and  not  to  be  mis- 
understood as  'man  of  Canaan'  or  'of  Cana.' 


THE   SANHEDRIN  625 

The  Herodians  were  rather  a  political  than  a  religious 
sect.  They  took  their  name  and  their  views  from  the 
family  of  Herod,  who  derived  their  authority  from-  the 
Roman  government.  It  was  their  principle  to  promote 
intimacy  with  Rome  by  flattery  and  unlimited  submission, 
but  especially  by  introducing  into  Judaea  the  usages  of  the 
conquerors.  This  surrender  of  principle  to  worldly  policy 
was  the  leaven  against  which  our  Lord  cautioned  His 
disciples. 

The  Proselytes  were,  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  a  very 
numerous  body,  although  the  word  itself  occurs  only  four 
times  in  the  New  Testament,  Mt  23^^  Ac  2^^  6^  13*2.  The 
name  was  given  to  those  Gentiles  who  took  upon  them- 
selves the  obligations  of  the  Mosaic  Law.  They  joined  in 
offering  sacrifices  to  the  God  of  Israel  in  the  outer  court 
of  the  Temple.  The  Pharisees  took  great  pains  to  make 
proselytes,  and  were  aided  in  their  efforts  by  the  fading 
authority  of  the  old  religions,  and  the  reverence  in  which 
the  God  of  the  Jews  was  held  by  the  heathen.  Too  often, 
however,  these  teachers  had  no  true  idea  of  their  religion ; 
their  converts,  therefore,  only  changed  their  superstition, 
hushed  the  accusations  of  conscience,  and  became  twofold 
more  than  before  '  the  children  of  hell '  (gehenna).  These 
converts  were  called  by  the  Jews  Proselytes  of  Bighteousness, 
and  were  often  among  the  bitterest  enemies  of  the  Christian 
faith. 

There  was  also  a  large  body  of  Gentiles  called  (in  later 
times)  Proselytes  of  the  Gate,  who  simply  pledged  themselves 
to  renounce  idolatry,  to  worship  the  true  God,  and  to 
abstain  from  all  heathenish  practices.  They  had  generally 
heard  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  were  free  from 
most  of  the  prejudices  of  the  Jews.  Hence  the  new  religion 
made  great  progress  among  them.  In  the  New  Testament 
these  are  known  as  *they  that  fear  God'  or  'worshippers,' 
*  devout.'     So  Cornelius,  Ac  10-,  Lydia,  16^^,  &c. 

b  s 


626    BETWEEN  THE  OLD  AND  NEW  TESTAMENTS 

433.  The  Samaritans  claimed  an  interest  in  the  Mosaic 
covenant ;  but  our  Lord  distinguishes  them  from  the  lost 
sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel  and  from  the  Gentiles  (Mt  lo^-^). 
Those  of  the  time  of  our  Lord  sprang  from  the  colonists 
with  whom  the  King  of  Assyria  peopled  Samaria  after  the 
Ten  Tribes  were  carried  away  (2  Ki  17).  An  account  of  their 
origin  has  already  been  given,  §  295. 

After  the  restoration  from  Babylon,  the  Samaritans  requested  to  be 
permitted  to  assist  in  rebuilding  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  but  Zerub- 
babel  and  his  fellow  leaders  rejected  the  offer  because  of  the  mixed 
character  of  the  faith  and  nationality  of  the  Samaritans,  Ezr  4^"'. 
The  racial  and  religious  difference  was  further  intensified  by  the 
action  of  Nehemiah.  In  contending  against  the  evils  of  foreign 
marriage  alliances,  he  was  brought  into  conflict  with  the  high  priest 
Eliashib,  whose  grandson  had  married  the  daughter  of  Sanballat,  the 
governor  of  Samaria,  Ne  13^^**.  The  offender,  Manasseh,  as  we  learn 
from  Josephus,  after  being  banished  from  Jerusalem  settled  with 
a  numerous  train  of  followers  in  Samaria.  They  erected  on  Mount 
Gerizim  an  independent  temple,  which  remained  till  the  days  of 
John  Hj'rcanus,  b.  c.  109,  and  established  what  they  deemed  a  moi-e 
orderly  observance  of  the  Mosaic  Law.  Their  faith  and  practice  they 
founded  on  the  Pentateuch  alone,  and  rejected  the  whole  of  the  other 
books  of  the  Jewish  Canon. 

For  an  account  cf  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  see  Part  I,  §  28. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  GOSPELS 

434.  Meaning  of  the  title. — Our  word  Gospel  is  the 
Anglo-Saxon  equivalent  of  the  Greek  cuayyeAtov,  good  tidings. 
If  compounded  of  good  and  spell  (story),  it  exactly  represents 
the  original :  if,  however  (as  Dr.  Skeat  thinks),  it  means 
God's  spell,  the  word  embodies  the  fuller  New  Testament 
phrases  'the  gospel  of  God,'  'of  Christ'  [tov  Qeov,  tov  Xpto-ToG), 
the  source  and  the  substance  of  the  good  tidings.  In  the 
Gospels  the  word  €vayyeXtov  occurs  only  in  Matthew  (4-^  9''^ 
241^  2613)  and  Mark  (ji-i^-is  8^5  lo^a  13I0  14^  i6^5)  .  the 
corresponding  verb  evayye\tt,ofjiaL,  to  preacli  good  tidings,  once 
in  Matthew  (11^),  ten  times  in  Luke.  But  throughout  the 
New  Testament  its  use  is  uniform.  Whether  simply  or 
with  such  additions  as — the  gospel  of  God,  of  Christ,  of  the 
kingdom,  of  the  grace  of  God,  of  His  Son,  of  the  glory  of 
Christ,  of  our  salvation,  of  peace,  of  the  glory  of  the  blessed 
God — it  is  the  good  tidings  of  which  God  is  the  Author, 
which  Christ  came  to  preach  and  of  which  He,  in  His  life 
and  death  and  resurrection,  is  the  contents,  and  which 
means  for  men  salvation  and  peace. 

There  can,  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  be  but  one  gospel  ; 
and  in  proportion  as  the  relation  of  Jesus  Christ  to  God's 
message  to  the  world  was  more  clearly  discerned,  this  gospel 
would  tend  to  become  identified  with  the  story  of  what  He 
was  and  taught  and  did  and  suffered.  This  is  perhaps 
the  significance  of  the  word  in  Mk  i^  '  the  beginning  of  the 
gospel  of  Jesus  Christ ' :  it  is  certainly  its  meaning  in  the 
titles  which  were  subsequently  given  to  the  fourfold  version 

s  a  2 


628  THE   GOSPELS 

of  the  *  great  biography.'  '  The  Gospel  according  to  (Kara) 
Matthew '  means  the  gospel,  i.  e.  the  story  of  Jesus  Christ, 
as  told  by  Matthew.  Four  books  each  record  one  and  the 
same  gospel.  But  it  was  an  easy  step  to  the  final  stage  in 
the  application  of  the  word,  by  which  the  books  themselves 
were  called  'Gospels,'  a  use  which  first  appears  in  Justin 
Martyr  (c.  a. d.  140),  who  speaks  of  'the  memoirs  (aTro- 
fxvTjiJiovevfxaTa)  of  the  Apostles  which  are  called  gospels.* 
Hence  we  can  distinguish  three  stages  in  the  usage  of  the 
term  €vayyi\tov — (i)  God's  message  to  the  world,  announced 
by  and  centring  in  Jesus  Christ,  (2)  the  narrative  of  the 
facts  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  (3)  a  written  record  of  these 
facts. 

435.  The  Pour  Gospels. — Since  the  close  of  the  second 
century,  when  Irenaeus  argued  for  the  necessity  of  four 
Gospels  from  the  four  zones  of  the  earth  and  the  four  winds 
of  heaven,  the  differing  aspects  of  these  pictures  of  our  Lord 
and  their  unity  amid  diversity  have  been  often  and  variously 
traced.  The  leading  characteristics  of  each  will  be  pointed 
out  later.  But  it  is  obvious  that  at  the  first  glance  the  four 
separate  into  three  and  one.  The  fourth  Gospel  stands  alone. 
Its  opening  is  not  narrative,  but  profoundest  theology.  The 
writer's  purpose  is  not  to  tell  the  story  of  the  earthly  life  of 
Jesus  ;  it  is  to  interpret  Him  as  '  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God '  (20^^).  The  discourses  expound  His  relation  to  the 
Father  and  His  mission  to  mankind.  In  place  of  teaching 
by  parable  and  crisp,  direct  sayings,  which  all  could  under- 
stand, we  find  long  discourses,  mystical  in  character,  and 
expounding  the  abstract  ideas  of  life,  light,  witness,  truth, 
and  glory.  Familiarity  with  the  facts  and  persons  of  the 
first  three  Gospels  is  constantly  assumed,  and  here  and  there 
the  narratives  coincide  ;  but  for  the  most  part  the  incidents 
are  new,  selected  for  the  writer's  didactic  purpose.  Thus 
'  a  threefold  contrast  meets  us — theological  interpretation, 
not  bare  narrative  ;  typical  scenes,  chosen  for  their  spiritual 


THE   SYNOPTIC   PROBLEM  629 

significance,  not  a  complete  and  self-contained  historical 
record ;  full  discourses  on  transcendent  themes,  not  groups 
of  pregnant  sayings,  maxims,  paradoxes*.' 

436.  The  Synoptic  Problem. — This  difference  has  in 
modern  times  been  marked  by  the  term  Synoptic  applied  to 
the  first  three  Gospels  in  contradistinction  from  the  fourth. 
Though  they  give  but  fragmentary  records  of  the  life  they 
narrate,  they  show  remarkable  agreement  in  the  incidents 
and  sayings  selected  and  in  the  general  order  in  which 
these  are  presented.  Set  side  by  side  they  yield  a  synopsis 
(o-vvoi/^t?)  or  conspectus,  i.  e.  the  same  general  view  or  out- 
line. A  harmony  can  be  constructed  in  parallel  columns,  in 
which  the  triple  and  dual  agreements  are  far  more  numerous 
than  the  isolated  matter.  The  following  table  displays  the 
facts.  Let  the  substance  of  the  Synoptics  be  divided  into 
89  sections  :  of  these  there  are 

Common  to  all  three  42 

„         ,.  Matthew  and  Mark  12 

„         ,,  Mark  and  Luke  5 

„         ,.  Matthew  and  Luke  14 

Peculiar  to  Matthew  5 

„         ,,  Mark  2 

„  Luke  9 

89 

To  this  fact  of  general  agreement  both  in  matter  and  in  order,  com- 
bined with  minor  differences  in  both,  is  to  be  added  the  no  less 
significant  one  of  verbal  agreement  and  difference  in  recording  the 
same  incident  or  discourse.  Almost  any  section  that  may  be  selected 
will  show  at  once  the  independence  of  three  separate  narrators, 
together  with  verbal  coincidences  which  compel  us  to  infer  that  the 
three  are  using  some  common  source.  Details  cannot  here  be  given, 
and  a  single  illustration  must  suffice. 

*  Dean  J.  Armitage  Robinson,  The  Study  of  the  Gospels,  p.  126. 


630 


THE   GOSPELS 


Mt^"--^  (R.V.). 
2  And  behold,  they 
brought  to  him  a 
man  sick  of  the 
palsy,  lying  on  a  bed  : 
and  Jesus  seeing 
their  faith  said  unto 
the  sick  of  the  palsy, 
Son,  be  of  good 
cheer  ;  thy  sins  are 
forgiven.  ^  And  be- 
hold, cei-tain  of  the 
scribes  said  within 
themselves, This  man 
blasphemeth.  *  And 
Jesus  knowing  their 
thoughts  said.  Where- 
fore think  ye  evil  in 
your  hearts  ?  ^  For 
"whether  is  easier, 
to  say,  Thy  sins  are 
forgiven  ;  or  to  say. 
Arise,  and  walk  ? 
^  But  that  ye  may 
know  that  the  Son 
of  man  hath  power 
on  earth  to  forgive 
sins  (then  saith  he 
to  the  sick  of  the 
palsy),  Arise,  and 
take  up  thy  bed,  and 
go  unto  thy  house. 
^  And  he  arose,  and 
departed  to  his 
house.  ^  But  when 
the  multitudes  saw  it, 
they  w^ere  afraid, 
and  glorified  God, 
which  had  given  such 
power  unto  men. 


^  And  they  come, 
bringing  unto  him 
a  man  sick  of  the 
palsy,  borne  of  four. 
*  And  when  they  could 
not  bring  him  unto 
him  for  the  crow^d, 
they  uncovered  the 
roof  where  he  was : 
and  when  they  had 
broken  it  up,  they  let 
down  the  bed  whereon 
the  sick  of  the  palsy 
lay.  ^  And  .Jesus  see- 
ing their  faith  saith 
unto  the  sick  of  the 
palsy,  Son,  thy  sins 
are  forgiven.  *'  But 
there  were  certain  of 
the  scribes  sitting 
there,  and  reasoning 
in  their  hearts,  '^  Why 
doth  this  man  thus 
speak?  he  blasphe- 
meth :  who  can  for- 
give sins  but  one, 
even  God  ?  ''And 
straightway  Jesus, 
perceiving  in  his 
spirit  that  they  so 
reasoned  within 

themselves,  saith  un- 
to them.  Why  rea- 
son ye  these  things 
in  your  hearts  ? 
'•*  Whether  is  easier, 
to  say  to  the  sick  of 
the  palsy.  Thy  sins 
are  forgiven  ;  or  to 
say.  Arise,  and  take 
up  thy  bed,  and  walk? 


Xitsi^-^"  (F.V.). 
^^  And  behold,  men 
bring  on  a  bed  a  man 
that  was  palsied  :  and 
they  sought  to  bring 
him  in,  and  to  lay 
him  before  him.  ^^And 
not  finding  by  what 
way  they  might  bring 
him  in  because  of 
the  multitude,  they 
went  up  to  the  house- 
top, and  let  him  down 
through  the  tiles  with 
his  couch  into  the 
midst  before  Jesus. 
2"  And  seeing  their 
faith,  he  said,  Man, 
thy  sins  are  for- 
given thee.  21  ^nd 
the  scribes  and  the 
Pharisees  began  to 
reason,  saying,  Who 
is  this  that  speaketh 
blasphemies?  Who 
can  forgive  sins,  but 
God  alone  ?  22  g^^^ 
Jesus  perceiving 
their  reasonings, 
answered  and  said 
unto  them,  What 
reason  ye  in  your 
hearts?  "^^ WYietYier 
is  easier,  to  say, 
Thy  sins  are  for- 
given thee ;  or  to 
say,  Arise  and  walk? 
-<  But  that  ye  may 
know  that  the  Son 
of  man  hath  power 
on  earth  to  forgive 
sins   (he   said  unto 


THE   SYNOPTIC   PROBLEM 


631 


Mt 


Mk  I 

10  But  that  ye  may- 
know  that  the  Son 
of  man  hath  power 
on  earth  to  forgive 
sins  (he  saith  to  the 
sick  of  the  palsy), 

11  I  say  unto  thee, 
Arise,  take  up  thy 
bed,  and  go  unto  thy 
house.  1^  And  he 
arose,  and  straight- 
way took  up  the  bed, 
and  went  forth  before 
them  all ;  insomuch 
that  they  were  all 
amazed,  and  glori- 
fied God,  saying,  We 
never  saw  it  on  this 
fashion. 


Lu 
him  that  was  pal- 
sied), I  say  unto 
thee,  Arise,  and 
take  up  thy  couch, 
and  go  unto  thy 
house.  25  ^jid  imme- 
diately he  rose  up 
before  them,  and  took 
up  that  whereon  he 
lay,  and  departed  to 
his  house,  glorifying 
God.  26  ^jj(j  amaze- 
ment took  hold  on  all, 
and  they  glorified 
God  ;  and  they  were 
filled  with  fear,  say- 
ing, We  have  seen 
strange  things  to-day. 


No  distinction  is  here  made  between  verbal  coincidences  of  two  and 
of  three.  An  examination  of  this  or  any  page  of  Rushbrooke's 
Synopticon  will  afford  convincing  evidence  of  the  facts.  The  thick 
type  shows  the  verbal  identities  of  the  Greek  text.  Especially  note- 
worthy is  the  parenthesis  '  He  saith  to  the  sick  of  the  palsy,'  with 
which  may  be  compared  '  For  they  were  fishers  *  (Mt  4^*^  Mk  i^^;  and 
'One  of  the  twelve'  (Mt  26*'  =  Mk  i4«=Lk  22"). 

It  is  this  double  fact  of  agreement  and  difference  that 
constitutes  the  Synoptic  Problem.  How  is  it  to  be  ac- 
counted for?  Agreement  alone  might  point  to  a  common 
inspiration :  difference  alone  would  assure  us  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  narratives :  the  two  together  constitute 
a  problem  which,  after  a  century  of  critical  investigation, 
still  awaits  a  confident  solution. 

437.  Sources  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels. — If  the  common 
elements  forbid  the  supposition  that  the  work  of  the  three 
Evangelists  has  no  connexion  save  in  its  common  theme,  we 
are  led  to  inquire  whether  it  is  possible  to  trace  the  measure 


632  THE    GOSPELS 

and  the  manner  of  their  interdependence.      Three  alterna- 
tives present  themselves : 
j      I.  The  use  by  one  Evangelist  of  the  work  of  one  or  both 
I  of  the  others,  the  theory  of  mutual  dependence. 

r2.  The  common  use  of  one  or  more  cycles  of  fixed  oral 
tradition,  the  theory  of  an  oral  gospel. 

y    3.  The  common   use  of   a  document  or  documents,    the 
\  documentary  theory. 

It  is  evident  that  those  three  alternatives  are  not  mutually  exclu- 
sive. An  advocate  of  the  third  may  posit  the  Gospel  of  Mark  as  one 
of  the  documents  used  by  Matthew  and  Luke  :  and,  especially,  all  are 
agreed  that  our  Synoptics  rest  ultimately  on  oral  tradition.  Probably 
the  gospel — i.  e.  the  facts  about  Jesus  Christ — was  preached  by  the 
Apostles  and  their  converts  for  twenty  or  thiity  years  before  the  need 
of  committing  it  to  writing  was  felt.  The  living  voice  was  yet  in  the 
Church,  the  Spirit  mighty  in  His  operation  ;  the  written  Word  marks 
a  time  when  the  first  generation  of  Christians  was  passing  away  and 
the  Lord  still  delayed  His  coming.  When  the  need  arose  material 
was  ready,  in  groups  of  narrative  and  discourse  received  from  the 
Apostles,  and.  Eastern  fashion,  stereotyped  by  constant  repetition 
by  *  evangelists '  and  catechists.  So  far  all  are  agreed  :  the  divergence 
comes  when  it  is  maintained  that  this  fixed  oral  tradition  suffices  to 
account  for  the  common  element  in  the  Gospels — in  matter,  order, 
and  language — without  the  intervention  of  written  documents. 

The  history  of  these  theories  and  the  many  forms  they  have  assumed 
has  a  copious  literature  of  its  own.  Here  are  given  only  a  few  broad 
conclusions  which,  with  some  notable  exceptions,  are  gaining  wide 
assent  from  critics  of  all  schools. 

438.  Use  of  '  Mark  '  and  of  the  *  Logia '  by  Matthew 
and  Luke. — The  first  outstanding  fact  in  a  comparison  of 
the  Synoptic  Gospels  is  that  almost  the  whole  of  Mark  is 
found  also  in  Matthew  or  in  Luke  or  in  both.  Dr.  Swete 
writes''^,  'Out  of  the  106  sections  of  the  genuine  St.  Mark 
[omitting  i6'^"20j  there  are  but  four  (excluding  the  head- 
line) which  are  wholly  absent  from  both  St.  Matthew  and 
3t.   Luke.'      Further,   in    spite    of   differences   in    order   of 

*  tit.  Mark,  p.  Ixiii. 


USE  OF  MARK  BY  MATTHEW  AND  LUKE     633 

narrative,  the  order  of  Mark  is  generally  confirmed  by  one 
or  both  of  the  other  Synoptics :  it  is  known  even  where 
departed  from.  These  facts  naturally  point  to  the  priority 
of  Mark :  the  counter  supposition  that  his  work  is  a  com- 
pilation from  Matthew  and  Luke  is  excluded  by  (i}  his 
inexplicable  omissions,  (2)  the  ruggedness,  vividness,  and 
fullness  of  his  version  of  narrative  and  sayings  common  to 
him  and  one  or  both  of  the  others,  (3)  the  phenomena  of 
verbal  agreements  *. 

Matthew  and  Luke,  then,  may  be  held  to  have  used  a  document? 
practically  identical  with  our  second  Gospel.      There  are  some  facts T 
which  suggest  that  Mark  also  is  a  revision  of  this  earlier  document,  ' 
reproducing  it  mor6  nearly  and  without  use  of  the  additional  sources 
traceable  in  the  first  and  third  Gospels.     This  is  the  '  Ur-Marcus  '  or 
'primitive-Mark'  hypothesis    of  H.  J.  Holtzmann,   widely  adopted. 
Others,  again,  think  that  the  verbal  differences  of  the  Synoptics  are 
best  explained  by  the  supposition  that  this  primitive  document  was  in 
Aramaic  (Resch,  Prof.  J.  T.  Marshall).    But  there  is  perhaps  a  growing 
opinion  that  these  further  hypotheses  are  unnecessary,  and  that  we 
need  not  look  beyond  our  Gospel  of  Mark  for  the  original  of  that  main 
outline  of  the  life  of  Christ  which  is  presented  also  by  Matthew  and 
Luke.     It  will  appear  later  that  there  is  good  reason  for  identifying 
the  substance  of  this  triple  tradition  with  the  '  memoirs  '  of  the  Apostle 
Peter. 

But  there  is  a  second  outstanding  fact  to  be  considered, 
in  the  large  amount  of  material  common  to  Matthew  and 
Luke,  but  absent  from  Mark.  In  the  first  Gospel  chs.  i,  2 
are  from  some  special  source  :  from  ch.  26  to  the  end 
there  is  evident  use  of  Mark.  Now,  if  from  chs.  3-25  we 
subtract  the  sections  which  appear  in  Mark,  we  have  left 
a  remarkable  collection  of  discourses  and  parables,  with 
their  historical  settings.  A  very  considerable  amount  of 
this  new  matter  appears  also  in  Luke ;  often  differently 
distributed,  but  with  identities  in  substance  and  in  language 
which   point  to   a  source  used  by  the  two  Evangelists  in 

*■  See  Abbott,  The  Common  Tradition  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels,  pp.  vi,  vii. 


634  THE   GOSPELS 

common.  This  source — the  second  of  the  *  two-document 
theory,'  which  seems  just  now  in  the  ascendant — is  com- 
monly spoken  of  as  the  Logia. 

The  discussion  of  this  title  belongs  to  the  Introduction  to  Matthew. 
But  it  may  here  be  noted  that  it  is  derived  from  the  testimony  of 
Papias  (early  second  century)  that  Matthew  composed  the  'Logia'  in 
the  Hebrew  tongue.  The  term  'logia,'  oracles,  better  fits  a  collection  of 
discourses  with  their  settings  than  a  complete  and  connected  bio- 
graphy :  and  as  there  are  insuperable  objections  to  regarding  our  first 
Gospel  as  it  stands  as  a  translation  of  an  Aramaic  original,  the  hypo- 
thesis is  tempting  which  identifies  this  '  Logia '  (in  a  Greek  translation) 
as  the  second  main  source  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels.  Whether  Mark 
knew  of  this  is  still  an  open  question. 

439.  Other  Sources.  Prologue  of  Luke  (i^~*).  —Whence 
the  first  and  third  Evangelists  derived  the  matter  peculiar 
to  their  Gospels  we  cannot  say.  Their  narratives  of  the 
Infancy  and  of  the  Kesurrection  are  not  taken  from  Mark, 
who  does  not  record  them  :  the  differences  are  too  great  to 
allow  a  common  dependence  on  the  'Logia.'  Here  each  has 
information  of  his  own,  either  written  or  oral.  In  the  great 
central  section  of  his  Gospel  (9^^-19-^)  Luke  has  incidents 
and,  especially,  parables  which  may  well  have  been  taken 
from  some  earlier  collection  of  the  deeds  and  sayings  of  the 
Lord  :  possibly  the  sections  7'^c-50  2339-4:^  24^^-5:^  ^j,^  fj,(jj-^^ 
the  same  source.  But  the  only  certain  information  we 
possess  is  that  afforded  by  Luke  himself  in  the  Prologue  to 
his  Gospel.  In  dedicating  his  work  to  Theophilus,  he 
writes :  '  Forasmuch  as  many  have  taken  in  hand  to  draw  up 
a  narrative  concerning  those  matters  which  have  been 
fulfilled  among  us,  even  as  they  delivered  them  unto  us, 
which  from  the  beginning  were  eyewitnesses  and  ministers 
of  the  word,  it  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  traced  the 
course  of  all  things  accurately  from  the  first,  to  write  unto 
thee  in  order,  most  excellent  Theophilus;  that  thou  mightest 
know  the  certainty  concerning  the  things  wherein  thou  wast 
instructed.' 


SOURCES   OF   LUKE  635 

The  words  form  a  unique  glimpse  into  the  motives  and 
sources  of  one,  at  least,  of  our  Gospels.  Luke  disclaims  any- 
first-hand  knowledge  of  the  facts  he  chronicles,  but  with 
painstaking  accuracy  he  has  gathered  and  sifted  his  autho- 
rities. No  doubt  among  these  was  the  oral  testimony  of 
some  who  had  been  'eyewitnesses  and  ministers  of  the 
word,'  reaching  him  both  at  first-  and  second-hand.  In 
addition,  there  were  already  '  many '  written  narratives, 
probably  for  the  most  part  fragments  of  evangelic  tradition 
(else  he  could  hardly  have  needed  to  supplement  them), 
though  among  them  it  is  likely  that  '  Mark '  and  the 
'  Logia  '  had  chief  place.  Out  of  these,  with  that  '  historic 
sense '  so  manifest  in  his  later  work,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  he 
produced  for  the  instruction  of  an  unknown  Gentile  convert 
what  has  been  styled  without  extravagance  Hhe  most 
beautiful  book  in  the  worlds' 

440.  For  a  general  discussion  of  the  evidence  of  the  early  date  and 
genuineness  of  the  Gospels  the  reader  may  be  conveniently  referred  to 
The  Early  Witness  to  the  Four  Gospels  (R.  T.  S.  Present  Day  Tracts). 

The  following-  table  presents  at  a  glance  the  available  witnesses  to 
the  four  Gospels  till  the  time  of  Origen. 

The  table  is  based  mainly  upon  Bishop  Westcott's  Synopsis  of 
Historical  Evidences  in  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  pp.  589-90,  and 
upon  his  and  Prof.  H.  E.  Ryle's  Articles  on  Canon  of  Scripture  in 
Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  (new  edition),  and  the  work  of  Prof.  A.  H. 
Charteris,  CD.,  entitled  Canonicity.  Testimonies  of  less  and  greater 
probability  are  distinguished  by  the  signs  f  and  *,  most  of  the  latter 
amounting  to  certainty. 

*  '  C'est  le  plus  beau  livre  qu'il  y  ait.'    Renan,  Les  Evangiles,  p.  283. 


636 


THE   GOSPELS 


?rgs                                      1 

-J-Hh-i--}- 

Clement  of  Rome 

c.  93-97 

-i--+-f 

Polycarp 

d.  167 

-^-h      -+ 

Didache,  or  Teaching  of  the  Twelve 

c.  100 

Hh            -J- 

Ignatius,  Bp.  of  Antioch 

d.  1T5 

-}-         *   * 

Papias,  Bp.  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia 

d.  163 

*    *         * 

Basilides,  celebrated  Gnostic 

fi.  117-138 

*     *            -St 

'  Barnabas,'  Epistle  of 

100-125 

*-!-       -4- 

Hermas,  The  ShejJherd  (an  allegory) 

c.  142 

*    *    -it    * 

Justin  Martyr 

d.  167 

*    *   *    * 

Tatian  of  Assyria 

c.  170 

*   *        -x- 

Hegesippus,  sometime  of  Rome 

c.  175 

*H-         * 

Athenagoras  of  Athens 

c.  176 

*   *    *    -y- 

Irenaeus,  Bp.  of  Lyons 

d.  202 

*   *         * 

Theophilus,  Bp.  of  Antioch 

c.  180 

**■)(-* 

The  Syriac  (Peshitta)  Version          second  century 

*    *   *    * 

The  Old  Latin  Version                       second  century 

*     ¥r      *      ¥■ 

Celsus 

c.  178 

•X-    *     *     * 

Clement  of  Alexandria 

d.  217 

■St    *         -y 

Julius  Africanus  of  Emmaus 

c.  220 

*    -K-    *    -y- 

Tertullian  of  Carthage 

d,  220 

*    -x-         * 

Origen  of  Alexandria  and  Csesarea 

d-  253 

The  Gospel  according  to  Mark 

(KATA    MAPKON) 

441.  Its  Author.— The  book  is  anonymous,  for,  by 
common  consent,  the  titles  of  the  New  Testament  writings 
are  to  be  regarded  as  later  additions,  and  the  author  no- 


MAKK'S   GOSPEL  637 

where  obtrudes  his  personality.  But  a  continuous  tradition 
(i)  ascribes  to  Mark  a  written  record  of  ^  the  sayings  and 
deeds  of  Christ,'  (2)  identifies  this  work  with  our  second 
Gospel  and  its  author  with  the  John  Mark  of  the  Acts  and 
Epistles. 

The  earliest  direct  testimony  to  authorship  is  that  of  Papias,  Bishop 
of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia  (c.  a.  d.  120),  fragments  of  whose  lost  work, 
An  Exposition  of  Oracles  of  the  Lord,  are  preserved  by  Eusebius  (H.  E. 
Hi.  40).  Papias  made  it  his  business  to  inquire  of  'the  elders,* 
men  of  the  primitive  Church  and  contemporaries  of  the  Apostles,  as 
well  as  from  '  those  who  had  been  followers  of  the  elders.'  This  brings 
him  very  near  to  the  apostolic  age,  and  makes  his  testimony  as  to 
writings  by  '  Mark  '  (and  by  '  Matthew ')  of  quite  singular  value.  These 
are  his  words  :  '  The  elder  said  this  also.  Mark  having  become  the 
interpreter  of  Peter  wrote  down  accurately  all  that  he  remembered 
— not,  however,  in  order — the  words  and  deeds  of  Christ.  Fur  neither 
did  he  hear  the  Lord  nor  was  he  a  follower  of  His,  but  later  on,  as 
I  said,  he  attached  himself  to  Peter,  who  would  adapt  his  instructions 
to  the  needs  of  the  occasion,  but  not  teach  as  though  he  were  compos- 
ing a  connected  account  of  the  Lord's  "Oracles*";  so  that  Mark 
made  no  mistake  in  thus  writing  down  some  things  as  he  remembered 
them.  For  one  object  was  in  his  thoughts — to  omit  nothing  that  he 
had  heard,  and  to  make  no  false  statements.' 

This  connexion  of  Mark  with  Peter  is  affirmed  also  by  Irenaeus  and 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria  :  it  is  '  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  trust- 
worthy of  Christian  traditions''.' 

By  'interpreter'  {kpp-rjvevT-qs,  interpres)  is  probably  meant  'trans- 
lator,' i.  e.  of  Peter's  Aramaic  into  Greek.  The  basis  of  the  second 
Gospel  thus  appears  as  sections  of  the  evangelic  narrative  used  by 
Peter  in  his  public  teaching,  faithfully  remembered  and  translated  by 
Mark.  Justin  Martyr,  indeed,  appears  to  refer  to  Mk  3^'^  as  from  the 
'  Memoirs  of  Peter.'  If  difficulty  is  felt  as  to  whether  Papias'  sugges- 
tion of  incompleteness  and  lack  of  chronological  order  fits  such  a  work 
as  our  Gospel  of  Mark,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  not  only  that  all  the 
Gospels  are  'memorabilia'  rather  than  full  biographies,  but,  in  par- 
ticular, that  any  'harmony'  will  show  the  incompleteness  of  Mark  as 
compared   with   the   other  Synoptics :   while   the   criticism   '  not   in 

^  Or  'words':  the  reading  is  uncertain,  Xoyiuv  or  Ao'/cuv. 
''  Dr.  Swete,  St.  Mark,  p.  xviii. 


638  THE   GOSPELS 

order'  (oif  ra^ii)  would  be  accounted  for  if  in  the  missing  context 
Papias  is  comparing  Mark's  order  with  some  other — perhaps  that  of 
Luke  (Dr.  Salmon)  or  of  John  (Bishop  Lightfoot) — which  he  knows 
and  approves. 

442.  Personality  of  the  Writer.— Mark  appears  in  the 
Acts  as  a  Jew  of  Jerusalem  named  John,  who  had  adopted 
as  a  secondary  name  the  Roman  prcenomen  of  Marcus.  The 
first  mention  of  him  connects  his  name  with  Peter,  for  it 
was  to  '  the  house  of  Mary  the  mother  of  John  whose 
surname  was  Mark '  that  the  Apostle  betook  himself  on  his 
deliverance  from  prison,  Ac  12^^.  The  narrative  suggests 
a  house  of  considerable  size. 

It  is  an  interesting  conjecture  that  this  may  have  been  the  house 
where  (in  the  lifetime  of  Mark's  father)  the  Last  Supper  was  eaten, 
Mk  14^*  ;  that  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane  was  the  property  of  its 
owner  ;  and  that  Mark  himself  was  the  *  young  man '  of  the  incident, 
related  only  in  his  Gospel,  of  Mk  1451.52^ 

Mark,  Barnabas,  and  Paul. — When  Barnabas  and  Saul 
returned  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  after  their  mission  of 
famine-relief,  they  took  Mark  with  them  (Ac  12^^),  and 
afterwards  as  their  '  attendant '  (vTrrjpeTrjs)  on  their  first  mis- 
sionary journey  (13^).  At  Perga  he  left  them  (13^^)  and 
returned  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  at  least  possible  that  he  had 
home  claims  which  deterred  him  from  an  unforeseen  ex- 
tension of  travel  %  and  at  a  later  period  Barnabas  was 
quite  ready  to  take  him  with  them  again.  Paul,  however, 
resented  his  conduct  as  desertion:  there  was  'sharp  con- 
tention,' and  the  friends  parted,  Paul  taking  Silas,  while 
Barnabas  with  Mark  sailed  for  his  home  in  Cyprus  (15^^"'*^ 
cf.  4^'').  Neither  name  occurs  again  in  the  Acts,  but  per- 
sistent tradition  assigns  to  Mark  a  ministry  in  Egypt  and 
the  founding  of  the  church  in  Alexandria.  This  would  help 
to  account  for  the  long  interval  before  references  in  the 
Epistles  enable  us  again  to  pick  up  the  threads  of  his  story. 
*  See  Ramsay,  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,  p.  90. 


MARK,    BARNABAS,    AND    PAUL  639 

When  from  his  prison  in  Rome  Paul  dispatched  the  com- 
panion epistles  to  Colossae  and  to  Philemon,  Mark  is  once 
more  with  him  ;  for  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the 
identity  of  Mark  'the  cousin  of  Barnabas,'  concerning  whom 
Paul  had  thought  needful  to  give  the  Colossian  church  the 
kindly  warning  :  '  if  he  come  unto  you,  receive  him,'  Col  4^^. 
The  reconciliation  is  complete.  Only  three  Jewish  Christians 
in  Rome  are  loyal  to  Paul,  and  Mark  is  one  of  them,  no 
longer  an  'attendant,'  but  a  'fellow-worker'  [a-wepyos:)  and 
a  '  comfort '  to  the  Apostle  whom  he  had  once  so  bitterly 
disappointed,  Col  4^^-^^  Philem  -*.  A  still  later  notice  of 
association  with  Paul  is  the  direction  to  Timothy,  '  Take 
Mark,  and  bring  him  with  thee  :  for  he  is  useful  to  me  for 
ministering,'  2  Tim  4^^.  And,  finally,  when  Peter  writes 
his  first  epistle,  probably  from  Rome  and  very  possibly 
after  Paul's  death,  he  sends  greeting  from  '  Mark  my  son ' 
(6  vl6<s  fxov,  1  Pet  ^^^),  '  the  affectionate  designation  of  a  former 
pupil,  who  as  a  young  disciple  must  often  have  sat  at  his 
feet  to  be  catechized  and  taught  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and 
who  had  come  to  look  upon  his  mother's  old  friend  and 
teacher  as  a  second  father,  and  to  render  to  him  the  offices 
of  filial  piety  a.' 

443.  Genuineness. — The  impression  of  truth  derived 
from  the  freshness  and  vividness  with  which  the  story  is 
told  is  amply  confirmed  by  the  reception  of  this  Gospel  in 
the  early  Church.  The  testimony  of  Papias  has  already 
been  given.  The  coincidences  with  the  evangelic  narrative 
to  be  traced  in  the  writings  of  the  A2:)ostolic  Fathers  cannot 
perhaps  be  certainly  referred  to  one  written  Gospel  rather 
than  another.  But  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  we 
find  Justin  Martyr''  citing  the  'Memoirs  of  Peter'  for  the  title 
'Boanerges'  given  to  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  a  fact  recorded 

*  Swete,  St.  Mark,  p.  xvi. 
**  Dialogue  with  Trypho,  xvi. 


640  THE    GOSPELS 

only  in  Mk  3^"^.  Ircnseus  repeatedly  quotes  the  Gospel, 
explicitly  attributing  it  to  'Mark  the  interpreter  and  follower 
of  Peter,'  and  from  that  time  onward  the  evidence  of  its 
universal  recognition  is  unbroken. 

444.  Date. — An  early  and  trustworthy  tradition  affirms 
that  the  Gospel  was  written  in  Rome  and  for  Roman  Chris- 
tians, and  Irenaeus  asserts  what  Papias  seems  to  imply,  that 
Mark  wrote  after  the  *  departure '  (c^oSo?)  of  Peter  and  Paul. 

This  statement  is  more  probable  than  that  of  Clement  of  Alexandria, 
that  Peter  knew  of  Mark's  work  and  neither  hindered  nor  furthered 
it.  At  the  time  of  the  writing  of  Colossians,  Mark  was  with  Paul 
(4^'^),  and  the  Epistle  has  no  trace  of  the  presence  of  Peter  in  Rome. 
One  terminus  a  quo  is  thus  given  (c.  a.d.  62).  The  date  of  Peter's  death 
is  uncertain,  but  there  seems  no  sufficient  reason  for  doubting  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom  in  the  Neronian  persecution,  soon  after  the  fire 
at  Rome  in  July,  64.  We  may  assign  Mark's  Gospel,  therefore, 
approximately  to  65  or  66,  and  this  receives  confirmation  from  the 
simplicity  of  its  teaching,  from  the  absence  of  any  indication  that 
Jerusalem  had  fallen  (a.  d.  70),  and  especially  from  the  vagueness  of 
13^*  (R.V.)  compared  witli  Mt  24^^  and  Lu  21 2^. 

445.  Integrity  :  the  last  twelve  verses. — It  is  perhaps 
impossible  to  read  the  last  chapter  of  Mark's  Gospel  without 
feeling  that  at  verse  9  ^  something  has  happened.'  Up  to  this 
point  we  have  continuous  and  vivid  narrative:  now  it 
suddenly  breaks  off,  returns  upon  itself  (to  verse  i),  becomes 
condensed  and  fragmentary.  Of  course,  apart  from  other 
evidence,  this  change  of  manner  might  be  attributed  to  the 
Evangelist  himself ;  but  evidence  is  forthcoming,  both  ex- 
ternal and  internal,  which  leads  to  the  widely-accepted 
conclusion  that  verses  9-20  are  no  part  of  the  original  Gospel. 

The  R.V.  margin  notes  that  some  authorities  have  a  different  ending  : 
this  may  here  be  conveniently  quoted  :  with  no  claim  to  acceptance 
either  on  intrinsic  or  extrinsic  grounds,  its  existence  yet  points  to 
a  gap  which  its  author  tried  to  fill.  There  ai'e  some  differences  in  the 
authorities  containing  it ;  tlie  citation  is  from  Codex  Regius  (L)  at 
Paris  :  '  And  they  reported  briefly  to  Peter  and  his  company  all  that 
had  been  commanded.     And  after  these  things  Jesus  Himself  sent 


GENUINENESS  OF  MARK   XVI.   9-20        641 

forth  through  them,  from  the  east  even  unto  the  west,  the  holy  and 
incorruptible  proclamation  of  eternal  salvation.' 

External  evidence. — It  is  admitted  that  the  overwhelming  mass  of 
witnesses — MSS.,  versions,  and  Fathers — are  in  favour  of  the  verses, 
and  that  by  the  middle  of  the  second  century  the  Gospel  ended  as  it 
does  now.  But  in  matters  of  textual  criticism  witnesses  cannot  be 
counted  (see  §  61)  :  here,  each  branch  of  the  evidence  shows  notable 
exceptions. 

1.  MSS.  In  the  two  oldest  Uncials,  the  Vatican  (B)  and  Sinaitic 
(«),  the  Gospel  ends  at  verse  8  *  For  they  were  afraid '  {hcpo^ovvTo  yap). 
It  is,  however,  significant  that  in  the  former  of  these  MSS.  a  blank 
space  is  left  after  the  words,  indicating  that  the  chapter  is  incomplete. 
Codex  Regius  (L,  eighth  century)  and  three  later  Uncials  (i^^,  p,  ^) 
give  alternative  and  shorter  endings  :  so  does  one  cursive  (274), 
while  another  (22)  notes  that  some  copies  end  at  verse  8. 

2.  Versions.  The  old  Syriac  MS.  of  the  Gospels  discovered  by 
Mrs.  Lewis  on  Mount  Sinai  in  1892  (Syr*'°)  ends  at  verse  8,  the  Gospel 
of  Luke  immediately  following.  One  MS.  of  the  Old  Latin  (k)  has  the 
shorter  ending  only.  Some  copies  of  other  versions  (Harcleian  Syriac, 
Memphitic,  Armenian,  Ethiopic)  either  end  at  verse  8  or  give  the 
alternative  endings. 

3.  Fathers.  We  do  not  encounter  doubt  till  the  fourth  century, 
when  Eusebius  introduces  an  apologist  as  seeking  refuge  from  a  diffi- 
culty by  doubting  the  authenticity  of  these  verses,  which  are  wanting 
in  '  the  accurate  copies,'  and,  again,  '  in  nearly  all  the  copies  *.'  The 
testimony  does  not  perhaps  gain  much  from  its  reproduction  by 
Jerome,  with  whom  it  becomes  a  definite  statement  that  '  almost  all 
Greek  copies  are  wanting  in  this  section  ^,'  a  fact  which  in  no  wise 
affects  its  inclusion  in  Jerome's  own  version  ;  but  if,  as  Dean  Burgon 
suspects,  Eusebius  is  repeating  the  suggestion  of  an  older  writer, 
'probably  Origen,'  we  have  patristic  evidence  adverse  to  these  verses 
of  much  earlier  date  and  higher  authority. 

Internal  evidence. — The  argument  from  the  non-Marcan  elements 
in  the  style  and  vocabulary  of  these  verses  requires  a  study  of  the  Greek 
text  (e.g.  'On  the  first  day  of  the  week,'  verse  9,  and  also  verse  2)  : 
but  in  verse  2  Mark  writes  t^  fjua  tuiv  aa^^arcov,  whereas  in  verse  9  the 
expression  is  -npuTri  ffafi^drov.  For  a  list  of  instances  and  a  discussion 
of  the  whole  case  favourable  to  Mark's  authorship  the  student  may  be 

*  Eusebius,  in  his  Book  of  Questinos  and  Solutions  concerning  the  Passion 
and  Resurrection  of  the  Saviour,  addressed  to  Marinus. 
^  Jerome,  Letter  to  Hedibia,  a  lady  in  Gaul. 

Tt 


642  THE   GOSPELS 

referred  to  Dean  Burgon,  On  the  last  Twelve  Verses  of  St  Mark.  The  argu- 
ment from  style  is  notoriously  uncertain  :  yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  it  is  cumulative,  and  that  it  gains  greatly  in  force  if  associated  with 
any  external  evidence.  Other  unexpected  features,  in  addition  to 
those  mentioned  at  the  outset  of  this  discussion,  lie  on  the  surface  to 
the  observant  English  reader  :  the  description  of  Mary  Magdalene,  as 
if  now  for  the  first  time  she  appeared  in  the  story  (i6^,  cf.  15^'^  16^) ; 
the  bald  paragraphs  summarizing  accounts  found  in  the  other  Gospels ; 
the  unique  character  of  verses  16-18. 

The  net  result  would  seem  to  be  that  at  least  serious  doubt  must 
attach  to  these  twelve  verses.  It  is  inconceivable  that  Mark  deliberately 
ended  with  the  words  *  for  they  were  afraid' ;  an  anti-climax  indeed, 
and  worse  in  the  Grreek,  where  the  final  word  would  be  the  particle 
yap.  We  may,  perhaps,  conjecture  that  in  some  way  Mark's  auto- 
graph lost  its  last  leaf  before  copies  were  made,  and  that  separate 
attempts  were  made  to  supply  the  missing  close,  of  which  our  present 
ending  is  immeasurably  superior,  both  from  intrinsic  merit  and  from 
weight  of  attestation.  See  the  Excursus  by  Dr.  Swete  on  '  The  alterna- 
tive endings  of  this  Gospel '  in  his  St.  Mark,  Introd.  xi. 

/  446.  Contents  and  Characteristics. — The  two  main 
themes  of  the  Gospel  are  the  ministry  in  Galilee  and  the 
last  week  in  Jerusalem  :  these  are  preceded  by  introductory 
matter,  and  are  separated  by  a  brief  summary  of  intervening 
events.     Thus : — 

ji-is  Introduction  :  John  the  Baptist :  the  Baptism  and  Temptation. 

ii4_g50  Ministry  in  Galilee. 

iq1-62  Events  in  Peraea  and  Journey  to  Jerusalem. 

11^-16^  The  Last  Week  :  Trial,  Crucifixion,  and  Resurrection. 

Mark's  Gospel  is  *a  swift  narrative  of  Divine  doing.*  He 
omits  the  Sermon  oji  the  Mount,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  all  the 
parables  except  four,  and  all  the  longer  discourses  except 
that  on  the  Second  Advent.  Yet  in  vividness,  fullness,  and 
picturesque  detail  he  often  surpasses  the  other  Synoptists. 

Details  peculiar  to  this  Gospel. — i.  Some  few  incidents  are  men- 
tioned by  Mark  only  :  as  the  alarm  of  the  relatives  of  Jesus  at  what 
seemed  to  them  His  mental  aberration  (3-^),  and  the  incident  of  the 
young  man  in  the  linen  robe,  who  narrowly  escaped  arrest  on  the 
night  of  the  Betrayal  (i^^^^"^),  conjectured  by  some  expositors  to  have 
been  Mark  himself. 


CHARACTERISTICS   OF  MARK'S   GOSPEL     643 

2.  Parables*.  Mark  relates  but  four,  one  of  which,  the  Seed  growing 
secretly  (4^^~^^)f  is  peculiar  to  this  Gospel,  as  is  also  the  parabolic 
passage  1333-37, 

3.  Miracles*.  Eighteen  in  all  are  recorded  by  Mark,  but  there  are 
only  two  exclusively  his,  the  healing  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  accom- 
panied by  the  sigh  and  upturned  look  of  the  all-gracious  Healer 
(^31-37-)^  and  that  of  the  progressive  healing  of  a  blind  man  at  Beth- 
saida  (8-2-26-j — f^]^Q  only  miracle  of  its  kind  recorded. 

4.  Writing  especially  for  Gentile  readers,  Mark  gives  explanations  ^ 
which  to  Jews  would  have  been  quite  superfluous,  e.  g.  the  '  river '  > 
Jordan,"  i^ ;  the  Mount  of  Olives  *  over  against  the  Temple,'  13' ;  also 
in  reference  to  Jewish  ceremonial  customs,  7'  14^^^  15*2. 

5.  The  additions  in  minute  particulars  and  graphic  touches  which 
strikingly  characterize  this  Gospel  are  far  too  numerous  to  be  given  in 
full,  but  the  following  may  be  noted  as  indications  of  an  independent 
writer,  and  of  one  whose  descriptions  are  often  based  upon  those  of 
an  eyewitness :  (i)  Names  :  that  Simon  Jesus  surnamed  Peter  (3^^)  ; 
James  and  John,  Boanerges  (3^"^)  ;  that  Bartima^us  was  the  name  of 
the  blind  beggar  at  Jericho  (10'^®)  ;  that  Simon  of  Cyrene  was  the 
father  of  Alexander  and  Rufus.  (ii)  Number  :  that  the  herd  of  swine 
numbered  *  about  two  thousand '  (5^^) ;  that  the  twelve  Apostles  were 
sent  forth,  '  two  by  two '  (6'^,  but  cf.  Lu  10^)  ;  that  before  the  cock 
crew  twice  Peter  would  thrice  deny  his  Lord  (14^°).  (iii)  Time : 
*  in  the  morning  ...  a  great  while  before  day '  (i^^)  ;  *  the  same  day, 
wTien  the  evening  was  come '  (4'')  ;  *  whenever  even  was  come,  He 
went  out  of  the  city '  (n-^^)  ;  the  hour  of  the  Crucifixion,  '  the  third 
hour'  (15^^).  (iv)  Place  :  '  by  the  sea  side'  (2^')  ;  *a  place  where  two 
ways  met'  (11*);  'over  against  the  treasury'  (12*^);  'over  against 
Him'  (15^');  'on  the  right  side*  (16').  (v)  Many  minute  traits  and 
touches  in  reference  to  (a)  Colour,  6^'  {irpaaiai,  '  garden  plots ')  9^ 
i65  ;  (6)  Look,  feeling,  or  gesture,  i"-''^  35  7S3.S4  gi'^-zs  ^27.36  iqIs.si^ 

Key-words. — Among  characteristic  expressions  occurring  in  the 
Gospel,  observe  (i)  the  frequency  of  the  word  straightway  (ei'-^uj), 
immediately.  (2)  Emphasis  by  repetition,  e.g.  '  he  .  .  .  began  to  publish 
it  much,  and  to  blaze  abroad  the  matter '  (i*^)  ;  '  that  sprang  up  and 
increased  and  brought  forth'  (4^)  ;  'and  with  many  such  parables  spake 
He  unto  them'  (4^'"^*);  'I  know  not,  neither  understand  J'  (14''^).  (3) 
Introduction  of  Aramaic  words,  as  probably  heard  from  the  lips  of 
Christ.  (4)  Also  of  Latin  words  and  phrases.  See  the  enumeration, 
§  40,  p.  44. 

*  See  Tables,  pp.  664,  665. 
T  t  2 


644  THE   GOSPELS 

The  Gospel  according  to  Matthew 

(KATA    MAT@AI0N) 

^  447.  Its  Author.— The  first  Gospel,  like  the  second,  is 
>fe,nonymous,  but  by  uniform  tradition  is  ascribed  to  the 
Apostle  Matthew.  The  one  incident  related  of  him  is  his 
call  and  instant  obedience.  He  was  a  '  publican "  (tcXojvt/?), 
collector  of  customs  at  the  important  commercial  centre 
of  Capernaum.  At  Mk  2^*  Lu  5-'^  he  is  called  Levi,  probably 
with  greater  accuracy,  if,  as  is  probable,  he  assumed  th*^ 
name  of  Matthew  (Mar^aio?  or  Ma^^aros  =  Theodore,  gift  of 
God)  on  becoming  a  disciple. 

It  is  characteristic  that  Matthew  himself  uses  only  the  later  name 
(Mt  9^),  and  adds  to  his  own  name  in  the  list  of  the  Apostles  the 
designation  '  the  publican  '  (lo^).  The  identity  of  Levi  and  Matthew 
is  put  beyond  doubt  by  a  comparison  of  the  narrative  at  Mt  9^  with 
Mk  2^*  Lu  5^'^  ;  and  by  the  fact  that  there  is  no  Levi  in  the  four  lists 
of  the  Apostles  (Mt  10  Mk  3  Lk  6  Ac  i),  while  Matthew  has  place  in 
them  all.  Mark  adds  (2^'*)  that  he  was  the  son  of  Alphaeus  (not  the 
father  of  James,  for  the  lists  forbid  such  a  connexion)  ;  and  from 
Luke  we  learn  that  the  'eating  with  publicans  and  sinners'  which 
followed  the  call  of  Levi  was  at  a  *  great  feast '  (Sox>i,  reception)  given 
by  the  new  disciple  in  honour  of  Jesus. 

This  Gospel,  though  evidently  freely  used  by  Justin  Martyr,  is  first 
cited  as  Matthew's  by  Irenseus,  and  thenceforward  has  its  undoubted 
place  in  the  'fourfold  Gospel'  (jcTpafxopcpov  evayyeXiov)  ^.  But  there 
is  an  earlier  testimony  of  Papi as  preserved  by  Eusebius''  which  ascribes 
to  Matthew  an  Aramaic  work:  'So  then  Matthew  composed  "the 
Oracles  "  (tcL  Xoyia)  in  the  Hebrew  language,  and  each  one  translated 
them  as  he  was  able.'  Similar  statements  are  made  by  Irenaeus, 
Origen  (who  expressly  identifies  the  Hebrew  work  of  Matthew  with 
our  first  Gospel),  Eusebius,  and  other  patristic  writers.  None  of 
these  claim  to  have  seen  the  Hebrew  Gospel ;  but  Jerome  affirms 
that  he  had  seen  and  transcribed  the  copy  in  the  Library  of  Pamphilus 

*  Iren.  Contr.  Ear.  iii.  11.  8, 
^  Eus,  H.  E.  iii.  40. 


MATTHEW'S   GOSPEL  645 

at  Cflesarea.  It  is,  however,  generally  agreed  that  he  is  confusing  the 
apocryphal  *  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews '  with  the  Aramaic 
original  of  Matthew.  The  fragments  of  the  apocryphal  Gospel  whicli 
survive  show  a  wide  divergence.  Moreover,  Jerome  was  of  course 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  Matthew,  yet  tells  us  that  he  translated 
the  'Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews*  into  both  Greek  and  Latin, 
a  superfluous  task,  if  this  were  the  original  form  of  the  first  Gospel. 

It  would  seem  that  there  were  in  fact  three  writings,  not  kept  distinct 
in  the  tradition  :  (i)  the  Aramaic  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews, 
(2)  Matthew's  Aramaic  *  Logia,'  (3)  the  Greek  *  Gospel  according  to 
Matthew.'  The  main  problem  is  as  to  the  relation  of  (2)  and  (3). 
It  would  be  an  easy  solution  if  we  could  with  confidence  attribute 
both  to  Matthew.  Possibly  the  use  of  the  past  tense,  '  interpreted  as  he 
could,'  implies  that,  when  Papias  wrote,  the  need  for  haphazard  trans- 
lations had  been  done  away  by  the  issue  of  an  authorized  Greek 
version  of  Matthew's  work,  for  which  the  Apostle  himself  may  have 
been  responsible.  And  since  at  a  later  date  we  find  a  Greek  Gospel 
of  Matthew  in  possession  of  the  field,  the  presumption  is  that  it  is  of 
this  that  Papias  is  tracing  the  origin. 

No  great  difficulty  need  be  found  in  the  application  of  the  term 
*  Logia '  to  the  first  Gospel  as  a  whole.  Patristic  usage  shows  that  the 
word  may  cover  facts  and  incidents,  as  well  as  sayings ;  it  is  even 
specially  appropriate  to  the  work  of  which  the  most  characteristic 
feature  is  its  full  record  of  the  discourses  of  our  Lord.  But  it  is  prac- 
tically certain  that  our  first  Gospel  is  an  original  Greek  work,  and  not 
a  translation.  The  style  forbids,  and  the  bulk  of  the  citations  from 
the  0.  T.  (those  common  to  Matthew  with  Mark  or  Luke  or  both)  are 
from  the  LXX.  Matthew  may  conceivably  have  written  two  inde- 
pendent works,  one  in  Aramaic,  a  compilation  of  sayings  of  the  Lord, 
and  one  in  Greek,  a  complete  Gospel,  in  which  these  were  incorpo- 
rated. But  we  have  seen  that  in  what  the  first  Gospel  shares  with  the 
second  the  priority  of  Mark  is  to  be  conceded  ;  and  it  is  not  likely  that 
an  original  Apostle  and  eyewitness  would  depend  for  his  material  on 
Mark.  Nor  in  Matthew's  version  of  the  '  Petrine  Memoirs '  are  the 
touches  which  suggest  the  eyewitness  conspicuous.  It  seems  safer, 
therefore,  to  rest  in  the  assurance  that  what  is  most  characteristic 
and  precious  •  in  Matthew's  Gospel  is  derived  from  the  '  Logia,'  a  col- 
lection of  our  Lord's  sayings  made  by  the  Apostle  himself,  no  doubt 

•  It  is  the  discourses  contained  in  this  Gospel  which  lead  even 
Renan  to  style  it  <  the  most  important  book  of  Christendom,  the  most 
important  book  which  has  ever  been  written.'     Les  Evangiles,  p.  212. 


646  THE   GOSPELS 

comprising  historical  matter  also.  With  these  is  combined  the  sub- 
stance of  Mark's  Gospel  derived  from  Peter  :  yet  the  name  of  Matthew 
clings  to  the  whole.  So  is  tradition  vindicated ;  and  if  in  part 
Matthew's  authorship  becomes  less  direct,  we  find  a  dual  apostolic 
origin  of  his  Gospel  in  place  of  a  single. 

448.  Its  Genuineness,  Integrity,  and  Date. — Nothing 
need  be  added  to  what  is  said  above  as  to  the  early- 
recognition  of  the  Gospels,  except  that  echoes  of  Matthew- 
are  clearer  and  more  abundant  in  the  sub-apostolic  writings* 
than  of  Mark. 

The  integrity  of  this  Gospel  cannot  be  seriously 
questioned.  Whatever  difficulties  may  be  found  in  the  first 
two  chapters  as  comj^ared  with  the  parallel  narrative  in 
Luke,  the  external  testimony  is  unanimous  in  making  them 
part  of  the  original  work.  Indeed,  the  only  considerable 
passage  v/hich  is  in  doubt  is  the  Doxology  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer  (6^^).  Here  the  adverse  evidence  is  so  decisive  that 
the  words  are  dropped  from  the  E.V.  without  even  a 
marginal  note.  Probably  they  are  an  insertion  due  to  the 
liturgical  use  of  the  prayer,  and  may  ultimately  rest  upon 
I  Ch  29^1. 

Date  of  the  Gospel. — While  later  than  Mark,  it  may 

fairly  be  argued  from  Mt  24^^  compared  with  Lu  21 2^'  (note 

the   vagueness   and   the    solemn   warning,    '  Let  him   that 

readeth  understand')  that  the  crisis  had  not  yet   arrived. 

1  Moreover,  such  passages  as  Mt  4^  5^^  22"^  23^"^*  24^-^^  27^^, 

jwith  their  allusions  to  the  Holy  City,  Holy  Place,  City  of 

j  the  Great  King,  seem  to  imply  that  the  Gospel  was  written 

some  time   before  the  tragic  end  of  the  war  in  a.  d.   70. 

j  Matthew's  Aramaic  '  Logia '  may  probably  be  placed  some 

five  or  ten  years  earher. 

449.  Its  Contents  and  Characteristics. — The  greater 
part  of  the  book  deals  with  the  ministry  in  Galilee,  but 

•  Especially  in  Justin  Martyr. 


CHARACTEEISTICS  OF  MATTHEW'S   GOSPEL    647 

Mark's  narrative  is  amplified,  both  here*  and  in  the  final 
scenes  in  Jerusalem  l>,  by  the  introductipn  of  large  bodies 
of  connected  teaching.  This  leads  to  some  changes  from 
Mark's  order:  probably  also  the  compression  in  narrative 
as  compared  with  Mark,  continually  observable,  is  to  be 
traced  to  the  same  cause  c. 

ii_223  Birth  and  infancy  of  Jesus. 

31-411  Preparation  for  the  Ministry. 

4i2_i885  Ministry  in  Galilee. 

19^-20'*  Peraea,  and  journey  to  Jerusalem. 

ai^-25*®  Teaching  in  Jerusalem. 

26^-28-°  The  Passion  and  the  Resurrection. 

The  Gospel  is  mainly  addressed  to  Jews.  The  evident  aim 
of  the  writer  is  in  the  first  instance,  by  a  simple  record  of  what 
our  Lord  did  and  suffered,  to  redeem  his  Master's  memory 
from  reproach,  to  disarm  the  prejudices  of  his  country- 
men, and  to  set  forth  the  true  character  of  the  Messiah. 
More  generally,  the  book  may  be  regarded  as  an  exposition 
of  the  *  kingdom  of  heaven, f  or  more  precisely,  'of  the 
heavens,'  a  phrase  occurring  thirty-three  times  in  this  Gospel, 
and  in  no  other.  Hence  also  the  spiritual  interpretation  of 
the  Law  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount ;  with  the  frequent 
appeals  to  the  Prophets  (i-^  2'5-i5.i8  ^3  4I5  Qn^  &c.),  the 
citations,  direct  and  indirect,  amounting  to  about  sixty-five, 
a  far  larger  number  than  in  any  other  Evangelist.  These 
are,  in  the  sections  common  to  Matthew  with  Mark  or 
Luke  or  both,  mainly  from  the  LXX  ;  in  those  peculiar  to 
Matthew,  more  nearly  from  the  Hebrew.  There  should 
also  be  noticed  Matthew's  accounts  of  the  refutation  of  the 

»  The  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  chs.  5-7  ;  Instructions  to  the  Twelve,  ch.  10  ; 
Parables,  ch.  13. 

*•  Woes  on  the  Pharisees,  ch.  23  ;  Parables,  ch.  25. 

"  There  seem  to  have  been  recognized  limits  as  to  the  size  of  ancient 
books.  The  three  longest  books  of  the  N.  T.  (Matthew,  Luke,  and 
Acts)  are  almost  exactly  the  same  length.  See  J.  Armitage  Eobinson, 
The  Study  of  the  Gospels,  p.  45. 


648  THE   GOSPELS 

various  Jewish  sects,  his  care  in  narrating  such  parts  of 
our  Lord's  discourses  as  were  best  suited  to  awaken  his  own 
nation  to  a  sense  of  their  sins,  to  correct  their  hopes  of  an 
earthly  kingdom,  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  admission 
of  the  Gentiles  to  the  Church. 

Details  peculiar  to  tMs  Gospel. — Some  of  these  have  special 
significance  when  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  purpose  of  this 
Gospel  as  sketched  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs. 

<  I.  General  incidents.  The  vision  of  Joseph  (i^^"^*),  the  visit  of  the 
^agi  (2i~i3),  the  flight  into  Egypt  {2}^"^^),  the  massacre  of  the  infants 
Xa^^),  Peter's  confession  of  Christ  in  detail  (i6^'~2<J)^  the  dream  of 
Pilate's  wife  (27^^),  the  death  of  Judas  (27'"^"),  the  resurrection  of 
"^certain  saints  (27^^^^  ^he  bribery  of  the  Koman  guard  (28*2-15^,  and  the 
•baptismal  commission  in  detail  (28^^-^*^). 

)     a.  Parables.     The  Tares  (i32*-3o  s6-43)^  the  Hidden  Treasure  (13**), 

(the  Pearl  {13^^-*^),  the  Drag-net  (13*^),  the  Unmerciful  Servant  (iS^s-s*), 

( the  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard  (20^"^^),  the  Two  Sons  (2128-32^^  ^he 

marriage  of  the  King's  Son  (22^"^'),  the  Ten  Virgins   (25^"!'),  the 

Talents  {25^^-^^). 

3.  Miracles.  The  cure  of  two  blind  men  in  a  house  at  Capernaum 
/(9^^~'^)>  the  healing  of  a  dumb  demoniac  (9^^-^^),  the  coin  in  the  fish's 
mouth  (1724-27). 

Key-words.  —  The  following  characteristic  phrases  and  expressions 
strikingly  illustrate  the  main  design  of  the  Gospel  :  *  That  it  might  be 
fulfilled'  (iva  or  oiiws  TrXr]paj$?i)  ;  'the  kingdom  of  the  heavens,'  as  above 
noted  (17  ^aaiXeia  twv  ovpavaiy),  thirty- three  times  ;  *  Our  Heavenly 
Father '  or  *  Father  in  heaven  ' — literally  *  in  the  heavens '  (o  nar^p 
6  ovpdvios,  6  iraTTjp  6  kv  rois  ovpavois),  about  twenty-two  times  ;  the  refer- 
ence to  the  Messiah  under  the  name  'Son  of  David'  (eight  times). 
Among  other  characteristic  expressions  note  the  frequent  use,  about 
sixty  times,  of  *  Lo  1  behold '  (tSou)  when  introducing  anything  new  ; 
also  the  use  of  tot6,  as  the  particle  of  transition,  rare  in  the  other 
Gospels,  but  occurring  ninety  times  in  this.  These  are  only  a  few  of  the 
peculiarities  of  style  and  diction  ;  for  others  see  Archbishop  Thomson's 
article  on  '  Gospel  of  Mattl^ew'  ift  Smitji's  picUonary  of  the  BibU, 


LUKE'S   GOSPEL  649 

The  Gospel  according  to  Luke 

(KATA    AOYKAN) 

450.  Its  Author. — The  opening  words  of  the  'Acts  of 
the  Apostles,'  addressed  to  one  Theophilus,  speak  of  a 
'  former  treatise  concerning  all  that  Jesus  began  both  to  do 
and  to  teach ' :  the  dedication  of  the  third  Gospel  to 
Theophilus  makes  it  clear  that  this  is  the  *  former  treatise ' 
referred  to.  The  identical  authorship  of  the  two  books  is 
all  but  universally  conceded,  and,  if  only  on  grounds  of 
language  and  style,  is  really  beyond  question.  Now  in 
three  sections  of  the  Acts  the  author  appears  as  a  companion 
of  Paul.  At  Troas,  Paul  sees  in  vision  a  man  of  Macedonia, 
*and  straightway  we  sought  to  go  forth  into  Macedonia,' 
j51o-18^  The  author  is  with  Paul  in  Philippi :  then  the 
narrative  proceeds  in  the  third  person  till  Philippi  is  re- 
visited, 20'^-®.  The  we  continues  till  Jerusalem  is  reached, 
2i^^«i8,  and  reappears  for  the  voyage  to  Kome,  27^-28^^  To 
whom,  then,  among  Paul's  companions  are  the  Acts  and 
third  Gospel  to  be  attributed  ?  Tradition,  from  Irenaeus 
onward,  unhesitatingly  says  to  Luke  ^^  with  what  warrant 
may  better  be  discussed  in  the  Introduction  to  the  Acts. 

The  very  obscurity  of  the  name  is  in  its  favour.  Apart  from  the 
anonymous  indications  of  the  Acts,  Luke  is  only  three  times  men- 
tioned in  the  NeMr  Testament. 

Col  4^*  '  Luke,  the  beloved  physician.' 

Philem  ^*  *  Luke,  my  fellow  v^orker.' 

a  Tim  4^^  '  Only  Luke  is  with  me.' 

His  presence  in  Kome  during  Paul's  first  imprisonment  confirms  the 
supposition  that  he  is  the  author  of  the  we-section,  Ac  27^-28^^ :  his 
sole  adhesion  to  the  Apostle  in  the  second  imprisonment  explains 
Irenseus's  description  of  him  as  *  inseparable  from  Paul.'  He  was 
a  Gentile  by  birth,  for  in  Colossians  he  (with  Epaphras  and  Demas)  js 

^  Jren.  Adv.  Jlcer.  iii.  i,  14,  i§. 


650  THE   GOSPELS 

distinguished  from  those  *  who  are  of  the  circumcision  *  (4^^).  Tradi- 
tion makes  him  a  proselyte  and  a  native  of  Antioch,  but  both  par- 
ticulars are  doubtful.  The  latter  may  be  due  to  a  confusion  with  the 
Lucius  (AovKLOs)  of  Ac  13^  but  the  names  are  distinct :  Luke  (Aou«as) 
is  a  contraction  of  Lucanus,  as  Silas  of  Silvanus.  A  more  probable 
suggestion  connects  him  with  Philippi  *. 

451.  Its  Genuineness,  Integrity,  and  Date.- -Not 
only  does  this  Gospel  share  in  the  abundant  recognition 
given  to  the  other  Synoptics  from  the  middle  of  the  second 
century :  it  has  a  special  and  earlier  attestation  from 
Marcion  of  Pontus  (c.  a.  d.  140).  The  New  Testament  of 
his  own  selection  which  he  brought  to  Kome  consisted  of 
a  Gospel  and  an  Apostolicon  (ten  of  Paul's  Epistles).  This 
Gospel  can  be  in  large  part  reconstructed  from  citations  by 
his  opponents  Tertullian  and  Epiphanius,  and  proves  to  be 
a  revised  and  mutilated  version  of  Luke  ^. 

Integrity. — A  passing  reference  must  suffice  to  certain 
textual  phenomena  in  the  closing  chapters  which  led  W  H 
to  enclose  some  passages  in  double  brackets,  as  of  doubt- 
ful authenticity  (especially  22i9-2o  43.44  2334  2451.52).  Their 
judgement  in  here  following  those  Western  authorities 
which  in  general  they  neglect,  is  open  to  serious  doubt. 
Blass  thinks  that  Luke  himself  issued  two  editions  of  his 
Gospel  (and  also  of  the  Acts),  one  for  readers  in  Palestine, 
one  for  those  in  Kome  ^. 

Date. — That  Luke  is  the  latest  of  the  Synoptic  Gospels 
is  perhaps  suggested  by  (i)  the  Prologue :  '  many '  of  the 
second  generation  of  Christians  have  already  attempted 
a  similar  task  ;  (2)  the  use  of  the  two  main  sources  of  the 
first  and  second  Gospels,  together  with  additional  materials; 

•  See  Eamsay,  St.  Paul  the  Traveller,  pp.  200-205. 

''  A  discussion  of  Marcion's  testimony  will  be  found  in  The  Early 
Witness  to  the  Four  Gospels  (R.  T.  S.),  pp.  36-46. 

°  See  W  H,  Notes  on  Select  Readings  ;  also  Blass,  Philology  of  the  Gospels, 
chs.  7  and  9  j  and  Salmon,  Some  Thoughts  on  Textual  Criticism,  ch.  4. 


CHAKACTERISTICS   OF   LUKE'S   GOSPEL     651 

(3)  many  slight  touches  which  seem  to  show  'development* 
in  the  treatment  of  the  common  tradition ;  (4)  the  modifi- 
cations in  the  '  eschatological  discourse '  (ch.  21)  with  their 
clearer  indications  of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  (21-^). 

These  last  may  point  to  a  date  shortly  after  70.  Jiilicher  affirms  that  '^ 
they  prove  it  '  beyond  question  '  {Introduction  to  New  Testament,  p.  336)  ; 
Blass  altogether  disputes  the  inference  {Philology  of  the  Gospels,  chs.  3 
and  4)  and  argues  that  Luke  probably  wrote  his  Gospel  during  Paul's 
two  years'  imprisonment  in  Jerusalem  and  Caesarea,  i.  e.  before  the 
close  of  A.  D.  60.  It  was  certainly  written  before  Acts,  and  the  narra- 
tive of  that  book  closes  in  62.  This,  however,  gives  no  certain  clue  to 
the  date  of  Acts,  We  can  only  say  that  the  Gospel  may  have  been 
written  as  early  as  Blass  maintains,  while  there  is  no  valid  reason  for 
placing  it  much  after  70. 

452.  Contents  and  Characteristics. — This  close  associa- 
tion of  the  author  with  the  Apostle  Paul  naturally  accounts  / 
for  signs  of  Pauline  influence  in  the  Gospel.  A  tradition; 
was  early  current^  that  Luke's  Gospel  contained  the  sub-, 
stance  of  Paul's  teaching,  as  that  of  Mark  was  supposed  to, 
contain  that  of  Peter.  While  the  suggestion  may  be  unduly 
pressed,  it  is  unmistakable  that  there  is  a  striking  corre- 
spondence between  the  general  scope  of  the  Gospel  and  the 
Pauline  teaching  of  grace,  forgiveness,  and  justification. 

The  universality  of  the  Gospel  is  more  marked  in  Luke  than  in  / 
Matthew  or  Mark  ;  so  also,  especially  in  those  parables  and  sayings  ■' 
peculiar  to  Luke,  is  the  doctrine  of  man's  free  justification  by  grace 
through  faith,  e.g.  17^°  iS^*.  It  is  as  if  the  writer  had  taken  for 
his  motto  the  phrase  from  the  Apostle's  benediction,  '  the  grace  of 
the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.'  It  is  also  noteworthy  that  the  account  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  given  by  Lu  22^^-^°^  is  almost  identical  with  that  of 
Paul  in  I  Cor  ii2'-2».  There  are  also  points  of  resemblance  in  the 
accounts  of  the  Kesurrection  of  our  Lord,  Lu  24  and  i  Cor  is^"*^. 

Luke's  use  of  special  sources  appears  in  the  first  two  chapters,  but 
chiefly  in  the  central  section  of  his  Gospel,  9"- 1928.  The  other 
Evangelists  have  nothing  corresponding  to  this  record  of  a  slow  but 

*  Iren.  Adv.  Hcer.  iii.  i,  &c. 

^  Apart,  that  is,  from  the  question  of  text. 


652  THE    GOSPELS 

continuous  progress  to  Jerusalem  (see  9'^  13^2  j^u  js^i  igi^-^s).  it  has 
been  variously  called  the  'Journal  of  Travel,'  the  'Great  Insertion/ 
or,  more  simply,  the  'Peraean  Section.*  A  good  deal  is  found  in  it 
that  is  also,  variously  placed,  in  Matthew  or  Mark,  but  for  th«  most 
part  it  is  peculiar  to  Luke,  especially  in  its  parables. 

Summary  of  the  Gospel. 
1 1-4         Preface. 

;     i5_252       The  Annunciation,   Nativity,  and  early  history  of  John 
the  Baptist  and  of  Jesus  Christ, 
gi-^is       The  preaching  of  the  Baptist  in  the  Wilderness,  and  the 

Baptism  and  Temptation  of  Christ. 
^i4_g5o       Ministry  of  Christ  in  Galilee. 

j5i_ip-'8      Christ's  last  journey  to  Jerusalem;  the  'Peraean  Section.' 
i9"9-24^'    The   Last  Week  :    Trial,   Crucifixion,  Kesurrection,  and 
Ascension. 

453.  Details  peculiar  to  this  Gospel. — The  features  peculiar  to 
Luke  are  numerous  and  striking.     Among  the  principal  are : — 

1.  Events,  (i)  The  account  of  the  parentage  and  birth  of  the  Lord's 
forerunner,  and  of  the  birth  of  the  Lord  Himself ;  His  circumcision, 
presentation  in  the  Temple  ;  His  visit  at  twelve  years  of  age  to  the 
Temple.  (ii)  Most  of  the  incidents  and  sayings  included  in  9"- 
19^^^  (iii)  Circumstances  attending  the  trial  and  death  of  Christ  ; 
His  look  upon  Peter  ;  the  trial  before  Herod  Antipas  ;  three  of  the 
*  Sayings '  on  the  Cross ;  the  prayer  for  the  executioners  ;  the  promise 
to  the  penitent ;  and  the  commendation  of  His  departing  spirit,  (iv) 
Circumstances  attending  the  Kesurrection ;  the  appearance  to  Peter, 
to  Cleopas  and  an  unnamed  disciple  ;  the  Ascension. 

2.  Miracles.  Miraculous  draught  of  fishes  (5*""^*) ;  raising  the  widow's 
son  (7^^-^*) ;  and  four  miracles  of  healing  : — of  the  deformed  woman 
(1311-1'^)  ;  the  man  with  the  dropsy  (14^"^)  ;  the  ten  lepers  (17""") ; 
and  the  wounded  ear  of  Malchus  (225""). 

3.  Parables.  Of  these,  three  have  reference  to  prayer,  a  prominent 
subject  throughout  the  Gospel  :— the  Friend  at  Midnight  (ii^^)  ; 
the  Pleading  Widow  (iS^-S)  ;  the  Pharisee  and  Publican  (i8i'-i*). 
Illustrating  the  seeking  love  and  free  forgiveness  of  God  are  the  twin 
parables  of  the  Lost  Coin  and  the  Lost  Son  (15*^"^^),  prefaced  by  one 
found  also  in  Matthew's  Gospel.  Pertaining  also  to  the  forgiving  Love 
of  God  and  Divine  forbearance  are  the  parables  of  the  Two  Debtors 
{^*'^~*^),  the  Barren  Fig-tree  (13*^"^),  and  the  open  invitation,  the  Great 
Supper  (14^-"'^*).  Man's  relation  to  his  fellow  man  is  set  forth  in  the 
parable  of  the  Qood  Samaritan  (10'^^^).     Concerning  the  future  life 


FEATURES   PECULIAR  TO   LUKE  653 

and  its  relation  to  the  present  are  the  parables  of  the  Eich  Fool 
(i2"-2i)^  the  Dishonest  Steward  {i6^-^^),  the  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus 
^j519-si^  .    and  of  reward  according  to  labour,   that   of  the  Pounds 

4.  Discourses.  At  Nazareth  (4^^-20^  .  instructions  to  the  Seventy 
(ro^~^^),  and  other  utterances  recorded  in  g^i-ig^s  j  the  conversation 
with  two  disciples  going  to  Emmaus  (241^"'^^). 

5.  Holy  Songs.  The  records  of  these  comprise  the  Magnificat,  or  the 
Song  of  Mary  (1*6-55^  .  the  Benedictns,  or  the  Psalm  of  Zacharias 
(168-79^  .  the  Gloria  in  Excelsis,  or  the  Song  of  the  Angels  (2^*)  ;  and 
the  Nunc  Dimittis,  or  the  Death  Song  of  Simeon  {z^^'^^). 

6.  Angelic  Appearances.  The  Gospel  begins  with  the  appearance 
of  an  angel  to  Zacharias  as  he  ministered  in  the  Temple  ;  then 
follows  that  of  Gabriel  to  Mary  of  Nazareth  ;  and  of  '  a  multitude  of 
the  heavenly  host '  to  the  shepherds  of  Bethlehem.  And  as  it  begins, 
so  the  Gospel  closes  with  the  record  of  ministering  angels  :  of  one  who 
in  Gethsemane  '  apj)eared  unto  Him,  strengthening  Him  ' ;  and  of  the 
two  'in  shining  garments,'  who,  on  the  morning  of  Resurrection 
triumph,  inquired  of  the  woman  at  the  sepulchre,  *  Why  seek  ye  Him 
that  liveth  among  the  dead  ? ' 

Style  and  characteristic  expressions. — All  authorities  testify  to 
the  grace  of  the  style  of  Luke.  The  old  tradition  that  he  was  a  painter 
is  true  to  the  extent  that  he  was  an  artist  in  words,  preserving  to  us, 
in  what  Renan  speaks  of  as  'the  most  beautiful  book  ever  written,' 
a  portraiture  of  Jesus  that  is  suffused  with  artistic  skill.  As  a  man 
of  letters,  and  skilled  in  composition,  the  use  by  Luke  of  more  classical 
words  for  many  that  are  used  by  the  other  Evangelists,  his  fondness 
for  long  compound  words,  and  other  distinguishing  features  of  style 
are  apparent  to  observant  students  of  the  Greek  Testament,  but 
cannot  be  represented  in  any  version. 

One  notable  key-word  of  this  Gospel,  in  accordance  with  its  evange-  \ 
listic  universalism,  is  the  verb  to  preach  good  tidings  {fvayyfXi^onai)^ 
ji9  2I0  3I8  ^^18.43  81  96  j5i6  20I.  Saviour,  salvation,  are  words  used  only  by  ^ 
Luke  amongst  the  Synoptists,  i47.69.7i.77  gH-so  36  ig^^  and  each  once  only 
by  John  4'^-'*^.  To  glorify,  in  the  sense  of  to  ascribe  glory,  honour  to 
God,  is  another  characteristic  expression,  as  seen  in  the  passages  2-° 
^15  22.%26  ,^16  igis  j^i5  i34s  ^^ii  More  than  in  any  other  Gospel  is  the 
dignity  of  womanhood  recognized,  as  depicted  not  only  in  Luke's 
delineation  of  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  but  in  the  oft-recurring  refer- 
ences to  women,  in  Christ's  relation  to  them,  and  theirs  to  Him.     See 

&c. 


654 


THE  GOSPELS 


The  Gospel  according  to  John 

(KATA    lOANNHN) 

454.  Its  Author. — The  Synoptic  Gospels  are  not  only 
anonymous,  they  are  impersonal.  The  Prologue  to  Luke, 
in  which  the  author  refers  to,  but  does  not  name  himself,  is 
the  one  exception.  It  is  otherwise  with  the  fourth  Gospel. 
Though  still  anonymous — neither  John  nor  his  brother 
James  is  named  in  the  Gospel,  the  *  sons  of  Zebedee '  only 
once  (21 2) — it  has  three  passages  in  which  the  author  in- 
directly appears.  With  the  first  of  these  may  be  compared 
one  from  the  Epistle  which  is  admittedly  from  the  same 
hand  as  the  Gospel. 


A.  i^* 
And  the  Word  became  flesh, 
and  dwelt  among  us  (and  we  be- 
held his  glory,  glory  as  of  the 
only  begotten  from  the  Father), 
full  of  grace  and  truth. 


I  Jn  1^-3 
That  which  was  from  the  be- 
ginning, that  which  we  have 
heard,  that  which  we  have  seen 
with  our  eyes,  that  which  we  bo- 
held,  and  our  hands  handled, 
concerning  the  Word  of  life  (and 
the  life  was  manifested,  and  we 
have  seen,  and  bear  witness,  and 
declare  untc?  you  the  life,  the 
eternal  life,  which  was  with  the 
Father,  and  was  manifested  unto 
us)  ;  that  which  we  have  seen 
and  heard  declare  we  unto  you 
also,  that  ye  also  may  have  fellow- 
ship with  us. 

B.   I9'» 
And  he  that  hnth  seen  hath  borne  witness,  and  his  witness  is  true  : 
and  he  knoweth  that  he  saith  true,  that  ye  also  may  believe. 

a  2i24 

This   is  the   disciple  which   benreth  witness  of  these  things,  and 
wrote  these  things  :  and  we  know  that  his  witness  is  true. 


JOHN'S  GOSPEL  655 

The  passages  have  been  much  discussed  and  are  not  free  from  diffi- 
culty. But  there  seems  no  sufficient  reason  to  doubt  that  in  each  case 
the  author  is  speaking  of  himself,  claiming  for  his  record  the  authority 
and  veracity  of  an  eyewitness.  This  would  at  once  make  him  one  of 
those  '  which  have  companied  with  us  all  the  time  that  the  Lord  Jesus 
went  in  and  went  out  among  us,  beginning  from  the  baptism  of  John, 
unto  the  day  that  He  was  received  up  from  us,'  Ac  i'*^. 

But  there  is  further  guidance  in  the  context  of  the  last  (C)  of  the 
three  passages,  ^This  is  the  disciple.'  Which?  ' The  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved,  which  also  leaned  on  His  breast  at  the  supper '  (2120  :  of. 
1323-25  jg26  2q2  21?^^  Now  there  were  present  at  the  incidents  of  ch.  ai, 
Peter,  Thomas,  Nathanael,  the  sons  of  Zebedee,  and  '  two  other  of  His 
disciples '  (verse  2).  Among  these  it  is  natural  to  look  for  'the  beloved 
disciple '  in  that  triad  who  appear  in  the  Synoptics  as  admitted  to 
closest  intimacy  with  the  Lord,  Peter,  James,  and  John.  But  Peter  is 
excluded  by  the  narrative  itself,  while  James  suffered  martyrdom 
many  years  before  this  Gospel  could  have  been  written.  There  can 
hardly  remain  a  doubt  that  it  is  the  Apostle  John  who  in  the  passages 
cited  claims  to  be  the  author  of  the  fourth  Gospel  *. 

455.   John's  relationship  to  Jesus. —  The  main  facts 
recorded  of  John  in  the  Synoptic  Gospels  are  too  familiar  to 
need  more  than  a  passing  reference.     In  the  group  of  the 
three  women  at  the  cross  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  ^  the 
mother  of  the  sons  of  Zebedee '  (Mt  27^^)  is  identical  with 
*  Salome'  (Mk  15^°).     The  corresponding  passage  in  John 
(192^)  is  ambiguous  as  between  three  women  and  four  ;  if 
three,  the  sister  of  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesus  is  also  named 
Mary.     All  the  probabilities  are  in  favour  of  four  and  so  of 
identifying  *  His  mother's  sister '  with  Salome,  the  mother  ) 
of  the  sons  of  Zebedee.     Hence  John  was  cousin  to  Jesus,> 
and  it  was  to  the  keeping  of  one  who  was  kinsman  as  well } 
as  loved   disciple  that  He  committed  His  mother  (19*^^).  ^ 
Three  incidents  illustrate  that  side  of  the  Apostle's  character 
(due  perhaps  to  his  Galilean  origin)  which  earned  for  him 
and   his   brother   the   title    Boanerges    (Mk   3^"^).     See   Mt 
2o2o-24  =  Mk  io35-*i  Mk  938  =  Lu  9*9  Lu  9^*. 

*  How  far  the  argument  is  affected  if  ch.  21  be  regarded  as  an 
'Appendix  '  to  the  original  Gospel  is  considered  below,  §  460,  a. 


656  THE   GOSPELS 

456.  John  in  the  Apostolic  History. — In  Ac  3,  4. 
and  8  he  appears  as  companion  of  Peter.  If  we  assume 
his  authorship  of  the  Apocalypse,  he  there  speaks  of  him- 
self as  *  in  the  isle  that  is  called  Patmos,  for  the  word 
of  God  and  the  testimony  of  Jesus.'  Many  traditions 
connect  his  later  life  with  Ephesus.  '  Nothing  is  better 
attested  in  early  Church  history  than  the  residence  and 
work  of  St.  John  at  Ephesus.  But  the  dates  of  its  com- 
mencement and  of  its  close  are  alike  unknown.  It  began 
after  the  final  departure  of  St.  Paul,  and  it  lasted  till  about 
the  close  of  the  first  century.  This  may  be  affirmed  with 
confidence  *.' 

457.  Genuineness:  External  Testimony. — The  earliest 
reference  to  the  Gospel  hy  name  is  found  in  Theophilus  of 
Antioch  (c.  a.d.  180),  who  cites  i^  with  the  preface  *  John 
says.'  Irenaeus  without  hesitation  attributes  it  to  'John 
the  disciple  of  the  Lord  who  also  leaned  upon  His  breast,' 
and  afiirms  that  he  wrote  in  Ephesus,  where  he  remained 
till  the  times  of  Trajan  (a.d.  98-117)  b.  Similar  testimony 
is  given  by  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  later 
writers.  'In  the  last  quarter  of  the  second  centurj'-,  and 
subsequently,  if  we  except  the  shadowy  Alogi  c,  the  Gospel 
was  universally  and  without  hesitation  received  as  the  work 
of  the  Apostle  John,  who  composed  it  at  Ephesus  in  his  old 
age,  after  the  publication  of  the  other  Gospels.  This,  then, 
is  the  view  which,  following  a  well-established  rule  in 
literary  questions,  we  are  to  accept  unless  adequate  reason 
can  be  shown  for  not  doing  so  <^.' 

Nor  is  earlier  testimony  lacking.     Recent  investigations 

*  Westcott,  St.  John,  p.  xxxiv. 

•*  Adv,  Hcer.  iii.  i.  i  ;  3.  4  ;  ii.  22.  i.  For  the  peculiar  value  of 
this  testimony  of  Irenaeus,  who  had  known  Polycarp,  who  had 
known  John,  see  The  Early  Witness  to  the  Four  Gospels,  p.  57. 

*  See  below,  §  459. 

*  Drummond,  The  Character  and  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  p.  79. 


GENUINENESS   OF  JOHN'S   GOSPEL         657 

and  discoveries  prove  the  use  of  this  Gospel  by  Tatian, 
make  it  all  but  certain  that  it  was  known  to  Justin  Martyr, 
trace  citations  from  it  in  Valentinus  (c.  130)  and  in  Basi- 
lides  (c.  125)  as  quoted  by  Hippolytus,  and,  by  vindicating 
the  genuineness  of  the  Ignatian  Epistles  and  the  Epistle  of 
Polycarp,  carry  back  at  least  a  familiarity  with  Johannine 
ideas  and  phrases  to  the  beginning  of  the  second  century  ^. 

458.  Genuineness :  Internal  Evidence. — The  Gospel 
contains  numerous  indications,  often  delicate  and  unobtru- 
sive, of  the  nationality,  date,  and  position  of  its  author. 
The  facts  are  for  the  most  part  incontrovertible  :  they  yield 
an  argument  in  '  narrowing  circles,'  a  description  of  thei 
writer  growin'g  in  definiteness  until  it  becomes  difficult  to 
doubt  his  identity  with  the  Apostle  John. 

The  Argument  in  Detail. — The  argument  has  often  been 
elaborated  \  and  can  here  be  given  in  briefest  outline  only  : 
for  details  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  named. 
The  author  was — 
1^    I.  A  Jew:  he  is  perfectly  familiar  with  Jewish  opinions 
(especially  the  Messianic  expectation,  ch.  i-^  4^^  514.15  ^  J2I3.34 
j^i5.2i^  and  with  Jewish  usages  and  obseiwances. 
2  )     2.   Aramaic-speaJcing :    the   style    is    Hebraistic,    the   Old 
Testament  quotations  show  acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew 
as  well  as  with  the  LXX. 
3"^   3.  Of  Palestine :  he  shows  minute  knowledge  of  the  topo- 
graphy of  Palestine   and    of  Jerusalem    (already  in   ruins 
when  the  Gospel  was  written). 

*  For  recent  (1903)  discussions  of  the  pre-Irenaean  testimony 
favourable  to  the  Johannine  authorship,  see  Drummond,  op.  cit.,  pp. 
84-351  ;  also  Dr.  V.  H.  Stanton,  The  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents,  parti. 
An  adverse  conclusion  is  reached  by  the  Abbe  Loisy,  Le  Quatrieme 
Evangile. 

*»  Sanday,  The  Fourth  Gospel,  ch.  xix ;  Westcott,  St.  John  (Speaker's 
Commentary),  pp.  v-xxv  ;  Drummond,  op.  cit..,  pp.  352-85. 

U  U 


668  THE  GOSPELS 

4.  An  eyewitness :  time,  persons,  and  places  are  constantly 
specified,  while  the  graphic  character  of  the  narrative  shows 
either  *  the  skill  of  a  consummate  artist  or  the  recollection 
of  an  observer '  (Westcott). 
^ )  5.  An  Apostle :  he  is  an  eyewitness  closely  intimate  with 
the  thoughts  and  doings  of  the  Apostles  and  of  the  Lord. 

At  this  point  the  argument  meets  that  from  the  direct 
evidence  which  the  Gospel  contains  of  its  authorship  (see 
above),  and  the  conclusion  is  confirmed. 

459.  Objections  and  DifiS.culties  considered. — There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  positive  argument  just  outlined  has  to  contend  against  certain 
difficulties  :  but  in  estimating  these,  its  combined  strength  of  ex- 
ternal testimony  and  internal  evidence  must  not  be  forgotten. 
Again,  a  mere  indication  of  some  main  difficulties  and  some  suggestion 
towards  removal  must  suffice. 

1.  The  external  testimony  is  unbroken  save  by  '  a  few  insignificant 
objectors'  (Drummond,  p.  67).  Certain  obscure  heretics  referred  to 
by  IrenaBus  (Adv.  Hcer.  iii.  11)  rejected  the  Gospel ;  these  are  generally 
identified  by  those  later  described  by  Epiphanius  {Hcer.  li)  as  the 
*  Alogi '  (aXoyoi),  apparently  a  punning  nickname  (the  word  means 
'rejecting  the  Logos'  and  also  'void  of  reason').  Nor  is  greater 
weight  to  be  attached  to  the  non-recognition  of  the  Gospel  by  Marcion. 
The  argument  that  if  Marcion  had  known  John's  Gospel  he  would 
have  made  it  the  basis  of  his  system  cannot  be  sustained.  There  is 
strong  initial  presumption  that  one  who  was  '  more  Pauline  than 
Paul  himself  would  choose  the  Pauline  Gospel ;  the  fourth  Gospel  is 
not  anti-Judaic  in  the  Marcionite  sense — '  It  swarms  with  recognition 
of  the  identity  of  the  God  of  the  Jews  with  the  Father  of  our  Lord, 
and  of  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testament  writers  as  testifying  to 
Him*';  and,  as  compared  with  the  Synoptics,  it  possesses  special 
characteristics,  so  strongly  marked  that  it  could  hardly  have  been 
taken  as  a  typical  setting  forth  of  the  Gospel  of  Christ  ^. 

2.  But  these  special  charncteristics  are  themselves  a  stumbling- 
block.  It  is  asked  with  Kome  show  of  reason,  *  Can  the  Christ  of  the 
fourth  Gospel  and  the  Christ  of  the  Synoptics  both  be  historical 
portraits  ? '     A  threefold  contrast  has  already  been  referred  to  *=,  and 

*  Salmon,  Introduction  to  the  Keio  Testament,  p.  247. 

**  Westcott,  The  Canon  of  the  New  Testament,  p.  316,  note. 

•  See  pp.  628,  632. 


DIFFICULTIES   IN   JOHN'S   GOSPEL         659 

further  details  are  given  below.  There  must  be  added  the  notable 
difference  in  the  historical  framework.  The  Synoptists  mention  only- 
one  visit  to  Jerusalem  and  one  Passover  :  their  narrative  suggests, 
though  it  nowhere  asserts,  that  the  public  ministry  of  our  Lord  falls 
within  the  compass  of  a  single  year.  John  names  three  Passovers 
(2^3  6*  11^^ :  probably  not  5^),  and  several  visits  to  Jerusalem,  in- 
volving a  ministry  of  at  least  a  full  two  years.  One  more  point  of 
difference  is  in  the  revelation  and  recognition  of  the  Messiahship  of 
Jesus :  in  the  Synoptists  gradual  and  reluctant,  in  John  clear  from  the 
first  (i29-4i.49  ^26)^  Here,  undoubtedly,  is  a  problem  to  which  our  sense 
of  the  supreme  spiritual  worth  of  the  book,  and  our  conviction  that  it 
is  the  true  record  of  one  with  most  intimate  knowledge  of  the  Master, 
cannot  make  us  blind,  not  even  though  this  inner  witness  be  supported 
by  the  wealth  of  external  testimony  already  noted.  But  a  fuller  con- 
sideration of  the  facts  as  well  as  of  the  circumstances  under  which 
the  fourth  Gospel  was  admittedly  written  goes  far  towards  a  solution. 

(a)  The  facts.— The  chronology  of  the  Gospels  is  difficult  and  un- 
certain. But  Mr.  C.  H.  Turner  *  shows  that  Mark  at  least  of  the 
Synoptists  gives  indications  of  a  two  years'  ministry.  Moreover,  in 
the  fragmentary  records  of  the  first  three  Gospels  there  is  ample 
room  for  the  additional  matter  of  the  fourth  (cf.  Jn  ao^o  ai^^)  .  while 
in  the  lament  over  Jerusalem  (Mt  23"  Lu  133*35-)  there  is  clear 
suggestion  of  a  previous  ministry  there,  just  as  the  woes  upon 
Chorazin  and  Bethsaida  (Mt  ii^i  Lu  10^^)  are  the  only  notices  of 
'mighty  works'  done  in  those  cities  of  Galilee ^  Nor  must  the 
coincidences  of  John  with  the  Synoptists  be  forgotten.  Where  his 
narrative  runs  parallel  with  theirs  (the  baptism  of  John,  the  5,000 
fed,  the  walking  on  the  sea,  the  last  week)  he  assumes  their  account, 
confirms  it,  supplements  it,  here  and  there  corrects  it  (e.g.  the  time 
of  the  Anointing  at  Bethany  and  of  the  Last  Supper). 

But  where  the  narratives  stand  apart  the  agreements  are  no  less 
striking.  The  Synoptic  title  of  our  Lord,  '  Son  of  man,'  used  only  by 
Himself,  appears  with  the  same  restriction  in  John :  the  characteriza- 
tion of  Peter,  of  Judas,  of  Mary  and  Martha  is  evidently,  like  that  of 
the  earlier  Gospels,  a  study  from  life. 

*  Art.  '  Chronology  of  the  New  Testament,'  Hastings'  Bible  Did. 
vol.  i. 

^  A  well-attested  reading  in  Lu  4**,  '  in  the 'synagogues  of  Judaea,'  is 
by  some  regarded  as  a  unique  reference  in  the  Synoptics  to  a  ministry 
in  Jerusalem.  Luke's  use  of  the  word  *  Judaea,*  however,  seems  not 
exclusive  of  Galilee,  and  the  inference  is  uncertain. 

U  U  2 


660  THil  GOSPELS 

(b)  The  place  and  purpose  of  the  writer. — It  has  already  beei) 
pointed  out  that  John  is  not  simply  writing  a  life  of  Christ,  he  is 
interpreting  His  Person  and  mission  :  his  theme  is  outlined  in  the 
great  Prologue  (i^~^^),  his  motive  is  summed  up  in  his  final  word  (20^^). 
It  is  this  purpose  which  determines  his  selection  of  deed  and  word 
and  the  grouping  of  his  chosen  scenes.  He  looks  back  upon  the  events 
he  records  through  many  years  of  meditation  and  experience.  If 
John's  own  manner  is  discernible  in  his  version  of  our  Lord's  discourses, 
this  cannot  affect  its  substantial  accuracy.  Not  only  does  his  own 
repeated  claim  to  truthfulness  forbid  :  to  suppose  otherwise  and  to 
attribute  to  his  own  imagination  these  sublime  utterances  would  be 
indeed  to  place  *  the  disciple  above  his  Lord ' ! 

(c)  The  relation  of  the  fourth  Gospel  to  the  Apocalypse  forms 
a  separate  problem.  A  comparison  of  the  Greek  of  the  two  works 
makes  it  practically  certain  that  if  both  are  from  the  same  hand  the 
Apocalypse  is  the  earlier.  But  the  question  rather  belongs  to  the 
Introduction  to  that  book.  It  may  suffice  here  to  quote  the  judgement 
of  Bishop  Westcott : — '  The  Apocalypse  is  doctrinally  the  connecting 
link  between  the  Synoptists  and  the  fourth  Gospel.  It  offers  the 
characteristic  thoughts  of  the  fourth  Gospel  in  that  form  of  develop- 
ment which  belongs  to  the  earliest  apostolic  age.  It  belongs  to 
different  historical  circumstances,  to  a  different  phase  of  intellectual 
progress,  to  a  different  theological  stage,  from  that  of  St.  John's 
Gospel  ;  and  yet  it  is  not  only  harmonious  with  it  in  teaching,  but  in 
the  order  of  thought  it  is  the  necessary  germ  out  of  which  the  Gospel 
proceeded  by  a  process  of  life*.' 

460.  Integrity  of  the  Gospel. — Two  passages  call  for 
remark. 

I.  The  woman  taken  in  adultery,  '^^^~8^'^.  The  external  evidence  against 
this  section  is  overwhelming,  and  leads  decisively  to  the  judgement 
that  it  is  no  part  of  John's  Gospel,  a  judgement  confirmed  by  marked 
differences  of  style.  On  the  other  hand,  *  it  is  beyond  doubt  an 
authentic  fragment  of  apostolic  tradition  ^'  The  only  early  MS.  con- 
taining it  is  Codex  Bezae  (D),  a  MS.  whose  Western  additions  to  the 
standard  text  are  being  treated  with  growing  respect  as  preserving 
authentic  matter.  Blass,  on  grounds  of  style,  deems  the  passage 
Lucan,  and  attributes  it  to  Luke's  own  second  edition  of  his  Gospel*. 

^  St.  John,  Introd.,  p.  Ixxxiv  :  see  the  whole  section. 

^  Westcott,  op.  cit,  p.  125. 

•  Blass,  Philology  of  the  Gospels,  pp.  161-4. 


INTEGRITY   OF  JOHN'S   GOSPEL  661 

a.  The  Appendix,  ch.  21.  The  chax)ter  is  evidently  an  afterthought, 
for  the  Gospel  reaches  its  appropriate  and  solemn  close  at  20'^.  Yet 
the  unanimous  external  attestation  and  the  evidence  of  style  make  it 
certain  that  this  section,  at  any  rate  to  verse  23,  is  part  of  the  original 
Gospel.  Possibly  the  saying  of  Jesus  about  John  (verse  23)  had  be- 
come current  and  had  been  misinterpreted.  John  corrects  the  mis- 
taken impression  by  explaining  the  saying  in  the  context  vv^hich  led 
to  it.  It  is  more  doubtful  whether  the  last  two  verses  are  to  be 
attributed  to  the  Apostle.  The  form  of  witness  in  verse  24  differs 
from  that  in  19^^ :  on  this  ground  Westcott  inclines  to  assign  the 
verses  to  the  Ephesian  elders.  But  they  may  possibly  be  John's 
repeated  conclusion  (cf.  20'°-^^)  after  the  resumed  narrative  of  the 
appendix. 

461.  Its  Date. — For  reasons  already  suggested,  the  book 
must  be  assigned  to  John's  old  age,  perhaps  to  the  last 
decade  of  the  first  century.  There  are  no  data  for  a  more 
precise  determination. 

462.   Summary  of  contents*. 

ji-18  rphg  Prologue,  setting  forth  the  doctrine  of  the  Divine  and 
human  nature  in  Christ,  that  the  Word  was  in  the  begin- 
ning God,  with  God,  was  made  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us. 

A.  i}^-i2  Christ's  revelation  of  Himself  to  the  world. 

J 19-51  By  the  testimony  of  the  Baptist  and  the  first  disciples. 

2^-4^*  By  the  testimony  of  signs  and  works  among  Jews, 
Samaritans,  and  Galileans. 

5^-12  The  conflict  between  Christ  and  the  Jews,  in  which 
He  shows  Himself  to  be— the  Soui'ce  and  Sustainer 
of  Life,  5!-*^  6i-'^i ;  the  Source  of  Truth,  7-8"  ; 
the  Light  of  the  World,  8^2_g" ;  the  Shepherd  of 
the  Flock  of  God,  10I-21  j  One  with  the  Father, 
io22-42  .  tije  Antagonist  and  Vanquisher  of  Death, 
jji-57^     (Closing  scenes  of  the  Public  Ministry,  12.) 

B.  13-17  Christ's  revelation  of  Himself  to  the  disciples. 

The  Valedictory  Discourses,  i3'^-i6''. 
The  Intercessory  Prayer,  17^"*^. 

C.  18-21    The  glorification  of  Christ  in  His  Passion  and  Resurrection  • 

laying  down  His  life  ;  taking  it  again. 

*  Mainly  based  on  that  of  Dr.  H.  R.  Reynolds  in  an  exhaustive 
analysis  of  the  Gospel  in  his  Introduction  and  Commentary,  in  the 
'  Pulpit  Commentary '  Series. 


662  THE   GOSPELS 

46S.   Details  peculiar  to  this  Gospel. 

('  I.  Miracles. — Of  eight  miracles  here  recorded,  five  are  peculiar  to 
this  Gospel :  the  water  turned  into  wine  (2^"^"^)  ;  the  nobleman's  son 
healed  (4*6-6'*) ;  the  paralytic  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda  (5^""^^)  ;  the 
blind  man  at  the  pool  of  Siloam  (9^"'^) ;  the  raising  of  Lazarus  (11); 
the  miraculous  draught  of  fishes  {^i}-~'^'^).  These  miracles  are  described 
as  manifestations  of  *  His  glory,'  and  four  of  them  are  made  the 
subject  of  discourses  in  which  their  lessons  are  enforced. 
'  2.  The  prominence  given  in  this  Gospel  to  the  Discourses  of  Jesus 
and  certain  conversations  is  especially  noteworthy.  John  relates  none 
/  of  the  parables  recorded  by  the  Synoptists,  but  gives  us  the  dialogues 
^  with  Nicodemus  (3^""^^)  and  the  Samaritan  woman  (4*""^^);  the  discourse 
/  after  the  healing  at  Bethesda  (5^'^"*''),  and  the  allegorical  addresses 
on  'the  Bread  of  Life'  (6^^^-)  ;  'the  Light  of  the  World'  (Si^ff-)  ; 
*  the  Door'  and  *  the  Good  Shepherd  of  the  Sheep '  (10^^)  ;  *  the  Way, 
the  Truth,  and  the  Life '  (14^"^^)  ;  *  the  true  Vine '  (15) ;  the  mission 
of  the  Comforter  (16).  Different  in  style  as  these  discourses  are  from 
those  in  the  Synoptics,  there  are  many  remarkable  correspondences  of 
doctrinal  teaching  to  be  found,  sufficient  to  prove  that  there  is  no  new 
development  of  doctrine,  only  a  fuller  expanding  of  truths  presented 
by  the  Synoptists  in  a  more  concrete  form.  *  The  Synoptical  Gospels 
contain  the  gospel  of  the  infant  Church,  that  of  St.  John  the  gospel 
in  its  maturity.  The  first  combine  to  give  the  wide  experience  of  the 
many,  the  last  contains  the  deep  mysteries  treasured  up  by  the  one ' 
(Westcott). 

,      3.  Key-words:    Characteristic  Words  and  Phrases. — The  follow- 
j  ing  are  eminently  characteristic  of  this  Gospel,  and  are  given  with  the 
/  approximate  number  of  their  occurrence,  dependent  in  some  instances 
V  upon  the  text  followed  : — light  ((pais)  *,  eighteen  times  ;  glory  and  the 
corresponding  verb  to  be  glorified,  forty  times  ;  life{C^)  ^^^  ^^  '**'«>  fifty- 
two  times  ;  testimony,  to  testify,  seventy-nine  times ;  to  know,  fifty-five 
times  ;  world  {icoonos),  seventy-nine  times  ;  to  believe  {maTfvdv),  ninety- 
eight  times,  especially  with  the  preposition  of  motion  ds,  into  ;  work 
(€P7oj/),  twenty-seven  times;  natne  and  truth,  each  twenty-five  times; 
sign,  seventeen  times  ;  comforter  (TiapaK\T]Tos),  four  times;  to  judge  and 
judgement,  twenty-nine  times.    These  are  key-words.    John  alone  gives 
us  the  solemnly  repeated  Verily,  verily  {dfxrjv,  afirjv),  occurring  twenty- 

'  In  one  place  (5"*)  the  A.  V.  has  *  light '  for  another  word,  signifying 
'light-bearer'  or  'lamp,'  as  R.V.  Christ  was  the  Light,  His  forerunner 
but  the  medium  of  the  revelation. 


GENUINENESS   OF   THE   FOUETH   GOSPEL     663 

five  times.  The  remarkable  self-assertion  shown  in  such  phrases  as 
'  I  am  the  Bread  of  Life,'  '  I  am  the  Good  Shepherd,'  'I  am  the  Way, 
and  the  Truth,  and  the  Life,'  '  I  am  the  true  Vine,'  culminates  in  the 
thrice  repeated  I  am  {k-^oj  d/^i)  of  S^^-^s-ss^ 

N.B.— On  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  fourth  Gospel, 
the  following  maintain  the  views  here  advocated,  while  for  the  most 
part  fairly  stating  the  opposite  opinion  : — 

Sanday,  Dr.  W.,  The  Authorship  and  Historical  Character  0/  the  Fourth 
Gospel,  1873.     Devoted  mainly  to  the  internal  evidence. 

Luthardt,  C.  E.,  St.  John  the  Author  of  the  Fourth  Gospel,  translated  by 
C.  R.  Gregory,  Leipzig  ;  with  a  long  list  of  books  and  articles  on  the 
subject,  up  to  date,  1875. 

Lightfoot,  Bishop,  Biblical  Essays  (posthumous,  1893),  containing 
Papers  on  the  External  and  the  Internal  Evidence  :  complete  and 
conclusive. 

Godet,  F.,  Commentaire  de  VEvangile  de  S.  Jean.  Paris,  1864  (translated 
in  Clark's  Library). 

Westcott,  Bisliop,  Introduction  to  Commentary  on  St.  John''s  Gospel 
(Speaker's  Commentary),  1880  ;  also  published  separately. 

Reynolds,  Dr.  H.  R.,  Introduction  to  Exposition  in  Dean  Spence's 
'Pulpit  Commentary.' 

Watkins,  Archdeacon,  Bampton  Lectures,  and  article  in  Smith's  Bible 
Dictionary,  second  edition. 

Abbot,  Dr.  Ezra,  The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel:  External  Evidences. 
Boston,  U.S.,  1880. 

Stanton,  Prof.  V.  H.,  D.D.,  TJie  Gospels  as  Historical  Documents,  1903. 

Drummond,  Prof.  James,  LL.D.,  from  the  rationalistic  side  con- 
tributes an  argument  of  signal  candour  and  cogency  in  support  of  the 
Johannine  authorship  ;  The  Fourth  Gospel,  1904. 

For  the  opposite  view,  see  especially  the  learned  and  temperately 
written  treatise  by  the  late  Principal  J.  J.  Tayler,  of  the  Manchester 
New  College,  On  the  Character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel ;  effectively  criticized 
by  R.  H.  Hutton  in  his  Theological  Essays  roprinted  from  the  Spectator, 
1867. 


664 


THE   GOSPELS 


I 


464.  Parables  of  our  Lord  in  the  several  Gospels. 

[For  Classification  according  to  Subject,  see  §  141,  p.  229.] 


Related  in  Three  Gospels  (Synoptics). 
The  Sower 
The  Mustard-seed 
The  Wicked  Vine-dressers 

Related  in  Two  Gospels  only. 
The  Leaven 
The  Lost  Sheep 

Related  in  One  Gospel  only. 
The  Tares 

The  Hidden  Treasure 
The  Pearl  of  Great  Price 
The  Draw-net 
The  Unforgiving  Servant  • 
The  Labourers  in  the  Vineyard 
The  Two  Sons 
The  Marriage  of  the  King's  Son  ^ 

(The  Wedding  Garment) 
The  Ten  Virgins 
The  Ten  Talents 
The  Seed  growing  secretly 
The  Householder  and  his  Servants 
The  Two  Debtors 
The  Good  Samaritan 
The  Friend  at  Midnight 
The  Rich  Fool 

The  Stewards  and  their  Absent  Master 
The  Barren  Fig-tree 
The  Great  Supper  « 
The  Lost  Piece  of  Silver 
The  Prodigal  Son 
The  Dishonest  Steward 
The  Rich  Man  and  Lazarus 
The  Unprofitable  Servant 
The  Judge  and  the  Importunate  Widow 
The  Pharisee  and  Publican 
The  Pounds  ^ 


Mt 


1812-14 


JO  24— 30 

13^ 

JO  47-50 

J823-35 


Mk 

,3-20 


,45.4(5 


20 


1-16 
r  28-32 


=5^ 


J30 


Lu 

84-15 
J318.1S 


7     ~ 
10^^'' 


jl6-21 

41-48 

9 

-24 

10 

11-33 


12 
13 
14 
15 
15 

J61.J-31 
J  ^7-10 
1 81-8 

1 89-1* 

I912-27 


•  Neander  finds  part  of  this  parable,  at  least,  in  Lu  7**. 

**  Some  expositors  regard  this  parable  as  identical  with  that  in 
Lu  14^^24^  -poY  reasons  to  the  contrary,  see  Trench,  Notes  on  the  Parables, 
xii,  xxi. 

<*  See  note  above  on  Mt  22^-1^. 

^  On  this  parable  compared  with  that  of  the  Talents,  Mt  25,  see 
Trench,  op.  cit.,  p.  258, 


THE   MIRACLES 


665 


465.  Miracles  of  Christ  in  the  several  Gospels. 


Recorded  in  the  Four  Gospels. 
Feeding  the  Five  Thou- 
sand 

In  Three  of  the  Gospels. 
Stilling  the  Tempest 
The  Demons  in  the  Swine 
Raising  the  Daughter  of 

Jairus 
Healing  theWoman  with 

Issue  of  Blood 
Healing  the  Paralytic  at 

Capernaum 
Healing     the    Leper    at 

Gennesaret 
Healing  Peter's  Mother- 
in-law 
Restoring     a    Withered 

Hand 
Healing  a  Lunatic  Child 
Walking  on  the  Sea 
Healing  Blind  Bartimaeus 

and       another       near 

Jericho 

In  Two  Gospels. 

Healing  the  Syrophoeni- 
cian  Damsel 

Feeding  the  Four  Thou- 
sand 

Withering  the  Fig-tree 

Healing  the  Centurion's 
Servant 

Demoniac  in  synagogue 
cured 

Healing  a  Blind  and 
Dumb  Demoniac 

In  One  Gospel  only. 
Two  Blind  Men  healed 
A  Dumb  Demoniac  healed 
The  Stater  in  the  Fish's 

Mouth 
Healing  a  Deaf  Mute 
Healing  a  Blind  Man  at 

Bethsaida 
Miraculous    Draught    of 

Fishes 
Raising  the  Widow's  Son 

at  Xiain 


Mt 
14I5-21 

823-27 
82»-34 
gl8.19.33— 26 

91-8 

81-4 

8U-17 


17' 


jeS2-39 

21I7-22 
85-13 


Mk 

635-44 


645-52 
T„46-52 


81-9 


822-26 


Lu 

a  2-17 


822-25 
826-39 
841.42.49-66 

843-48 


.38.39 
66-11 
^37-42 
1835-43 


Jn 

65-14 


619-ai 


666 


THE   GOSPELS 


In  One  Gospel  only. 
Healing  the  Woman  with 

an  Infirmity 
Healing  a  Dropsical  Man 
Cleansing  of  Ten  Lepers 
Healing  the  Ear  of  Mal- 

chus 
Turning  Water  into  Wine 
Healing     a    Nobleman's 

Son  at  Cana 
Healing    the     Impotent 

Man  at  Bethesda 
Opening  the  Eyes  of  one 

born  Blind 
Kaising  of  Lazarus 
Miraculous    Draught    of 

Fishes  (second) 


Mt 


Mk 


Lu 

10-17 


Jn 


13 


14^-" 

1^11-19 


CHAPTER   XIX 
THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 

466.  Title  and  Plan.— The  title  of  the  book  in  the 
oldest  MSS.  is  simply  'Acts'  {irfjaieis,  N)  or  'Acts  of 
Apostles'  (B).  The  indefiniteness  well  fits  the  selective 
character  of  the  contents'!  Only  the  Apostles  Peter  and 
Paul  are  at  all  prominent :  the  history  of  Peter  ends  with 
ch.  12,  and  Paul  becomes  the  one  centre  of  interest.  Yet 
the  greater  part  of  the  perils  of  which  the  Apostle  writes 
in  2  Cor  h^i-^t  ^j^^  unnoticed  in  Acts".  There  is  evident 
that  choice  of  material  that  marks  purpose — a  history  rather 
than  a  chronicle  ;  while  the  treatment  suggests  that  informa- 
tion was  here  fuller,  there  more  scanty. 

The  opening  words  link  on  the  narrative  of  the  Acts  to 
that  of  the  Gospel.  Whether  the  expression  '  all  that  Jesus 
tegan  to  do  and  to  teach '  is  intended  to  suggest  that  the 
writer  is  going  to  record  the  contimiance  of  His  work  through 
the  Apostles,  is  uncertain.  Possibly  the  phrase  means 
simply  '  did  at  the  first,'  the  contrast  being  not  between  the 
first  and  second  stages  of  one  work,  but  between  the  work 
of  Jesus  and  that  of  the  'Apostles  whom  He  had  chosen.' 
This,  however,  is  unimportant,  for,  in  fact,  the  whole  book 
records  the  ministry  of  the  Holy  Spii'it,  His  impulse  and 
guidance  (the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Spirit,  the  Spirit  of  the  Lord, 
the  Spirit  of  Jesus,  being  mentioned  some  sixty  times).  Its 
theme  is  set  forth  in  i^  'But  ye  shall  receive  power,  when 

*  The  three  shipwrecks  of  2  Cor  n'^^  were  of  course  be/ore  that  of 
Ac  a^. 


668  THE   ACTS   OF   THE   APOSTLES 

the  Holy  Ghost  is  come  upon  you:  and  ye  shall  be  My 
witnesses  both  in  Jerusalem,  and  in  all  Judasa  and  Samaria, 
and  unto  the  uttermost  part  of  the  earth.' 

The  plan,  thus  informally  indicated,  is  easily  recognized 
in  the  structure  of  the  book.  The  miracle  of  Pentecost 
is  followed  by  the  witness  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  growth 
of  the  Church  in  the  three  stages,  Jerusalem  (chs.  2-7), 
Judaea,  and  Samaria  (chs.  8-12),  'unto  the  uttermost  part 
of  the  earth'  (chs.  13-28).  The  outward  progress  of  the 
Church  is  accompanied  by  inward  growth,  especially  in  its 
gradual  emancipation  from  Judaism  ;  the  third  stage  is 
ahnost  wholly  identified  with  the  labours  of  Paul.  It  has 
sometimes  been  argued  from  the  abrupt  close  that  the 
writer  contemplated  a  third  work.  This  is,  however, 
doubtful.  In  Paul's  preaching  in  Kome,  the  centre  of  the 
Empire,  the  diffusion  of  the  gospel  to  the  '  uttermost  part 
of  the  earth '  is  at  least  potentially  accomplished :  Paiilus 
EomcE  apex  evangelii  *. 

467.  Author. — External  testimony  from  Irenseus  down- 
wards is  unanimous  in  attributing  both  Acts  and  the  third 
Gospel  to  Luke.  The  known  facts  about  Luke  and  the 
internal  evidence  of  authorship  are  given  in  the  Introduc- 
tion to  his  Gospel.  It  is  universally  admitted  that  in  the 
*  travel-document,'  first  appearing  in  the  we  of  16^^,  we 
have  the  contemporary  record  of  a  companion  of  Paul. 
Even  for  this  other  names  have  been  suggested,  apparently 
on  no  other  ground  than  that  it  is  a  *  disadvantage  to  an 
hypothesis  that  it  should  have  some  amount  of  historical 
attestation.'  But  Silas  and  Timothy  are  really  excluded 
by  the  phraseology  of  the  '  tt-'e-sections '  (cf.  i6^^-^^  20^-^), 
and  if  the  name  of  Titus  is  rendered  possible  by  the  absence 
of  any  mention  of  him  in  Acts,  there  is  nothing  to  give 
him  preference  over  the  positive  tradition  in  favour  of 
Luke.  So  little  is  known  of  Luke  that  it  is  difficult  to  find 
*  *  Paul  in  Rome  is  the  climax  of  the  gospel.' 


AUTHOR  OF  THE  ACTS  669 

internal  confirmation  of  the  tradition.     One  such,  however, 


may  be  noted.  Paul  speaks  of  Luke  as  '  the  beloved 
physician,'  Col  4I*.  In  1882,  the  Rev.  W.  K.  Hobart, 
LL.D.  of  Dublin,  published  a  work  entitled  Tlie  Medical 
Language  of  St.  Luke,  an  attempt  to  show  that  both  the 
third  Gospel  and  the  Acts  '  are  the  works  of  a  person  well 
acquainted  with  the  language  of  the  Greek  Medical  Schools ' 
(p.  xxix).  Of  this  work  Dr.  Chase  writes  (1902) :  'When  all 
deductions  have  been  made,  there  remains  a  body  of  evi- 
dence that  the  author  of  the  Acts  naturally  and  inevitably 
slipped  into  the  use  of  medical  phraseology,  which  seems  to 
me  irresistible*.'  He  adds  that  Dr.  Hobart's  argument 
has  remained  unnoticed  by  assailants  of  the  traditional 
view. 

A  question. — But  granting  that  the  *  travel-document '  is  from  the 
pen  of  an  actual  companion  of  Paul,  and  that  Luke  has  the  best  claim 
to  its  authorship,  does  this  certify  the  whole  "book  as  his?  It  is  of 
course  possible  to  regard  the  '  u-e-sections  '  as  a  genuine  document 
imbedded  by  a  later  compiler  in  his  own  work,  and  thus  to  refuse  to 
the  rest  of  the  Acts  the  historical  credit  which  undoubtedly  attaches 
to  this  portion.  But  such  a  theory  labours  under  insuperable  difficul- 
ties. It  is  admitted  by  criticism  adverse  to  the  Lucan  authorshij 
that  '  the  writer  of  the  book  was  not  a  mere  compiler  but  an  author. 
If  he  used  materials,  he  did  not  put  them  together  so  loosely  as  to 
leave  their  language  and  style  in  the  state  he  got  them,  but  wrought 
up  the  component  parts  into  a  work  having  its  own  characteristics ''.' 
So  marked  a  feature  of  the  book  is  this  unity,  that  even  Prof.  Schmiedel 
writes  of  the  many  attempts  to  partition  it  among  several  *  sources ' : 
'  No  satisfactory  conclusion  has  as  yet  been  reached  along  these  lines  ".' 
The  argument  for  a  single  authorship  is  indeed  unassailable  :  it  rests 
upon  (i)  unity  of  plan  and  treatment,  (2)  linguistic  characteristics — 
vocabulary  and  style — pervading  the  whole  book,  (3)  cross-references  "i. 
How  then  did  it  come  to  pass  that  this  skilful  and  capable  author  of 
a  sulisequent  age,  here  and  there,  by  his  use  of  we,  represents  himself 

*   The  Credibility  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  p.  13. 

^  Dr.  Samuel  Davidson,  Introduction  to  the  Neio  Testament,  vol.  ii.  p.  150. 

«5  Encyc.  Bib.  vol.  i.  p.  45. 

"*  The  details  are  well  given  by  Dr.  S.  Davidson,  op.  cit.  pp.  144-52. 


670  THE  ACTS  OF  THE   APOSTLES 

as  sharing  in  the  events  he  chronicles  ?  If  of  set  pui-pose,  '  to  recom- 
mend his  production  by  setting  it  forth  in  the  name  of  one  who  was 
known  to  be  an  associate  of  the  Apostle  %'  we  are  left  wondering  at 
the  unobtrusive  modesty  with  which  he  makes  his  fraudulent  claim. 
Others  ascribe  it  to  carelessness.  The  author  is  here  using  a  document 
in  the  first  person,  and  sets  down  the  we  just  when  it  happens  to  occur 
in  his  source.  But  the  literary  qualities  which  these  same  critics 
admire  in  the  book  exclude  the  possibility  of  such  clumsy  patchwork. 
The  only  reasonable  explanation  is  the  remaining  alternative,  that  at 
Troas  the  author  did  join  Paul,  accompanied  him  to  Philippi,  remained 
there  till  the  Apostle  returned,  and  was  with  him  thenceforth  till  he 
reached  Eome.  So  far  as  the  evidence  goes,  we  are  on  safe  ground 
in  ascribing  both  Acts  and  the  third  Gospel  to  a  companion  of 
Paul's  travels,  and  in  identifying  him  with  '  Luke  the  beloved 
physician.' 

468.  Sources. — The  Uravel-document '  thus  appears  as 
Luke's  own  notes,  supplemented  by  memory  and  research. 
For  the  rest  we  may  suppose  that  Luke  would  follow  the 
method  suggested  in  Lu  i^"*.  With  Paul  he  would  have 
leisurely  intercourse  at  Ca3sarea,  Melita,  and  Rome,  where, 
it  may  well  be,  he  subsequently  met  with  Peter.  At  any 
rate,  3farJc  Hhe  interpreter  of  Peter'  was  with  him  in 
Rome  (Col  4^^  Philem  ^^),  and  could  no  doubt  supply 
information  about  those  early  events  in  Jerusalem  of  which 
his  mother's  house  was  a  centre.  At  Csesarea  Luke  stayed 
with  Philip  the  evangelist  (21^),  and  in  Jerusalem  met  James 
and  the  elders  (21 1^).  It  is  entirely  probable  that  the 
interval  of  two  years  between  the  arrest  and  the  departure 
for  Rome  were  used  by  Luke  in  collecting  authentic 
material  for  a  work  already  projected.  'There  is  no  part 
of  the  history  contained  in  the  Acts  with  a  primary 
authority  for  which,  if  we  accept  the  natural  interpretation 
of  the  passages  where  the  first  person  plural  is  used,  we 
have  not  good  grounds  for  saying  that  the  writer  had 
opportunities  for  personal  communication^'.' 

*  Dr.  Davidson,  p.  156.  •*  Chase,  Ciedibility,  p.  2a. 


SOURCES   OF  THE  ACTS  671 

469.  Date. — The  closing  words  (28^^'^-^^)  bring  the  history 
down  to  the  year  62.  It  has  been  argued  that  the  some- 
what  abrupt  ending  indicates  the  limitation  of  the  writer's 
Jcnowledge,  and  so  that  the  book  was  written  about  63. 
But  the  ending  may  be  regarded  as  the  natural  and  fitting 
*jlose  to  the  work  outlined  in  i^.  Prof.  Ramsay  lays  stress 
on  the  phrase  in  i^,  '  the  first  treatise  '  (Trpcoroi/,  not  former, 
TTporepov),  as  pointing  to  yet  a  third  work,  contemplated, 
but  never  accomplished.  If  either  of  these  positions  be 
accepted,  the  suggested  indication  of  date  fails.  Moreover, 
it  is  hardly  probable  that  Luke's  Gospel  was  written  before 
70,  and  the  Acts  is  later.  This  and  other  slight  indications, 
external  and  internal,  lead  to  about  a.  d.  80  as  perhaps  the 
most  probable  date  that  can  be  assigned. 

470.  Historical  Value. — The  general  impression  that 
the  book  gives,  of  the  truthful  narrative  of  a  careful 
historian,  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  confirmed  at  many 
points.  So  long  ago  as  1790,  Paley  in  his  HorcB  FaulincB 
traced  the  '  undesigned  coincidences '  between  Acts  and  the 
Pauline  Epistles  in  an  argument  which  has  by  no  means 
lost  its  value.  The  details  of  ch.  27  have  been  vindicated 
in  the  monograph  of  James  Smith  of  Jordanhill,  Tlie 
Voyage  and  Shiptcrech  of  St.  Paul  (1848),  still  a  standard 
authority.  In  recent  years  brilliant  work  has  been  done 
on  the  Acts  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay  of  Aberdeen,  especially 
in  his  books  Tlie  Church  in  the  Boman  Empire  (1893),  and 
St  Paul  the  Traveller  and  the  Boman  Citizen  (1895).  Some 
main  results  of  modern  investigation  are  gathered  together 
by  Dr.  F.  H.  Chase  in  his  Hulsean  Lectures,  The  Credibility 
of  the  Book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (1902). 

As  bearing  upon  the  question  of  authenticity,  it  is  especially 
interesting  to  note  the  accuracy  of  the  writer  in  the  employment  of 
official  titles,  as  well  as  in  reference  to  local  or  personal  characteristics 
(see  §  194).  Thus,  in  describing  Paul's  visit  to  Macedonia,  we  find  at 
Philippi,  a  Roman  colony,  the  *  praetors  *  and  '  lictors  '  after  the  model 


672  THE   ACTS   OF   THE   APOSTLES 

of  the  imperial  city  {(XTpaTTjyol  and  pa0dovxoi,  i62o-36).  But  in  Thessa- 
lonica,  a  free  city,  the  ruling  authorities  are  'politarchs'  (noXiTapxai), 
an  appellation  not  found  in  books,  but  occurring  in  an  inscription 
found  in  this  very  city,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum.  More 
strikingly  still,  at  Corinth  the  chief  magistrate  is  correctly  designated 
(iS^'^)  as  'proconsul'  {dvOvnaTos),  as  in  senatorial  provinces;  but  the 
province  was  before  and  after  this  time  (a.d.  52  or  53)  imperial,  when 
the  designation  would  have  been  'propraetor'  {dvTiffTpdTijyos).  It  is 
noteworthy  that  the  Corinthian  proconsul  Gallio,  who  is  described 
by  Luke  as  of  so  easy-going,  tolerant  a  spirit,  is  described  by  Seneca 
his  brother  as  distinguished  for  his  amiability,  which  made  him  a 
universal  favourite  :  '  Even  those  who  love  him  best  love  him  scarcely 
enough.'  Another  proconsul,  Sergius  Paulus,  was  at  Cyprus  (13''), 
as  it  happened,  at  the  veiy  time  of  the  Apostle's  visit,  and  singularly 
enough  a  recently  discovered  inscription  in  the  island  mentions 
*  Paulus,  proconsul.'  The  record  of  Paul's  visit  to  Athens,  also,  is  full 
of  accordances  with  what  we  know  from  other  sources  of  the  city  and 
the  time.  These  are  but  specimens  of  the  unconscious  truthfulness  of 
the  whole  narrative. 

471.  Objections  and  Difficulties  considered. — We  are 

not  here  concerned  with  the  assumption  which  underlies 
much  of  the  hostile  criticism  of  the  historicity  of  Acts,  viz. 
that  its  records  of  the  miraculous  must  necessarily  be 
legendary  and  of  late  date.  Nor  need  we  do  more  than 
refer  to  the  exploded  theory  of  the  Tubingen  school,  that  the 
book  is  a  *  tendency-writing '  (Tendenzschrift),  a  romance 
written  to  reconcile  Pauline  and  Petrine  Christianity. 
Tendency  of  a  sort  there  undoubtedly  is:  the  writer  has 
a  purpose  which  modifies  both  the  substance  and  the  treat- 
ment of  his  history.  But  recent  attempts'^  to  define  this 
tendency,  and  to  apply  it  to  the  weakening  of  the  historical 
credit  of  the  narrative,  would  seem  to  be  as  speculative  and 
as  futile  as  the  earlier  theory  they  have  dispossessed.  The 
positive  evidence  for  historicity  stands  firm.  We  may  well 
be  content  to  accept  Prof.  Schmiedel's  own  dictum  :  *  Every 
historian  who  is  not  simply  an  annalist  must  have  ''ten? 

*  e.  g.  Prof.  Schmiedcl  in  Encyc.  Bib. 


DIFFICULTIES   CONSIDERED 


673 


dency  "  in  the  wider  sense  of  that  word.  His  trustworthiness 
is  not  necessarily  affected  thereby*.'  It  is  not  irrelevant  to 
add,  that  in  the  purpose  of  the  writer  we  may  discern  the 
guidance  of  the  Spirit  of  God, — in  Canon  Liddon's  phrase, 
*an  inspiration  of  selection.* 

There  are  however  two  or  three  specific  difficulties  to  which  brief 
reference  must  be  made. 

1.  The  three  accounts  of  Saul's  Conversion.  The  event  is  narrated  by- 
Luke  (9-^"^^)  and  by  Paul  in  his  speeches  to  the  crowd  in  Jerusalem  after 
his  arrest  (22*"^^),  and  before  Agrippa  and  Festus  at  Caesarea  (26^*^^^). 
The  alleged  discrepancies  are  concerned  with  the  words  of  Jesus  and 
with  the  effect  of  the  vision  on  the  companions  of  Saul.  No  doubt 
there  is  not  verbal  exactness.  Before  Agrippa,  Paul  abridges  the 
story  and  ascribes  to  Jesus  the  commission  which  in  the  other  accounts 
came  to  him  through  Ananias.  More  difficulty  has  been  felt  as  to 
the  description  of  the  effect  on  the  rest  of  Saul's  company.  The 
three  accounts  are  as  follows  : — 


9''  {after  the  voice) 

And  the  men  that 
journeyed  with  him 
stood  speechless,  hear- 
ing the  voice,  but  be- 
holding no  man.  And 
Saul  arose  from  the 
earth. 


B 

•20?  {after  the  voice) 

And  they  that  were 
with  me  beheld  in- 
deed the  light,  but 
they  heard  not  the 
voice  of  him  that  spake 
to  me. 


2613K  {hefore  the  voice) 

I  saw  on  the  way  a 
light  from  heaven, 
above  the  brightness 
of  the  sun,  shining 
round  about  me  and 
them  that  journeyed 
with  me.  And  when 
we  were  all  fallen  to 
the   earth,  I   heard  a 


Two  differences  of  detail  are  noted:  'stood'  {A),  'fallen'  ((7): 
'  hearing  the  voice  ^  '  {A),  '  heard  not  the  voice  *  {B).  The  first  is  in 
any  case  trivial,  and  it  is  easy  to  suppose  that  the  men  had  first 
fallen,  then  risen.  As  to  the  second,  whatever  precise  explanation 
may  be  adopted,  all  the  accounts  equally  convey  the  fact  that  all  the 

*  Encyc.  Bib.  i.  39. 

*>  R.  V.  marg.  '  sound ' :  same  word  as  in  9*,  but  genitive  instead  of 
accusative.  For  the  difference  between  aKoveiv  cpojvfjs,  to  hear  with  the 
physical  ear,  and  aKoveiv  (pcuv-qv,  to  hear  as  an  act  of  the  intellect,  see 
Winer's  Grammar  (ed.  Moulton),  p.  249. 

X  X 


674  THE   ACTS    OF   THE   APOSTLES 

company  were  aware  of  the  miracle,  but  that  Saul  alone  understood 
its  meaning.  More  than  this,  unless  history  is  to  be  judged  by  mathe- 
matical standards,  we  need  not  require.  It  at  least  speaks  for  the 
fidelity  of  the  historian  that  in  each  case  he  used  his  source  as  he 
found  it,  not  caring  to  effect  an  easy  harmony. 

2.  The  revolt  under  Theudas  {^^^) ,  Gamaliel  in  his  speech  before  the 
council  refers  to  two  insurrectionai-y  movements  which  had  come  to 
nought :  the  first  under  Theudas,  and  ^  after  this  man  rose  up  Judas  of 
Galilee  in  the  days  of  the  enrolment'  As  to  Judas,  Luke's  narrative 
agrees  closely  with  that  of  Josephus  {Antiq.  xviii.  i,  6;  Wars^  ii.  8.  i), 
who  also  records  {Antiq.  xx.  5.  i)  a  rising  under  *  one  Theudas  by 
name.*  But  this,  instead  of  being  before  that  of  Judas  (a.  d.  6  or  7),  was 
in  the  procuratorship  of  Cuspius  Fadus  (a.d.  44-46),  and  therefore 
about  ten  years  after  Gamaliel's  speech. 

For  the  full  details  and  for  suggested  explanations  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  various  Commentaries  and  Bible  Dictionaries.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  Luke  has  filled  out  his  notes  of  Gamaliel's 
speech  with  the  pertinent  parallel  of  another  Jewish  insurgent,  as  to 
whose  chronological  position  he  was  mistaken,  a  slip  which  would  not 
seriously  impair  his  general  historical  credit.  But  in  proportion  as 
his  care  and  accuracy  ai-e  recognized,  it  becomes  less  easy  to  attribute 
to  him  such  an  editorial  anachronism.  The  'mistake'  may  lie  with 
Josephus  ;  or  the  Theudas  of  Luke  may  be  some  other  insurgent  of 
Herod's  days,  unnamed  by  Josephus  among  the  '  ten  thousand  other 
disorders  in  Judaea '  of  which  he  speaks. 

A  more  serious  use  is  made  of  .the  '  mistake '  when  it  is  pressed  into 
an  argument  for  the  dependence  of  the  writer  of  Acts  upon  Josephus, 
and  consequently,  for  the  non-Lucan  authorship.  The  account  of 
Theudas  in  Josephus  is  followed  at  a  short  interval  by  notice  of  a  rising 
under  '  the  sons  of  Judas.'  It  is  supposed  that  a  vague  recollection  of 
this  page  leads  our  author  to  speak  of  the  revolt  of  Theudas  followed 
by  that  of  Judas  of  Galilee  !  The  suggestion  may  be  dismissed  as 
a  curiosity  of  ci-iticism  *. 

3.  Divergences  heticeen  Ads  and  Galatians.  In  protesting  to  the 
Judaizing  Galatians  his  independence  of  the  original  Apostles,  Paul 
records  the  circumstances  of  two  of  his  visits  to  Jerusalem.  Various 
difliculties  occur  in  harmonizing  his  version  of  the  history  with  that 
in  the  Acts,  and  these  are  used  to  the  disparagement  of  Luke's  narra- 

*  For  some  trenchant  remarks  by  Prof.  Ramsay  on  this  theory  as 
'incredible,  irrational,  and  ps^^cbologically  impossible,' see  Was  Christ 
horn  at  BelJihhem?  pp.  252-257, 


DIFFICULTIES   CONSIDERED  675 

tive,  Prof.  ScLmiedel  going  so  far  as  to  assort  'categorical  contra- 
diction.'   This,  however,  can  by  no  means  be  substantiated. 

(a)  Gal  ii5-24  =  Ac  g^^~^^.  Paul  speaks  of  a  sojourn  in  Arabia  as  to 
which  Luke  is  silent.  Three  years  elapsed  before  he  went  up  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  when  he  left  for  Tarsus  he  was  '  still  unknown  by  face 
unto  the  churches  of  Judaea.'  The  notes  of  time  in  Luke's  narrative 
are  vague  ;  but  it  cannot  reasonably  be  denied  that  they  may  cover 
three  years.  And  though  Luke  speaks  of  a  ministry  in  Jerusalem  to 
'the  Hellenists,'  this  very  limitation,  and  Paul's  hurried  departure, 
may  well  have  left  him  virtually  unknown  to  the  Judsean  churches. 
If  the  stress  in  Galatians  is  on  Paul's  independence  of  tlie  Apostles,  in 
Acts  on  his  reception  by  them,  each  narrative  also  hints  at  the  other 
side  (Ac  9^8  Gal  i^^). 

(&)  Gal  2^"^°  =  Ac  15^"^^.  The  points  of  difference  chiefly  urged 
are:  the  'by  revelation*  (Gal  2"^)  compared  with  tlie  'appointment' 
of  Ac  15^  ;  the  *  privately '  of  Gal  a'^,  whereas  Acts  rather  speaks  of 
a  general  congress  ;  and  the  stress  in  Paul's  narrative  on  elements  of 
controversy  and  discord.  But  though  the  facts  are*  recorded  from 
different  points  of  view  they  can  easily  be  harmonized  :  and  the 
agreements  of  the  two  narratives  are  numerous  and  clear*. 

(c)  It  is  not  surprising  that  Luke  omits  to  record  the  incident  of 
Gal  a^^-i'.  If  the  question  be  raised,  how  could  Peter  act  so  after  the 
part  he  is  said  to  have  played  in  the  Council  at  Jerusalem  ?  (Ac  15^"^^), 
it  may  perhaps  be  answered,  with  Bishop  Lightfoot,  that  such  incon- 
sistency is  Peter  all  over.  And  as  Harnack  has  acutely  pointed  out, 
the  incident  at  least  corroborates  the  position  taken  in  Acts  ;  for  Paul 
could  not  accuse  Peter  of  hypocrisy  unless  he  had  previously  adopted 
Paul's  point  of  view  **. 

Whatever  points  of  difficulty  may  remain  unsolved,  there  is  at  least 
no  contradiction  between  Paul  and  Luke.  Indeed  the  searching 
criticism  to  which  the  Book  of  Acts  has  recently  been  subject  only 
strengthens  confidence  in  this  unique  record  of  the  history  of  Chris- 
tianity for  its  first  thirty  or  thirty- five  years. 

472.  Contents. — The  chief  divisions  of  the  book  are 
intimated  in  i^  (§  4GG).  The  following  Summary  of  Con- 
tents fills  up  the  outline  there  given. 

*  Prof.  Ramsay,  however,  identifies  the  visit  to  Jerusalem  of  Gal  a 
with  that  mentioned  Acts  ii^°  12-^ 

^  According  to  Prof.  Ramsay's  identification  of  the  several  visits  to 
Jerusalem,  the  incident  is  pi-ior  to  the  Council. 

X  X  2 


676  THE  ACTS   OF  THE  APOSTLES 

I.  The  Churcli  in  Jerusalem. 

Introductory  (ch.  i)  ;  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  and  opening  otf 
the  apostolic  mission  (2)  ;  organization  of  the  infant  church,  the  fij-st 
miracle,  and  consequent  discourse  (3)  ;  first  persecutions  (4)  ;  first 
recorded  case  of  discipline  and  its  elTeets  (5)  ;  appointment  of  Hellenist 
diaconate  (6^"')  ;  arrest,  defence,  and  martyrdom  of  Stephen  (6^-8') ; 
dispersion  of  the  community  ,8^~*). 

II.  The  Period  of  Transition. 

Samaria  evangelized  (8^~25)  ;  the  Ethiojnan  eunuch,  a  proselyte  con- 
verted 1^8-^"*°)  ;  conversion  of  Saul  of  Tarsus  (9^"^^) ;  Cornelius  and  his 
household,  'who  worshipped  God,'  embrace  the  gospel  (lo-iii^)  ; 
extended  evangelism  by  the  scattered  disciples,  culminating  in  the 
visit  of  certain  men  of  Cyprus  and  Cyrene  to  Antioch  ;  first  preaching 
of  the  gospel  to  the  heathen  Gentiles  (ii^^"^-*)  ;  Saul  called  to  his  life's 
work  ;  the  disciples  first  called  '  Christians'  (i  i25.26) .  proofs  of  sympathy 
and  brotherhood  (ii^^-so). 

Interval.  Renewed  persecution  in  Jerusalem  by  Herod ;  James  son 
of  Zebedee  the  first  apostolic  martyr ;  imprisonment,  release,  and 
departure  of  Peter  (12I-")  ;  death  of  Herod  (1220-21)  ;  Saul,  Barnabas, 
and  John  Mark,  fellow  labourers  (12-^). 

III.    The  Church  among  the  Gentiles. 

From  this  time  the  book  becomes  chiefly  a  series  of  memorabilia  of 
the  Apostle  Paul. 

Designation  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  their  mission  (i3^"^)«  First 
apostolic  journey  from  Antioch  and  Cyprus  into  Asia  Minor  (1^^-14^^). 
Council  and  decision  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  respecting  the 
admission  of  the  Gentiles  (15^"^^).  Second  journey  :  Separation  of  Paul 
and  Barnabas  (15^^"*") ;  Paul  and  Silas  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor, 
including  Phrygia  and  Galatia  (15*1-168);  introduction  of  the  Gospel  into 
Europe  by  way  of  Macedonia  (16^-1715) .  Athens  visited  (17"-") ;  Paul's 
residence  at  Corinth  (18^-22).  Third  missionary  journey  :  Paul's  resi- 
dence at  Ephesus  (1823-19")  ;  visit  to  Macedonia  and  Achaia  (ao^-^-j  . 
final  visit  of  Paul  to  Jerusalem  (2o*-2i"). 

IV.    Closing  Scenes  in  the  Life  of  Paul. 

Interview  with  the  church  in  Jerusalem  (2ii'-25)  ;  conciliatory 
measures,  leading  to  his  arrest  (2i26-*0) ;  his  address  to  the  people 
(22) ;  to  the  Council  (as^-^^) ;  sent  to  Cijesarea  (23^2-35^  .  remains  there 
for  two  years  ;  his  successive  defences  (24,  26) ;  on  appealing  to  Caesar 
(Nero)  (35"),  he  is  sent  to  Rome  ;  shipwreck  on  the  way  ^27),  and 


CHKONOLOGY   OF   THE   ACTS  677 

a  winter's  residence  at  Melita  or  Malta  (28^^^°) ;  arrival  in  Rome, 
conference  with  Jews  in  that  city  ;  two  years  of  work  <  in  his  own 
hired  house'  (28^'"^'). 

Chronology  of  the  Acts. 

XTote. — The  following  brief  summary  of  a  very  difficult  and  com- 
plicated problem  is  mainly  based  upon  the  article  '  Chronology  of  the 
New  Testament'  in  Hastings'  Bible  Dictionary  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Turner, 
to  which  reference  should  be  made  for  a  full  and  able  discussion  of  the 
whole  subject. 

473.   Schemes  of  New  Testament   Chronology   have 

been  endless,  and  the  leading  authorities  are  not  agreed. 
The  reason  is  the  uncertainty  of  the  data.  The  Book  of 
Acts  has  many  notes  of  time,  mostly  indefinite,  although 
those  in  the  later  part  of  the  book  suffice  for  a  tolerably 
certain  relative  chronology  of  Paul's  life,  from  his  leaving 
Ephesus  (20^)  to  his  arrival  in  Rome.  Even  a  note  of  time, 
apparently  so  precise  as  'after  three  years,'  and  'after  the 
space  of  fourteen  years'  (Gal  i^^  2^),  leaves  doubt  as  to 
whether  or  not  the  longer  period  is  inclusive  of  the  shorter : 
the  second  visit  to  Jerusalem  may  be  fourteen,  or  it  may  be 
seventeen  years  after  the  conversion.  It  might  be  expected 
that  the  numerous  points  of  contact  between  Acts  and 
secular  history  would  yield  at  least  some  fixed  data,  but  this 
is  hardly  the  case. 

The  authorities  for  the  period  are  :  (i)  Josephus,  Wars  (before  79). 
Antiquities  (c.  93)  ;  (2)  Tacitus,  Annals,  from  the  death  of  Augustus  to 
the  death  of  Nero  (a.  d.  14  68,  with  gaps  in  the  extant  work,  written 
c.  115)  ;  (3)  Suetonius,  Lives  of  the  Ccesars,  from  Julius  to  Domitian, 
written  c.  120.  Unfortunately  these  historians  either  give  only 
approximate  dates  to  the  events  critical  to  our  inquiry,  or  are  at 
variance  one  with  the  other.  Thus,  uncertainty  more  or  less  attaches 
to  the  time  of  Aretas  (2  Cor  ii^*  Ac  9-^),  of  the  death  of  Herod 
Agrippa  I  (la'^'),  of  the  famine  under  Claudius  (n'®),  of  the  pro- 
consulate of  Sergius  Paulus  in  Cyprus  (13^),  of  the  expulsion  of  Jews 
from  Rome  under  Claudius  (18^),  and  of  the  proconsulate  of  Gallio  ic 
Achaia  (18^2^. 


678 


THE   ACTS  OF  THE   APOSTLES 


Successive  Procurators  of  Judaea. — A  point  of  contact 
that  seems  to  promise  a  fixed  date  is  that  in  24^"^,  when, 
after  Paul's  two  years'  imprisonment  at  Csesarea,  '  Felix  was 
succeeded  by  Porcius  Festus.'  Here  we  have  an  additional 
authority  in  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius.  It  seems  certain 
that  Felix  followed  Cumanus  in  a.  d.  52,  but  as  to  the 
precise  date  of  Festus  the  authorities  again  fail  us :  modern 
schemes  of  chronology  place  his  arrival  variously  between 
A.  D.  55  and  61. 

It  must  suffice,  therefore,  to  give  some  few  schemes 
associated  with  representative  names.  For  comparison,  but 
as  now  of  historic  interest  only,  the  traditional  scheme  of 
Archbishop  Ussher  (1650J  is  appended. 


474.  Tables  (comparative). 


Ac 
The  Ascension  i^ 

Conversion  of  Saul  9^"^^ 

First  visit  to  Jerusalem      9-" 
Second         ,,         „  n'" 

First  Missionary  Journey  13* 
Council  at  Jerusalem  15^"^' 

Paul's  first  visit  to  Corinth  i8^ 
Fourth  visit  to  Jerusalem  18'^" 
Paul  leaves  Ephesus  20* 

Paul's  arrest  in  Jerusalem  ai^^ 
Paul  reaches  Kome  28"' 

Close  of  Acts  2830-^1 

Martyrdom  of  Paul 


r^" 

0 

s 

1 

5 

A,  D. 

A 

A.  D. 

A.r>. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

29  or  30 

29 

30 

(30) 

33 

30 

35-36 

33 

34 

35 

33 

38 

35-36 

37 

38 

(44) 

46 

46 

45 

44 

45 

47 

47 

48 

45 

47 

49 

50 

51 

52 

48 

50 

51 

52 

54 

50 

52 

53 

54 

56 

53 

55 

56 

57 

59 

54 

56 

57 

58 

60 

57 

59 

60 

6r 

63 

59 

61 

62 

63 

65 

64 

64-65 

65 

67 

67 

Roman    Emperors. 

Augustus  died  a.  d.  14  (August) 

Tiberius  „       ,,37  (Marcli) 

Caius  C:\ligula      „       ,,     41  (January) 
Claudius  ,,       ,,54  ^.October) 

Nero  „       ,,     68  (Juno) 


CHAPTER    XX 
THE  EPISTLES 

On  the  Study  of  the  Epistles. 

475.  Purpose  of  the  Epistles. — In  the  Book  of  Acts 
we  have  seen  the  gospel  extend  throughout  the  known 
world.  In  five-and-twenty  years  after  the  death  of  our 
Lord,  churches  seem  to  have  been  formed  in  Palestine  and 
Asia,  in  Greece  and  Italy ;  '  so  mightily  grew  the  word  of 
God  and  prevailed.'  Wherever  the  truth  had  gone,  it  had 
found  the  same  opposition,  though  under  different  forms, 
and  had  produced  the  same  peaceful  and  sanctifying  re- 
sults. A  more  permarient  record  of  truth,  however,  than 
the  '  winged  words '  of  speech  could  supply  was  wanting. 
The  spirit  which  had  hitherto  opposed  the  gospel  had  begun 
to  pervert  it ;  and  evil  seducers  have  a  strong  tendency  to 
wax  worse  and  worse.  To  explain  in  writing,  therefore, 
what  had  been  in  a  great  measure  taught  orally,  to  preserve 
these  lessons  in  '  everlasting  remembrance,'  and  to  give 
such  indirect  corrections  of  incipient  error  as  might,  if 
prayerfully  studied,  keep  the  Church  from  subsequent 
heresy,  is  the  aim  of  the  Epistles. 

Rules  for  studying  them. — i.  Ascertain  by  whom,  and 
for  whom,  they  were  wi'itten.  This  rule  is  essential  to 
the  full  apprehension  of  their  meaning.  For  a  letter  to  be 
adequately  understood  we  must  be  able  to  place  ourselves 
in  the  position  both  of  the  writer  and  his  correspondent. 
More  than  in  any  other  form  of  literature,  the  personal 
element  has  to  be  taken  into  account.  Neglect  of  this 
obvious  rule  has  been  the  source  of  much  misunderstanding. 


680  THE   EPISTLES 

Their  authorship.— Of  the  one-and-twenty  epistles,  thirteen  bear 
the  name  of  Paul.  As  he  was  emphatically  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles, 
he  treats  largely  of  the  mystery  of  their  call  to  equal  privileges  with 
the  believing  Jews.  He  maintains  their  freedom  from  the  Mosaic  yoke, 
urges  them  to  stand  fast  in  their  liberty,  and  proves  their  subjection 
to  the  great  law  of  faith  and  love.  In  defence  of  this  doctrine, 
he  resisted  Peter  to  the  face,  endured  the  offence  of  the  cross  (Gal 
5II),  falling  at  last  a  martyr  to  his  attachment  to  this  and  kindred 
truths  (see  Introd.  to  and  Ep.  to  Timothy).  His  sentences  are  often 
long  and  intricate.  His  style  is  full  of  thought,  prone  to  digression, 
but  highly  accurate,  well  guarded,  and  rich  in  allusion  to  the  Old 
Testament.  His  epistles  should  be  illustrated  from  each  other  and 
from  his  history. 

Peter,  the  author  of  two  epistles,  writes  chiefly  as  the  Apostle  of 
the  circumcision.  His  writings  also  should  be  read  in  connexion  with 
those  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  to  which,  in  almost  every  sentence, 
he  referred.  James,  '  the  brother  of  the  Lord,'  pastor  of  the  church  at 
Jerusalem,  insists  strongly  on  the  ethical  side  of  Christianity,  and  in 
the  spirit  of  the  old  Hebrew  prophets  denounces  the  perversions  and 
corruptions  of  the  age.  Not  dissimilar  in  purpose  are  the  epistles  of 
John.  His  style  is  rich  in  aphorisms,  and  his  strong  affirmations 
need  to  be  interpreted  by  other  parts  of  his  own  writings.  Jude 
wrote  but  one  epistle,  and  that  resembles  the  second  of  Peter,  with 
which  it  should  be  compared.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which 
bears  no  writer's  name,  shows  the  harmony  of  the  two  dispensations, 
and  sets  forth  the  meaning  of  the  Jewish  ritual,  with  the  realization 
of  its  types  in  Jesus  Christ. 

Their  destination. — Of  the  Epistles,  three  seem  to  be  addressed  to 
private  disciples ;  three  to  evangelists  ;  two,  Hebrews  and  James,  to 
Jewish  converts  exclusively ;  two  more,  ist  and  2nd  Peter,  to  Jewish 
converts  chiefly  ;  two  more,  ist  John  and  Jude,  to  the  disciples  of 
Christ  in  general ;  the  last  five  being  called  *  catholic '  or  <  general ' 
epistles ;  the  remaining  nine  are  addressed  to  various  churches, 
consisting  chiefly  of  converted  Gentiles.  In  each  case,  knowledge 
of  the  author  and  the  occasion  often  explains  or  illustrates  the 
statements  of  an  epistle  ;  they  all,  in  various  aspects,  present  the  one 
g,0bpel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

2.  Mark  the  special  design  of  each  Epistle.  .  It  has 

pleased  the  Divine  Spirit  to  instruct  mankind  not  in  formal 
treatises,  but  in  letters  written  under  His  guidance,  and  so 
as  to  meet  peculiar  emergencies ;  and  to  the  emergency  of 
each  case  each  epistle  is  addressed.      Ascertain,  therefore, 


SPECIAL   DESIGN   OF   EACH  681 

what  the  obvious  design  of  each  epistle  is  —the  ohvious  design, 
for  it  is  an  abuse  of  learning  to  seek  for  some  hidden 
design,  and  then  to  interpret  each  part  in  subordination  to 
it  in  violation  of  the  natural  meaning. 

For  this  purpose,  the  plan  of  Mr.  Locke  is  deserving  of  all  praise. 
Eead  through  an  epistle  at  a  sitting,  and  observe  its  drift  and  aim. 
*  If  the  first  reading  (says  he)  gave  some  light,  the  second  gave  me 
more  ;  and  so  I  persisted  on,  reading  constantly  the  whole  epistle 
over  at  once,  till  I  came  to  have  a  good  general  view  of  the  "writer's 
purpose,"  the  chief  branches  of  his  discourse,  the  arguments  he  used, 
and  the  disposition  of  the  whole.  This,  I  confess,  is  not  to  be  obtained 
by  one  or  two  hasty  readings  ;  it  must  be  repeated  again  and  again, 
with  a  close  attention  to  the  tenor  of  the  discourse,  and  a  perfect 
neglect  of  the  divisions  into  chapters  and  verses.  The  safest  way  is 
to  suppose  the  epistle  but  one  business  and  one  aim,  until,  by  a  fre- 
quent perusal  of  it,  you  are  forced  to  see  in  it  distinct  independent 
matters  which  will  forwardly  enough  show  themselves.'  Let  this  plan 
be  adopted  by  any  humble  prayerful  Christian,  by  one,  that  is,  whose 
heart  is  on  the  whole  in  unison  with  the  writer's,  and  the  meaning 
of  the  whole  will  generally  appear.  In  the  meantime,  and  as  a  pre- 
sent blessing,  he  will  feel  and  appreciate  individual  promises  and 
truths  to  an  extent  unknown  before.  Scripture  is  in  fact  a  tree  of 
life  ;  its  matured  fruits  infinitely  precious,  and  its  very  leaves  for  the 
healing  of  the  nations. 

To  aid  the  reader  in  ascertaining  the  design  of  the  Epistles, 
we  have  indicated  the  paragraphs  and  principal  sections  of 
each.  The  arrangement  of  the  text  in  paragraphs  is  one  of 
the  advantages  of  the  K.  V. ;  but  any  copy  of  the  Epistles 
may  be  marked  by  the  student  with  much  and  lasting 
benefit  to  himself. 

3.  Mark  the  prevailing  errors  against  which  the  teach- 
ings of  the  Epistles  are  specially  directed. 

Judaistic  ritualism. — The  first  of  these  errors  sprang  out  of  the 
formalist  and  superstitious  notions  of  the  Jews.  They  still  clung  to 
their  ritual  law,  and  concluded  that,  if  Gentiles  were  to  be  admitted 
to  equal  privileges,  it  must  be  through  circumcision.  '  Except  ye  be 
circumcised,'  was  their  statement,  'ye  cannot  be  saved,'  Ac  15^.  Out 
of  this  question  a  serious  controversy  arose  at  Antioch,  and  though 
it  was  decided  under  the  special  direction  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the 


682  THE   EPISTLES 

negative,  it  sprang  up  again  and  again,  impeded  the  progress  of  the 
gospel,  alienated  and  often  divided  the  church.  From  the  first,  Paul 
took  a  bold  decisive  stand.  He  maintained  that,  while  a  Jew  might, 
and  probably  ought  to  submit  to  tliat  rite  so  long  as  the  ancient  law 
remained,  for  a  Gentile  to  submit  to  it  was  to  relinquish  his  liberty 
and  deny  both  the  universality  of  the  gospel  and  the  sutliciency  of  the 
Cross.  Throughout  his  preaching,  and  in  nearly  all  his  epistles,  this 
view  is  maintained,  Ac  15^"^^  2i^'-25  ^  Qqj.  jjS  q^^i  ^<  ^6  gu  phil  32 
Col  2*-8-i«  Tit  i^"-",  &c. 

Rationalistic  philosopliy. — While  the  Judaizing  tendency  of  early 
believers  did  mischief  in  one  dire';lion,  tlie  spirit  of  unhallowed 
philosophy  did  mischief  in  another;  proving  more  fatal  to  Christianity 
than  persecution  itself.  This  spirit  appeared  under  diflterent  forms, 
but  the  essence  was  for  the  most  part  a  proud  rationalism,  that  re- 
fused to  receive  as  true  any  doctrine  which  could  not  be  made  to 
agree  with  a  previous  system,  or  that  moulded  into  its  own  system 
whatever  it  received.  The  Greeks  sought  after  wisdom.  This  ten- 
dency showed  itself  early  in  the  various  Gnostic  {fvaxns, '  knowledge ') 
sects  which  sprang  up  in  the  Church  ;  a  name  very  loosely  applied, 
and  including  the  advocates  of  very  different  views.  Such  incipient 
gnosticism  is  especially  combated  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 

rormalism  in  religion. — A  thii'd  error  prevailed  among  all  sects, 
Jewish  and  Gentile — the  tendency  to  separate  religion  from  practical 
life.  This  assumed  various  phases,  though  representing  but  one 
principle  :  ritualism  without  spirituality,  knowledge  without  prac- 
tice, justification  by  faith  without  holiness.  This  was  the  perversion 
of  Christianity  which  the  Apostles  most  sternly  rebuke,  and  which,  in 
later  days,  has  been  termed  Antinomianism.  Many  of  the  Gnostics 
held  it,  and  in  the  persons  of  the  Nicolaitans  it  seems  to  have  led  to 
compliance  with  heathen  practices,  under  the  specious  plea  of  religious 
liberalism.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  principle  of  licentious  religionism  in 
every  age,  and  several  portions  of  the  Epistles  are  directed  against  it. 
The  followers  of  Balaam  ^probably  equivalent  to  'Nicolaitans'),  men- 
tioned by  Peter  and  Jude,  as  well  as  in  the  Apocalypse,  were  of  the 
same  class. 

The  names  of  these  sects  (except  the  last)  are  not  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  but  their  principles  are.  And  herein  is  a  double  advan- 
tage. We  are  taught  not  to  restrict  the  teaching  of  inspii'ed  men  to 
their  own  times,  and  we  are  supplied  with  letters  in  which  not  sects, 
but  principles — self-righteous  formalism,  rationalistic  pride,  and 
practical  immorality — are  for  ever  condemned.  A  knowledge  of  these 
sects,  however,  illustrates  human  nature,  proves  our  need  of  a  reve- 
lation, and  of  humility  in  studying  it.  and  gives  clearness  and  force 
to  the  teaching  of  the  Bible. 


COMPAKED   WITH   OTHER   SCRIPTURES     683 

4.  The  most  important  rule  rem.ains.  Carefully  compare 
the  various  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  and  especially 
the  Epistles,  and  gather  from  the  whole  a  consistent  and 
comprehensive  view  both  of  truth  and  duty. 

Old  and  New  Testaments  compared. — The  necessity  of  such  com- 
parison in  the  case  of  tlie  New  Testament  will  appear  on  comparing  it 
as  a  composition  with  the  Law.  The  first  dispensation  was  revealed 
through  one  person — Moses,  and  to  one  congregation  assembled  to 
receive  it.  The  New  Testament  was  composed  by  at  least  nine 
different  authors,  and  was  addressed  to  many  congregations  and 
individuals  scattered  over  the  earth.  The  Law  was  written  in  the 
plainest  style,  with  systematic  fullness,  was  adapted  to  the  weakest 
capacity,  and  required  submission  only  to  such  commands  as  were 
expressly  enjoined.  The  New  Testament,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
composed  of  detached  instructions,  many  of  them  given  incidentally 
and  indirectly,  nearly  all  addressed  to  those  who  were  already  called 
out  of  the  world,  and  had  witnessed  the  ordinances  or  believed  the 
truths  they  were  directed  to  maintain.  Obedience,  moreover,  is 
required  to  whatever  was  taught  by  word  and  example,  as  well  as  by 
epistles*,  and  the  whole,  though  sufficiently  plain  that  all  may 
understand  and  be  saved,  is  so  rich  and  profound  as  to  afford  oppor- 
tunity for  the  exercise  of  the  holiest  spiritual  discernment. 

We  may  conclude,  therefore,  that  to  make  the  New  Testament  our 
standard  of  faith  and  practice,  it  must  be  compared  and  studied  with 
the  utmost  attention.  The  facts  of  our  Lord's  life,  the  practical 
influence  of  them  on  the  early  Church,  and  the  inspired  comments 
of  Apostles,  must  all  be  examined  ;  the  principles  and  duties  they 
involve  explained  ;  and  the  whole  cordially  believed  and  practised, 
in  preference  to  all  the  suggestions  and  inventions  of  man. 

476.    Reception   of  the    Epistles   in   the   Church. — 

It  does  not  fall  within  the  scope  of  this  work  to  discuss  in 
detail  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistles.  It  may  perhaps 
fairly  be  said  that  the  general  trend  of  recent  criticism  is 
to  confirm  the  traditional  views,  with  the  doubtful  exception 
of  2  Peter.  A  general  summary  may  here  be  given  of  the 
early  testimony  to  the  Epistles.  An  asterisk  (*)  denotes 
unquestionable  evidence  ;  the  sign  (t)  indicates  more  doubtful 
but  still  probable  references.  For  the  passages,  see  Lardner, 
Credibility,  and  Prof.  Charteris,  Canonicity  (Kirchhofer's 
»  I  Cor  416-17  II 2  Gal  1 6-9  Phil  4^. 


684 


THE  EPISTLES 


Quellensammlung).      For  convenience*  sake,  the  testimonies 
to  the  Book  of  Revelation  are  inchided  in  the  Table. 

The  Epistles,  anciently  designated  the  Apostolicon  of  the 
New  Testament,  may  be  thus  divided — 

1.  Thirteen  Pauline  Epistles,  as  enumerated  below. 

2.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

3.  Seven  '  catholic  '  epistles  (James,  Peter,  John,  Jude). 


Romans  .     .     . 

1  Corinthians   . 

2  Corinthians 
Galatians      . 
Ephesians     .     . 
Philippians  . 
Colossians     .     . 

1  Thessalonians 

2  Thessalonians 

1  Timothy    . 

2  Timothy    .     . 
Titus    .     .     . 
Philemon     . 
Hebrews .     , 
James  .     .     . 

1  Peter     .     .     . 

2  Peter     .     . 

1  John      .    , 

2  John      .    . 

3  John     .     . 
Jude    .     .     . 
Revelation   . 

! 



-+**-*■-*■                 *          *♦ 

Clement  of  Rome. 

*-4-  *                   *  *-f-t-       *^-  *•+  «  • 

Polycarp. 

^     ^*          ** 

Ignatius. 

*              *       * 

Payias. 

«                                  ***** 

Basilides. 

*        -n-                -+ 

Barnabas. 

H-                             ^--H                                                    -1-            -•■ 

Hermas. 

*                   .*                                                 *               *    * 

ValentinuB. 

*                           -*■-*■                       -n- 

Justin  Martyr. 

~f                                                              -*■-*■ 

Tatian, 

-+                     *-n-  * 

Athenagoras. 

«           *           *               ************ 

Irenseus. 

^              _,.         ***         ****** 

Theopliilus. 

*      **************** 

The  Syriac  Version. 

*****      *,*      ************* 

The  Old  Latin  Version. 

»*        *     *     ************** 

Tertullian. 

*         *    *H-    *    * 

Ptolemaeus. 

******          ************ 

Clement  of  Alex. 

«    *-(.-».    *          **************** 

Origen  of  Alex. 

THE  PAULINE   EPISTLES  686 


The  Pauline  Epistles. 

The  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul  may  be  chronologically 
grouped,  as  follows  : — 

I.  Epistles  of  his  Second  Missionary  Journey,  Ac  15^^- 
18^2,  including  his  first  visit  to  Europe— Philippi,  Thessa- 
lonica,  Beroea,  Athens,  Corinth,  a.d.  51-54. 

First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  a.  d.  52. 
Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  a.  d.  53. 

II.  Epistles  of  his  Third  Missionary  Journey,  Ac  18-^- 
21^0,  including  more  than  two  years  spent  in  visits  to  the 
churches  in  Galatia,  Phrygia,  and  Ephesus  ;  a  renewed  visit 
to  Macedonia,  and  three  months  at  Corinth,  a.  d.  54-58. 

First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  a.  d.  57  (Spring). 
Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  a.  d.  57  (Autumn). 
Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  a.  d.  58  ? 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  a.  d.  58. 

III.  Epistles  of  his  Roman  Imprisonment,  Ac  28^*^21^ 
a.  d.  60-63. 

Epistle  to  the  churches  of  Asia  (^  Ephesians '). 
Epistles  to  the  Colossians  and  Philemon. 
Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 

IV.  The  Pastoral  Epistles,  written  after  his  temporary 
release  (as  established  by  internal  evidence),  a.  d.  63-68. 

First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  a.  d.  67. 
Epistle  to  Titus,  a.  d.  67. 

Second  Epistle  to  Timothy,  written  when  prisoner  a 
second  time  in  Home,  a.  d.  67  or  68. 

See  the  several  introductions  for  further  details.  The  epistles  cover 
a  period  of  fifteen  years.  It  is  probable  that  others  were  written 
which  have  not  come  down  to  us.  We  need  no  more  suppose  that  we 
have  every  letlcr  that  Paul  wrote  than  that  we  have  every  sermon  that 


686  THE   EPISTLES 

he  preached.     Note  his  phrase  'the  token  in  every  epistle,'  at  the  end  of 
only  the  second  of  those  extant,  2  Th  3^'^*. 

The  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul  should  be  studied  in  connexion  with 
his  epistles.  Paley's  Horce  Paulince  is  of  course  indispensable.  The 
larger  lives  of  the  Apostle,  by  Conybeare  and  Howson,  T.  Lewin,  and 
Dean  Farrar,  are  full  of  information  on  all  topics  connected  with  this 
part  of  Scripture.  The  Life  of  St.  Paul,  by  James  Stalker,  D.D.,  is 
a  model  of  succinctness.  Consult  also  Neander's  Planting  and  Training 
of  the  Christian  Ohurch,  Sabatier's  The  Apostle  Paul,  and  (with  caution) 
Saint  Paul  by  Ren  an. 


First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 

Corinth,  a.  d.  52. 

477.  Thessalonica,    formerly    Therma    (as    *Bath,'    or 

*  Hotwells '),    was    situated    on    an    arm    of    the    sea    (the 

*  Thermaic  Gulf ').  Its  later  name  was  given  by  the  Mace- 
donian general  Cassander,  in  honour  of  his  wife,  half-sister 
to  Alexander  the  Great.  Under  the  Roman  government,  it 
was  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts  of  Macedonia, 
and  the  seat  of  the  jDrovincial  governor  or  praetor,  although 
itself  a  free  city,  administered  by  '  politarchs,'  Ac  17^-^ — 
a  peculiar  appellation  still  preserved  on  a  triumphal  arch. 
The  position  of  Thessalonica,  as  the  central  station  on  the 
great  Egnatian  Road  from  Illyria  through  Macedonia  to 
Thrace,  and  at  the  head  of  an  excellent  harbour,  augmented 
its  trade  and  wealth  ;  and  brought  to  it  a  mixed  population 
of  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews.  It  is  still,  as  it  has  ever 
been,  a  flourishing  commercial  town,  bearing  the  but  slightly 
changed  name  of  SaloniJd.  Its  geographical  position  and 
maritime  importance  fitted  it  to  become  one  of  the  starting- 
points  of  the  gospel  in  Europe,  and  explain  the  fact  that 

*  'The  inference  seems  plain  tliat  Paul  must  have  written  other 
letters  that  have  not  come  down  to  us.  And  this  is  a  conclusion 
Intrinsically  not  improbable,  and  which  I  see  no  reason  for  rejecting,' 
Prof.  G.  Salmon,  Introduction  to  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  Lect.  xx. 


I   THESSALONIANS  687 

from  this  city  the  word  of  the  Lord  sounded  forth  *  in  every 
place'  (i^). 

The  gospel  was  first  preached  here  by  Paul  and  Silas, 
shortly  after  their  release  from  imprisonment  at  Philippi. 
For  the  church  appears  from  the  epistle  to  have  mainly 
consisted  of  Gentiles  (ch.  i^*'),  gathered  therefore  after  these 
three  weeks.  The  references  by  the  Apostle  to  his  manner 
of  life  among  the  Thessalonians  implies  a  lengthened 
residence  (ch.  2^,  2  Th  3^) ;  and  the  supplies  sent  '  once  and 
again '  from  Philippi  (Phil  4^^)  would  require  some  time  for 
their  transmission,  Ac  17^"^^.  Paul  addressed  himself  first, 
agreeably  to  his  constant  practice,  to  the  Jews,  and  after- 
wards, with  still  more  success,  to  the  Gentiles. 

Being  driven  away  by  the  violence  of  the  Jews,  Paul  left 
the  newly-planted  church  in  such  difficulties  as  excited  his 
anxiety  respecting  them,  and  led  him  to  send  Timothy  from 
Athens,  to  encourage  and  comfort  them  under  the  persecu- 
tions to  which  they  were  exposed  (3^-^).  Timothy  rejoined 
the  Apostle  at  Corinth,  and  brought  him  an  account  of  the 
steadfastness  of  the  Thessalonian  Christians  which  filled  him 
with  joy  and  gratitude  (3*"^^),  and  reawakened  his  desire  to 
visit  them.  But,  having  been  repeatedly  disappointed  in 
his  plans  for  that  purpose  (z'^'^-^^),  he  wrote  this  letter  from 
Corinth,  a.  d.  52. 

This,  being  perhaps  the  earliest  of  Paul's  epistles,  was 
accompanied  by  a  solemn  charge  that  it  should  be  read 
publicly  in  the  church  (5^^). 

478.  Contents  of  the  Epistle.— i.  In  the  first  portion  of  this  epistle 
(1-3),  the  Apostle  expresses  his  gratitude  and  joy  on  account  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  Thessalonians  had  received  the  gospel,  and  for 
their  fidelity  and  constancy  in  the  midst  of  persecutions  and  afflic- 
tions ;  vindicates  the  conduct  of  himself  and  his  fellow  labourers  in 
preaching  the  gospel,  and  declares  his  affectionate  concern  for  their 
welfare. 

2.  The  remainder  of  the  epistle  is  taken  up  with  practical  admo- 
nitions ;    warning  them   against   the  sin   for   which    their   city  was 


688  THE   EPISTLES 

notorious  ;  and  exhorting  them  to  the  cultivation  of  all  Christian 
virtues,  particularly  to  a  watchful,  sober,  and  holy  life,  becoming 
their  happy  condition  and  exalted  hopes  (4^"^^  5).  Special  words  of 
consolation  are  addressed  to  those  who  had  been  bereaved.  Speaking 
by  express  Divine  authority,  he  assures  them  of  the  resurrection  of 
the  pious  dead  on  Christ's  coming,  to  be  followed  by  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  living  ;  and  exhorts  them  to  take  the  comfort  of  this 
glorious  hope,  4^^-5",  adding  a  series  of  brief  emphatic  counsels — an 
epitome  of  the  practical  gospel,  5^^~^^,  ending  with  the  injunction  to 
'abstain  from  every  form  of  evil'  (R.  V.),  with  prayer  and  benediction, 
523-28. 

It  is  especially  observable  that,  in  this  and  the  following  epistle, 
tliere  are  no  references  to  the  subjects  which  were  so  prominent  in 
the  Apostle's  later  writings — such  as  the  freedom  of  Gentiles  from  the 
Jewish  ceremonial  law  and  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith.  The 
controversies  which  occasioned  these  specially  Pauline  teachings  may 
not  yet  have  affected  the  Macedonian  churches.  The  simple  gospel, 
as  preached  among  the  Thessalonians,  is  epitomized  in  such  passages 
as  i^-^^  2i''i2  42-7.14.  jjg  jjr^(j  laid  especial  stress  upon  the  Second 
Advent — its  certainty  and  suddenness,  with  the  consequent  injunction 
to  *  watch  and  be  sober,'  5'"^"^^.  From  these  teachings  his  hearers  had 
drawn  unwarrantable  inferences  as  to  the  immediateness  of  Christ's 
appearing,  and  had  mourned  over  their  departed  friends  as  shut  out 
from  the  joy  of  meeting  Him.  Hence  the  special  emphasis  of  such 
statements  as  in  4^*"^'^.  '  We  who  are  alive  and  remain  ' — not  denying 
the  possibility  of  Christ's  coming  in  their  lifetime — and  'the  dead  in 
Christ  shall  rise  first ' ;  that  is,  first  among  His  people,  the  sleeping  saints 
before  the  living.  There  is  no  reference  here  to  the  rest  of  the  dead, 
either  unbelievers  or  heathen. 

479.  Key-words  and  noteworthy  expressions. — As  characteristic 
of  this  epistle  note  especially  the  expression  'the  Coming'  or  '  Advent' 
{Parousia)  2^^  3^'  4^^  s"^^  (R.  V.  marg.  *  Presence  ').  The  message  of  salva- 
tion as  '  the  Gospel  of  God,'  a^-s-^,  or  '  the  Word  of  God,'  2^\  Also  the 
threefold  expression  i^  '  work  of  faith,  and  labour  of  love,  and  patience 
of  hope '(anticipation  of  i  Cor  13^^),  the  threefold  view  of  human  nature, 
as  *  spirit  and  soul  and  body,'  s^^'  Observe,  too,  in  this  one  of  the 
earliest  epistles  of  the  Apostle,  his  use  of  the  plural  'we'  for  the 
singular  (see  especially  3*'^). 


II   THESSALONIANS  689 

Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians 

Corinth,  a.  d.  53. 

480.  Object  of  the  Epistle. — This  epistle  was  probably 
written,  like  the  former,  from  Corinth,  and  not  long  after- 
wards ;  Silas  and  Timothy  being  still  in  Paul's  comj)any 
(i^).  Its  chief  object  was  to  correct  an  erroneous  notion 
which  had  begun  to  prevail  among  the  Christians  at 
Thessalonica,  that  the  appearance  of  the  Saviour  and  the 
end  of  the  world  were  at  hand,  as  well  as  to  protest  against 
some  practical  misapplications  of  the  belief.  These  had 
been  grounded  in  part  upon  a  misconstruction  of  expressions 
in  the  former  epistle,  as  when  he  had  written,  '  We  who  are 
alive  and  remain,'  and  appears  to  have  been  supported  by 
some  who  laid  claim  to  inspiration  and  even  produced 
fictitious  letters  in  the  Apostle's  name.  There  were  also 
persons  who,  on  religious  pretences,  neglected  their  secular 
employments,  and  were  guilty  of  disorderly  conduct. 

481.  Contents. — The  commencement  and  conclusion  of 
the  epistle  are  occupied  with  affectionate  commendations, 
mingled  with  encouragements  to  perseverance  and  exhorta- 
tions to  holiness,  beautifully  introduced,  so  as  to  soften  the 
apostolic  reproofs ;  followed  by  directions  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  discipline  with  regard  to  idle  and  disorderly  members. 
In  ch.  2}~^^,  Paul  exposes  the  error  of  anticipating  the  near 
approach  of  the  day  of  the  Lord.  Reminding  the  Thessa- 
lonian  Christians  of  what  he  had  said  when  he  was  with 
them,  he  tells  them  that  he  had  spoken  rather  of  the 
unexpectedness  of  the  event  than  of  its  nearness,  and  that 
it  must  be  preceded  by  '  the  apostasy,'  and  by  the  temporary 
ascendancy  of  the  '  man  of  sin,'  the  spiritual  usurper,  who, 
after  certain  obstacles  were  removed,  should  establish 
a  system  of  error  and  delusion  by  whicli  many  would 
be  carried  away. 

Yy 


690  THE   EPISTLES 

The  arran-g-ement  of  this,  the  shortest  of  the  Pauline  Epistles 
(excepting  the  note  to  Philemon),  is  thus  very  simple.  After  the 
salutation,  i^-',  are  thanksgivings  for  the  spiritual  growth  of  the 
Thessalonians,  and  their  patience  under  persecution,  vrith  v^rords  of 
encouragement  and  prayer,  i^-i^.  The  w^ay  is  thus  opened  for  the 
warning  and  prophecy,  with  affectionate  counsel,  which  constitute  the 
main  portion  of  the  letter,  2^-3^  The  special  injunctions  that  follow, 
impressively  show  how  some  persons  had  made  the  doctrine  of  the 
Parousia  an  excuse  for  sloth  and  disorderliness,  3^^^  It  was  requisite 
in  conclusion,  no  doubt  to  guard  the  Thessalonians  against  being  im- 
posed upon  by  forged  letters,  to  notify  to  them  that  every  epistle  from 
Paul  would  be  authenticated  by  his  own  signature.  Then  follows  the 
characteristic  benediction,  3^8-18^ 

482.  Special  teachings  of  the  Epistle. — These  are  connected  with 
the  peculiar  phrases,  nowhere  else  occurring  in  the  Apostle's  writings : 
'the  man  of  sin,'  *  the  son  of  perdition,'  '  the  mystery  of  lawlessness,' 
'  one  that  restraineth.'  A  full  account  of  the  interpretations  of  the 
difficult  and  important  passage  in  which  these  expressions  occur  would 
here  be  out  of  place.  But  following  Archbishop  Alexander's  exposi- 
tion *  it  may  be  said  broadly,  there  have  been  four  chief  schools  of 
interpretation  : — 

1.  By  the  Fathers  generally  it  was  held  that  the  restraining  power 
was  the  Koman  Empire;  that  the  'man  of  sin'  would  be  manifested 
after  the  fall  of  that  empire,  and  that  he  would  appear  as  Messiah  in 
a  rebuilt  temple. 

2.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  brought  into  prominent  notice  that 
false  teachers  and  usurping  prelates  were  shadows  and  reflections  of 
Antichrist,  and  that  there  were  times  in  the  history  of  the  see  of 
Rome  when  an  Antichrist  ruled  as  its  head. 

3.  The  older  Protestant  Reformers,  e.  g.  Melanchthon,  Jewel,  Hooker, 
Andrewes,  with  the  seventeenth-century  Revisers  in  their  Dedication 
of  the  Authorized  Version,  expressed  strongly  their  conviction  that 
in  the  system  of  the  Papacy  is  an  impressive  application  of  the 
passage.  On  this  see  Bishop  Wordsworth's  important  note  in  his 
Edition  of  the  Greek  Testament, 

4.  Later  divines  dwell  more  iipon  what,  it  may  be  presumed,  is  the 
historical  groundwork  of  the  passage  as  present  to  the  mind  of  Paul. 
'The  reference  to  the  predictions  of  Daniel  {ii^'^~*^),  as  partly  fulfilled 
in  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  is  beyond  doubt.  The  impious  attempt  of 
Caligula  to  have  his  statue  placed  in  the  Temple  of  Jerusalem  (a.d.  40) 
was  also  present  to  the  Apostle's  mind.  From  such  historical  circum- 
stances he  is  led  by  inspiration  to  forecast  some  fuller  development  of 

»  Speaker's  Commentary  on  the  epistle. 


I   CORINTHIANS  691 

evil  in  the  Church  and  the  world,  as  the  complete  embodiment  of 
Daniel's  idea  of  Antiochus,  and  the  consummated  realization  of  the 
intentions  of  Caligula  \' 

5.  In  the  opinion  of  other  expositors  the  explanation  lies  in  the  two 
great  opposing  tendencies — *  the  antichristian,  in  the  form  of  secular 
unbelief,  and  the  political,  in  the  form  of  the  civil  power.*  Anarchy 
will  lead  to  an  outburst  of  wickedness,  and  this  will  be  brought  to  an 
end  by  the  Lord's  coming. 

On  the  whole,  we  are  not  encouraged  to  conjecture  the  details  of 
prophetic  interpretation  ;  but  rather,  as  the  greatei  lesson  of  the 
epistle,  to  let  the  mysteries  and  glories  of  the  future  only  lead  on  to  a 
watchful  and  diligent  discharge  of  present  duty.  The  teaching  corre- 
sponds with  that  of  Christ  Himself,   Mt  24^^*    Lu  12^2.43 


First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 

Ejjhesiis,  A.D.  57. 

483.  Corinth:  its  Position  and  Character. — Corinth 
was  a  large  city,  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Achaia,  in  the  southern  part  of  Greece.  Its  situation  on 
the  narrow  isthmus  between  Peloponnesus  (now  called 
the  Morea)  and  northern  Greece  gave  it  the  command  of  the 
land  traffic  from  north  to  south:  whilst,  by  its  two  ports 
on  the  Ionian  and  ^gean  Seas,  Cenchreae  and  Lechseum,  it 
received  on  the  one  hand  the  rich  merchandise  of  Asia, 
and  on  the  other  that  of  Italy  and  the  West.  Possessing 
these  advantages,  Corinth  became  a  place  of  very  extensive 
commerce.  It  was  also  distinguished  for  its  sumptuous 
public  edifices,  and  for  the  cidtivation  of  the  elegant  arts 
and  of  polite  learning.  The  Isthmian  games  also  (alluded 
to  in  ch.  9^*"-'^),  which  were  held  near  the  city,  had  attained 
great  celebrity,  and  attracted  a  vast  concourse  of  strangers 
from  all  parts.     From  such  causes,  Corinth  became  remark- 

•  An  elaborate  essay  *  On  the  Man  of  Sin,'  by  Prof.  B.  Jowett  {Epistles 
of  St.  Paul  to  TJiessalonians,  &c.,  vol.  i.  pp.  178-194),  discusses  the  con- 
nexion of  the  Apobtie's  prophecy  with  those  of  Ezekiel  and  Daniel. 

Y  y  2 


692  THE   EPISTLES 

able  for  wealth  and  luxury ;  and  equally  so  for  profligacy 
and  licentiousness,  which  were  greatly  fostered  by  the 
worship  of  Venus  established  there ;  so  that  it  became 
ultimately  the  most  corrupt  and  effeminate  city  in  Greece. 

The  Church  in  Corinth. — The  first  entrance  of  the  Christian  religion 
into  this  stronghold  of  vice  is  related  in  Ac  i8.  Paul  was  then  on  his 
way  from  Macedonia  to  Jerusalem.  After  passing  some  time  at  Athens, 
he  came  to  C'  rinth  ;  and  was  there  joined  by  Silas  and  Timothy,  who 
brought  reassuring  news  from  Thessalonica.  He  preached  the  gospel 
in  that  city,  first  to  the  Jews  ;  but,  when  they  *  opposed  themselves 
and  blasphemed,'  he  renounced  all  fellowship  with  them,  and  turned 
to  the  Greeks.  Some,  however,  of  the  principal  Jews  believed.  His 
fears  and  discouragements,  while  engaged  in  this  work  (see  a'' Ac  iS'-^^^, 
were  met  by  a  special  revelation,  assuring  him  of  the  Lord's  presence 
with  him,  and  of  his  purpose  to  collect  a.  church  there.  Paul  con- 
tinued his  labours  at  Corinth  more  than  a  year  and  a  half :  and  they 
were  afterwards  followed  up  by  the  teaching  of  Apollos,  Ac  iS^'^-^*. 
Thus  a  numerous  and  flourishing  church  was  formed  ;  teachers  were 
set  over  them  ;  and  the  ordinances  of  Christ  were  regularly  observed. 

It  appears,  however  that,  ere  long,  their  peace  was  disturbed  by 
certain  would-be  teachers,  who  sought  to  engraft  on  the  doctrines  of 
Christ  the  refinements  of  human  philosophy.  These  persons  attempted 
to  depreciate  the  Apostle,  contrasting  him,  it  may  be,  with  the  eloquent 
Apollos,  representing  him  as  deficient  in  the  graces  of  style  and  the 
arts  of  oratory,  and  even  calling  in  question  his  apostolic  authority  in 
comparison  with  that  of  Peter  :  they  also  pleaded  for  a  licentious 
manner  of  life,  under  pretence  of  Christian  liberty.  Hence  arose 
divisions  and  irregularities  ;  and  the  church  was  fast  declining  from 
its  original  faith,  purity,  and  love. 

484.  Time  and  place  of  writing. — This  epistle  was 
written  from  Ephesus,  after  Paul  had  been  for  some  time 
absent  from  Corinth,  and  had  started  on  his  third  missionary 
journey,  with  the  intention  of  revisiting  the  city  (4^'-^  1 1^*  16^) 
— a  purpose  which  he  eventually* carried  out,  although  after 
a  delay  which  he  subsequently  explains  (2  Cor  2^).  We 
learn  from  Ac  20^^^  that  Paul  did  revisit  Achaia,  and  doubt- 
less Corinth,  going  thither  from  Ephesus,  after  having  spent 
two  years  in  that  city.  An  intermediate  visit,  otherwise 
unrecorded,  has  been  inferred  from  2  Cor  12^*  13^  but  many 


SPECIAL   FEATURES   OF  I   CORINTHIANS     693 

expositors  understand  these  passages  as  referring  to  intention 
only.  See  also  2  Cor  2^  12^^  That  this  epistle  was  written 
during  the  '  two  years '  is  further  confirmed  by  various 
incidental  references.  See  15^2 158 .  ^nd  16'^  compared  with 
Ac  19-"^"*^ :  also  the  salutation  from  the  churches  oi  Asia  in 
16^^ ;  and,  further,  the  salutation  from  Priscilla  and  Aquila, 
who  were  at  Ephesus  at  that  time,  Ac  18-^.  Although  known 
as  the  first  epistle  it  had  evidently  been  preceded  by 
another,  which  has  not  been  preserved,  but  to  which 
reference  is  made  in  5^  (see  R.  V.)  **.  This  earlier  letter  was 
either  crossed  or  followed  by  one  from  the  Corinthians  to 
Paul  ^  (see  7'),  requesting  his  advice  and  instruction  on 
some  points.  In  replying  to  this  communication,  the  Apostle 
takes  occasion  to  correct  some  disorders  prevailing  among 
them,  of  which  he  had  heard  from  some  of  their  members 
(i^^  5^  ii^®)>  which  had  occasioned  him  deep  concern,  and  led 
him  to  send  Timothy  to  Corinth  (4^^  Ac  19-^). 

Special  questions  considered. — The  evils  which  Paul  sought  to 
correct  among  the  Corinthians  related  to  the  following  subjects  : — 

Party-divisions  (i^o-i^  3*-6).  A  fondness  for  so-called  philosopliy 
and  eloquence  (i^^  ^'^').  Notorious  immorality  was  tolerated  amongst 
them  (5).  Iiaw-suits  were  carried  on  by  one  against  another  before 
heathen  judges,  contrary  to  the  rules  of  Christian  wisdom  and  love, 
and  sometimes  even  to  the  principles  of  justice  (6i~^).  Iiicentious 
indiUg-ence  (6^~20^^  jj^  their  religious  assemblies,  the  female 
members  of  the  church,  in  the  exercise  of  their  spiritual  gifts,  had 
manifested  an  unfeminine  deportment,  laying  aside  the  veil,  the 
distinguishing  mark  of  their  sex  (ii^"!*^).  The  Lord's  Supper  had 
been  perverted  by  the  manner  in  which  it  was  celebrated  (ii^O"^*^; 
some  having  made  it  an  occasion  of  joviality,  and  a  source  of 
humiliation  to  their  poorer  brethren  (verses  20,  ai).     Spiritual  gifts, 

•  Some  have  thought,  not  improbably,  that  the  passage  in  a  Cor  6**- 
7^  retains  a  paragraph  of  this  former  letter,  inserted  there  by  some 
transposition,  and  certainly  disconnected  from  the  context  in  which  it 
is  now  found. 

^  Mr.  Lewin,  in  his  Li/e  and  Epistles  of  St  Paul,  has  ingeniously 
endeavoured  to  reproduce  this  letter  from  the  Apostle's  replies,  vol.  i, 
p.  366. 


694  THE   EPISTLES 

especially  the  gift  of  tongues,  had  been  misused  (14).  And  the  momen- 
tous doctrine  of  the  Resurrection  had  been  denied  or  questioned  (iS^'^). 
The  matters  upon  which  tlie  Corinthians  had  requested  Paul's 
instructions  are,  i.  Marriage,  and  the  duties  in  regard  to  it  in  their 
circumstances  (7);  2.  the  effect  which  their  conversion  to  Christianity 
produced  upon  a  prior  state  of  circumcision  or  of  slavery  (7^'^"^*) ;  and 
3.  their  duty  with  reference  to  eating  things  offered  in  sacrifice  to 
idols  (8).  They  had,  probably,  also  addressed  some  questions  to  him 
respecting  the  employment  of  spiritual  gifts,  and  the  order  to  be 
observed  in  their  religious  assemblies.  They  appear,  in  addition,  to 
have  asked  for  some  instructions  respecting  the  collection  for  the 
poor  at  Jerusalem,  as  requested  in  PiiuTs  former  letter.  All  these 
points  are  met  by  the  Apostle;  and  in  discussing  them  he  instruc- 
tively shows  how  the  highest  principles  may  be  applied  to  all  the 
details  of  personal  or  of  church  life. 

485.  Place  of  this  Epistle  in  the  series. — In  no  epistle  does 
Paul's  own  character  appear  more  illustrious  than  in  this.  The  asser- 
tion of  his  apostolic  authority  is  beautifully  blended  with  humility  and 
godly  jealousy  of  himself  (2^  g^^-^"^).  Means  of  influence  he  diligently 
employs,  while  acknowledging  his  entire  dependence  upon  God  (3^"* 
15^'^).  Fidelity  he  combines  with  the  utmost  tenderness  (3^  6^"^  4^*)  ; 
and  whatever  be  his  gifts,  he  prefers  love  to  them  all  (13^).  Herein 
he  is  a  pattei'n  not  only  to  ministers,  but  to  all  Christians. 

The  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  are  peculiarly  instructive  from  their 
combining,  in  the  most  striking  way,  the  utterances  of  a  liberal  manly 
spirit  with  doctrines  the  most  humbling.  They  cherish  the  loftiest 
hopes  for  man,  and  for  truth,  and  tell  us  how  alone  these  hopes  may 
be  fulfilled.  To  the  churches  of  all  time  they  convey,  throughout  the 
discussion  of  the  most  varied  topics,  the  great  lessons  of  unity  and 
charity. 

The  two  letters  to  the  Corinthians,  more  than  any  other, 
throw  light  on  the  state  of  the  early  Church,  and  on  the 
evil  tendencies  with  which  the  gospel  had  to  struggle  even 
among  good  men.  They  are  '  the  first  chapter  in  Ecclesiastical 
History.'  'While  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  the  foun- 
dation of  Christian  Dogma,  the  two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians, 
signalizing  as  they  do  the  emancipation  of  the  regenerate 
conscience,  are  the  beginning  of  Christian  Ethics "-.' 

*  Sabatier,  The  Apostle  Paul,  book  iii,  ch.  3,  p.  163. 


II   CORINTHIANS  695 

Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians 

Macedonia,  a.d.  57. 

486.  Occasion  of  the  Epistle. — Not  very  long  after 
writing  the  former  ej^istle,  Paul  left  Ephesus,  and  went  to 
Troas.  Here  he  expected  to  meet  Titus  (whom  he  had  sent 
to  Corinth) ;  and  to  receive  from  him  intelligence  of  the 
state  of  the  church,  and  of  the  effects  of  his  former  epistle 
(2^^).  But,  not  finding  him  there,  he  crossed  over  to 
Macedonia,  where  his  anxiety  was  relieved  by  the  arrival 
and  report  of  Titus.  From  him  Paul  learned  that  his  faithful 
reproofs  had  awakened  in  the  minds  of  the  Corinthian 
Christians  a  godly  sorrow,  and  a  practical  regard  for  the 
proper  discipline  of  the  church.  But,  with  these  pleasing 
symptoms,  there  were  others  of  a  painful  kind.  The  faction 
connected  with  the  false  teachers  was  still  depreciating  his 
apostolic  authority,  and  misrepresenting  his  motives  and 
conduct ;  even  using  his  former  letter  to  bring  new  charges 
against  him,  as  having  failed  to  keep  his  promise  of  coming 
to  see  them,  and  having  adopted  an  authoritative  style  of 
writing,  little  in  unison,  as  they  alleged,  with  the  con- 
temptibleness  of  his  person  and  speech. 

The  so-called  painful  letter. — It  has  been  maintained  by  some 
expositors  that  the  expressions  by  which  Paul  describes  a  letter  of  his 
to  the  Corinthians  (2  Cor  2*  7^)  are  too  strong  to  be  applied  to  any- 
thing in  the  first  epistle.  Hence  the  hypothesis  of  an  *  Intermediate 
letter,'  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  inserted  by  mistake  in  2  Cor 
10^-13^".  There  does  not,  however,  seem  any  adequate  reason  against 
applying  the  Apostle's  description  to  part  of  i  Cor,  especially  to 
chs.  3-6.  See  Canon  Bernard,  Introduction  to  2  Cor  in  the  Expositor's 
Greek  Testament. 

Under  the  strong  and  mingled  emotions  caused  by  the 
report  of  Titus,  the  Apostle  wrote  this  second  epistle,  some 
authorities  think  at  Philippi,  as  stated  in  note  at  end  of  the 
epistle  in  A.  V.,  but  that  cannot  be  determined.      From  the 


696  THE   EPISTLES 

epistle  itself  it  seems  Paul  had  visited  most  of  the  churches 
of  Macedonia  (8^  9'^):  and  h^was  more  probably  leaving 
Macedonia  for  Greece  than  entering  it  from  Asia.  Hence 
the  supposition  of  other  expositors — that  the  epistle  was 
written  at  Thessalonica,  at  a  time  when  Timothy  had 
rejoined  him  (i^).  Titus,  accompanied  by  two  other  brethren, 
*  messengers  of  the  church,'  was  the  bearer  of  the  epistle  to 
Corinth.  It  was  designed  to  carry  forward  the  work  of 
reformation,  to  establish  still  further  his  authority  against 
the  objections  and  pretensions  of  false  teachers,  and  to 
prepare  the  Corinthians  for  his  intended  visit,  when  he 
desired  to  find  their  disorders  rectified,  and  their  promised 
contributions  for  their  afflicted  brethren  ready  (8^^  9^-^  lo^-^^ 
joi.2.io\ 

487.  Contents  and  g-eneral  letters. — Although  this  and  the  pre- 
ceding epistle  are  full  of  references  to  the  peculiar  circumstances  of 
the  Corinthian  church,  they  are  not  the  less  important  or  instructive 
on  that  account.  Principles  and  rules  are  laid  down  which  are  of 
general  application,  especially  in  opposing  dissensions  and  other  evils 
arising  in  the  Church,  and  in  promoting  the  important  duty  of 
Christian  liberality. 

The  principal  contents  of  this  Epistle  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  Apostle,  after  expressing  his  gratitude  for  the  Divine  conso- 
lation granted  to  him  under  his  sufferings  for  Christ,  states  the  reasons 
of  his  delay  in  visiting  Corinth  :  and  refers  to  the  case  of  the  guilty 
person  upon  whom  discipline  had  been  exercised  ;  whom,  being  peni- 
tent, he  exhorts  them  to  restore  to  their  communion  (i^^  gis). 

2.  He  refers  to  his  labours  in  the  service  of  the  gospel  and  their 
success,  and  to  his  own  relation  to  the  Corinthians  ;  and  is  thereby 
led  to  speak  of  the  differences  between  the  ministry  under  the  Old 
Covenant  and  under  the  New ;  showing  the  superior  glory  of  the 
latter  (2^*-3^^).  He  describes  the  principles  and  motives  by  which  he 
and  his  brethren  were  actuated  in  fulfilling  their  ministry  in  the 
midst  of  great  trials  and  afflictions  ;  and  exhorts  the  Corinthians  not 
to  frustrate  the  great  objects  of  the  gospel,  enforcing  the  entreaty  by 
affecting  personal  appeals  of  Christian  discipline  and  purity  (4-7)- 

3.  Then,  resuming  a  subject  referred  to  in  his  former  epistle,  vrith 
persuasive  earnestness  he  recommends  to  them  the  collection  for  the 
poor  among  the  saints  at  Jerusalem  ;  and  shows  the  manifold 
advantages  of  such  services  (8,  9). 


II   COrtlNTHIANS  697 

4.  IIo  now  proceeds,  although  with  evident  reluctance,  to  vindicate 
his  apostolic  authority  against  the  insinuations  of  false  teachers  ;  con- 
trasting his  own  gifts,  labours,  and  sufferings,  with  the  character  and 
conduct  of  those  pretenders  who  opposed  him  (10,  ii)  :  referring,  in 
proof  of  the  Divine  approval,  to  some  extraordinary  visions  and  reve- 
lations with  which  he  had  been  favoured  (12^"^^)  :  and  showing  the 
openness,  sincerity,  and  disinterestedness  of  his  whole  conduct.  This 
part  of  the  epistle  has  appropriately  been  called  Paul's  Apologia 
pro  vita  sua.  Nowhere,  indeed,  has  his  very  heart  been  more  ingenu- 
ously and  touchingly  laid  bare.  Then,  after  a  few  affectionate  admo- 
nitions to  self-examination,  and  to  love  and  holiness,  he  closes  the 
epistle  with  prayer  and  benediction  (12^^"^^   13). 

It  may  be  noticed  that  the  troubles  at  Ephesus  (Ac  19^'"*^)  had 
occuri-ed  between  the  writing  of  the  two  epistles*.  The  memory  of 
danger  and  the  sense  of  a  great  deliverance  give  a  peculiar  intensity 
and  pathos  to  the  A})Ostle's  words,  i"~^°. 

What  effect  was  produced  by  this  epistle,  we  have  no 
means  of  ascertaining.  We  only  know  that  Paul  speedily 
followed  it  up,  and  that  during  the  visit  to  Corinth  which 
ensued  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Komans. 

488.  Key-words  and  peculiar  expressions. — These  have  been 
thus  effectively  summarized  by  Dean  Farrar** :  '  "Tribulation  "  is  the 
one  predominant  word,  and  '*  consolation  under  tribulation  "  the  one 
predominant  topic  of  the  first  great  section.  These  two  words,  though 
unfortunately  varied  by  synonyms  in  the  English  version,  occur  again 
and  again  inextricably  intertwined  in  the  first  chapter,  verses  3,  4. 
This  incessant  recurrence  of  the  same  words — now  "tribulation,"  now 
"  consolation,"  now  "  boasting,"  now  "weakness,"  now  ''simplicity, 
now  "manifest"  and  "manifestation," now  "folly" — are  characteristic 
of  the  extreme  emotion  of  mind  in  which  the  letter  was  written.' 
Peculiar  to  this  epistle  are  the  following  words  and  phrases  : — 'veil,' 
and  Ho  unveil,' s^^*^*-^^-^®-^^ ;  'tabernacle,' 5^-^  ;  'to  be  clothed  upon,' 
S^*  ;  'to  be  absent*  and  'to  be  present'  ('to  be  at  home,*  R.  V.), 
^6.8.9 .  i  ^Q  supply  '  ('  to  fill  up  the  measure  of,'  R.  V.),  gi^^  11^ ;  '  without 
or  beyond  measure,'  lo^'-^^  ;  '  to  be  chargeable  to,'  'to  be  a  burden  to,' 
J  j9  J213.U  Note  that  it  is  in  this  epistle  that  the  words  of  the  apostolic 
benediction  in  their  completest  form  first  appear,  13^*. 

The  reference  in  i  Cor  i^^"^  cannot  have  been,  as  some  have  un- 
thinkingly assumed,  to  this  particular  event. 
^  Messages  of  the  Books,  p.  232  (1884). 


698  THE   EPISTLES 

Epistle  to  the  Galatians 

EpJiesus  or  Macedonia,  a.d.  57  or  58. 

489.  Galatia  :  references  in  the  Acts  and  Epistles. — 

The  epistle  is  addressed  to  the  'churches  of  Galatia'  (i^), 
a  phrase  occurring  again  in  i  Cor  i6^  The  name  Galatia  is 
found  also  in  i  Pet  i^  and  (with  a  various  reading  Gaul) 
2  Tim  4^0^  Paul  addresses  his  readers  as  '  Galatians  '  (3^). 
In  the  Acts  neither  substantive  occurs,  but  during  his 
SECOND  missionary  journey  Paul  visits  the  'region  of  Phrygia 
and  Galatia  '  (Ac  16^  E.V.,  rrjv  ^pvytav  /cat  TaXaTiKrjv  x^P"-^)) 
and  on  his  third  Hhe  region  of  Galatia  and  Phrygia'  (iS^^ 
R.  v.,  T7]v  VaXaTLK'Tjv  )(o)pav  Koi  ^pvyiav). 

These  terms  have  been  commonly  interpreted  of  the 
geographical  Galatia,  a  strip  of  country  in  the  north  of  Asia 
Minor  occupied  by  the  Celts  (Celtae  =  Galatae  =  Galli)  about 
B.C.  280,  subdued  by  the  Romans  under  Manlius  b.  c.  189, 
and  incorporated  into  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia  B.C.  25. 
The  three  chief  cities,  originally  assigned  to  the  three  invad- 
ing tribes,  were  Tavium,  Pessinus,  and  Ancyra.  No  details 
of  the  visit  are  given  in  the  Acts,  and  a  glance  at  the  map 
will  show  the  long  detour,  northwards  and  eastwards,  thus 
recorded  by  Luke  in  a  single  sentence  (Ac  16'^).  This  north 
Galatian  theory  is,  however,  the  traditional  view,  and  claims 
the  great  authority  of  Bishop  Lightfoot,  though  there  is 
force  in  Professor  Ramsay's  contention  that  if  the  bishop 
had  possessed  the  information  which  modern  research  has 
made  available  he  would  have  changed  his  opinion. 

The  south  Galatian  theory. — Within  recent  years,  and  mainly 
through  the  brilliant  advocacy  of  Professor  Ramsay,  a  very  different 
view  has  gained  wide  acceptance.  It  is  contended  that  the  Galatia 
of  tlie  Now  Testament  writings  is  not  a  geographical  but  a  political 
term,  the  great  Roman  province  extending  from  Pontus  in  the  north 
to  th©  range  of  the  Taurus;  and  that  Paul,  the  Roman  citizen,  sums 


GALATIANS  699 

up  under  this  title  '  churches  of  Galatia  '  the  churches  founded  by  him 
on  his  FIRST  missionary  journey,  at  Antioch  of  Pisidia,  Iconium,  Lystra, 
and  Derbe  (Ac  13^^-142*).  These  churches  are  revisited  on  the  second 
journey  (i6i-6^  verse  6  being  rather  a  summary  of  verses  1-5  than 
a  record  of  new  work  in  a  distant  and  difficult  region)  and  on  the 
third  (i823).  Thus  we  have  no  gap  in  Luke's  narrative,  and  no  depar- 
ture from  Paul's  policy  of  founding  churches  along  the  great  lines  of 
communication  throughout  the  Roman  Empire.  For  details  of  the 
argument  and  the  bearing  of  the  theory  on  the  interpretation  of  the 
epistle  the  reader  must  be  referred  to  Professor  Ramsay's  The  Church 
in  the  Roman  Empire,  Paul  the  Traveller  and  Roman  Citizen,  and  his  articles 
in  Hastings'  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  :  also  to  the  most  recent  commentary 
on  Galatians  in  the  Expositors  Greek  Testament,  by  Mr.  Rendall,  who 
warmly  espouses  the  south  Galatian  view. 

490.  Occasion  and  tenor  of  the  Epistle. — It  is  generally 
agreed,  from  the  expression  in  4I2  'I  preached  the  gospel 
unto  you  the  'former  time/  that  the  epistle  was  preceded  by 
two  visits  to  Galatia.  On  the  former  of  these  visits  Paul 
had  been  a  great  sufferer,  Gal  ^^^~^'^,  and  had  been  welcomed 
and  kindly  treated  by  the  warm-hearted  Galatians,  but  in  or 
after  the  second  the  Apostle  learned  that  the  once  zealous 
converts  were  '  quickly  removing '  (R.  V.)  to  '  another  gospel/ 
being  fascinated  by  some  form  of  Jewish  ceremonialism. 
Hence  this  letter  of  earnest  and  impassioned  remonstrance. 
It  is  the  only  one  of  Paul's  epistles  which  opens  without  any 
words  of  praise  and  congratulations.  '  I  wonder,'  is  the 
Apostle's  cry.  Yet  the  affectionateness  of  the  letter  is  fully 
equal  to  its  vehemence.  In  the  words  of  Prof.  Sabatier: 
'  There  is  nothing  in  ancient  or  modern  language  to  be  com- 
pared with  this  epistle.  All  the  powers  of  Paul's  soul 
shine  forth  in  its  few  pages.  Broad  and  luminous  view, 
keen  logic,  biting  irony,  everything  that  is  most  forcible 
in  argument,  vehement  in  indignation,  ardent  and  tender 
in  affection,  is  found  here,  combined  and  poured  forth  in 
a  single  stream,  forming  a  work  of  irresistible  power.' 

Besides  the  proselytizing  endeavours    of    the   Judaizing 
teachers,    there   were   also   attempts   to   undermine   Paul's 


700  THE   EPISTLES 

authority.  It  was  insinuated  that  he  was  inferior  to  Peter 
and  the  other  Apostles  at  Jerusalem,  from  whom  these 
perverters  of  the  truth  professed  to  have  derived  their  views 
and  credentials.  To  settle  these  important  matters,  in 
which  the  Apostle  evidently  considered  that  the  very  life 
and  soul  of  Christianity  were  at  stake,  he  wrote  this  epistle 
with  his  own  hand  (6^^)  (or,  perhaps,  part  of  it,  in  large 
bold  characters),  contrary  to  his  usual  practice  of  dictating 
his  letters. 

On  the  north  Galatian  theory  the  two  previous  visits  are  those  of  the 
second  and  third  journeys,  and  the  epistle  falls  within  the  later  part 
of  the  third  journey,  dating  probably  from  the  latter  period  of  the 
Apostle's  stay  at  Ephesus,  or  from  some  part  of  his  tour  in  Macedonia 
(Ac  2o^-2)  on  his  way  to  Corinth,  where  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  It  is  in  fact  an  outline,  or  preliminary  rough  draft,  of  the 
argument  in  that  great  epistle  ;  while  in  its  vindication  of  his  own 
apostolic  authority  it  resembles  part  of  2  Corinthians.  Between  these 
two  epistles,  therefore,  it  may  probably  bo  placed.  (So  Lightfoot.) 
This  chronological  arrangement  fully  accords  with  the  word  soon  (or 
*  quickly,'  R.V.),  i^  If,  however,  the  south  Galatian  theory  be  accepted, 
the  two  visits  are  those  of  the  first  and  second  journeys,  and  the  letter 
comes  before  the  visit  recorded  Ac  iS^^.  Prof.  Ramsay,  impressed  by 
Lightfoot's  argument  as  to  the  affinity  of  thought  with  the  Corinthian 
and  Roman  epistles,  and  so  desiring  to  place  Galatians  as  late  as 
possible,  dates  it  from  Antioch  (Ac  1822),  immediately  before  the  third 
journey.  Mr.  Rendall,  on  the  other  hand,  finds  traces  of  early  date  in 
the  epistle  itself,  and  places  it  during  the  second  journey,  probably  at 
Corinth  before  Paul  was  rejoined  by  Silas  and  Timothy,  whose  names 
are  joined  with  the  Apostle's  in  i  and  2  Thess.,  but  not  in  Galatians. 
On  this  view  the  present  epistle  would  be  the  earliest  of  Paul's  letters. 

491.  Contents  of  the  Epistle. — i.  After  his  usual  salutation,  Paul 
asserts  his  full  and  independent  authority  as  an  Apostle  of  Christ : 
he  relates  the  history  of  his  conversion  and  introduction  into  the 
ministry  ;  showing  that  he  had  received  his  knowledge  of  Christian 
truth,  not  by  any  human  teaching,  but  by  immediate  revelation  ;  and 
that  the  other  Apostles  had  recognized  his  Divine  commission,  and 
treated  him  as  their  equal  (x,  2). 

2,  To  show  that  men  are  accepted  of  God  by  faith  alone,  and  not  by 
the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  Law,  he  appeals  to  the  experience  of 
t,h«  Galatians  since  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  and  to  the  case 


GALATIANS  701 

of  Abi-nham,  who  had  been  justified  and  saved  by  faith,  and  shows 
that  the  design  of  the  Law  was  not  to  supersede  the  Divine  cove- 
nant of  promise  previously  made,  but  to  prepare  the  way,  and  to 
exhibit  the  necessity  for  the  gospel  (3),  He  contrasts  the  pupilage 
and  subjection  of  the  people  of  God  under  the  Law,  and  their  happier 
condition  under  the  gospel,  as,  by  the  redemption  of  the  Son  of  God, 
they  become  possessed  of  the  privileges  and  blessings  of  sonship  :  and 
addressing  that  portion  of  the  Galatians  who  had  been  heathen,  he 
reminds  them  that,  having  been  rescued  from  the  far  more  degrading 
bondage  of  idolatry,  it  was  especially  deplorable  that  they  should  fall 
back  into  the  slavery  of  superstition  (4^"^^).  He  tenderly  appeals  to 
them  as  his  spiritual  children,  reminding  them  of  their  former 
attachment  to  him  :  and  then,  addressing  those  who  relied  upon  the 
Law  and  the  letter  of  the  Old  Testament,  shows  them  that  the  history 
of  Abraham's  two  sons  afforded  an  emphatic  illustration  of  the 
z-elative  position  and  spirit  of  the  two  contending  parties, — the 
rejection  of  the  one,  and  the  blessedness  of  the  other  (4^^~3i) 

3.  He  exhorts  believers  to  stand  firm  in  their  Christian  liberty,  but 
not  to  abuse  it ;  shows  them  that  holiness  of  heart  and  life  is  secured 
under  the  gospel  by  the  authority  of  Christ  and  the  grace  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  (5);  and  enjoins  upon  them  mutual  forbearance,  tenderness, 
love,  and  liberality  ;  and,  after  again  condemning  the  doctrine  of  the 
false  teachers,  closes  his  epistle  with  a  declaration  which  may  be 
regarded  as  the  sum  of  the  whole  (6). 

It  is  urged  in  favour  of  the  traditional  destination  of  the 
epistle  that  the  persons  to  whom  it  was  addressed  were 
Gauls  (whose  name  in  Greek  is  Galatians),  both  in  name 
and  in  character '\  They  manifest  all  the  susceptibility  of 
impression  and  fondness  for  change  which  authors  from 
Caesar  to  Thierry  have  ascribed  to  that  race.  They  were 
ever  in  extremes,  first  receiving  the  Apostle  as  an  angel, 
and  ready  to  pluck  out  their  eyes  and  give  them  to  him  ; 
but  '  soon  removing '  by  false  teachers  '  to  another  gospel,' 
and  then  under  the  influence  of  the  same  ardour  beginning 
to  'bite  and  devour  one  another.'  On  the  other  hand, 
Mr.  Kendall  contends  that  this  fickleness  '  belonged  as  cer- 
tainly to  the  populace  of  the  southern  cities.' 

*  See  Lightfoot,  '  On  the  Galatian  People,'  chap,  i  of  Introduction  to 
Commentary  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 


702  THE  EPISTLES 

492.  Key-words  and  peculiar  expressions. — *  Law,'  in  a  compre- 
hensive sense,  including  the  moral  and  the  ceremonial,  occurs  about 
thirty-one  times.  '  Liberty,'  2*  3^8  486.31  ^i.w  i  Flesh,'  about  eighteen 
times.  '  Spirit,'  about  fifteen  times.  *  Faith,'  twenty-two  times.  *  To 
justify,'  *  to  be  justified,'  2^^.17  38.11.24  ^e  <  Bondage '  and  '  to  be  in 
bondage,'  48.8.9.24.25  51.13^  t  ^j^e  promise,'  about  ten  times.  '  The  cross,' 
gii  6i2.it.  «  Pillars '  (of  the  Church),  2^.  '  Beggarly  elements '  ('rudi- 
ments,' K.  v.),  4^.  '  The  marks  (oriypiara)  of  Jesus,'  6".  The  references 
to  Arabia,  i^"^  42^  and  to  Hagar,  4.'^*-'^^,  as  types.  In  regard  to  the  difficult 
passage  32^' see  Bishop  Lightfoot*,  and  on 'James,  the  Lord's  brot]ier,'see 
Introduction  to  the  Epistle  of  James  ;  also  Lightfoot,  'On  the  Brethren 
of  the  Lord/  Dissertations,  pp.  241  sq. 


Epistle  to  the  Romans 

Corinth,  a.  d.  58. 

493.  Jewish  and  Christian  Commnnities  in  Rome. — 

The  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  addressed  to  the  Christians 
in  the  metropolis  of  that  great  empire,  whose  dominion  then 
extended  over  almost  the  whole  known  world. 

The  way  had  been  prepared  by  Divine  Providence  for  the 
introduction  of  the  go.spel  into  Rome  by  the  extensive 
settlement  of  Jews  there.  That  the  establishment  of  the 
Jewish  worship  at  Rome  had  produced  considerable  effect 
on  the  general  community,  is  clear  from  the  statements  of 
heathen  writers.  Ovid  speaks  of  the  synagogues  as  places 
of  general  resort:  and,  still  later,  Juvenal  ridicules  his 
countrymen  for  becoming  Jews^. 

At  what  time  or  by  whom  the  gospel  was  first  preached 

*  In  substance,  the  explanation  is  that  the  'mediator'  spoken  of  is 
Moses  :  that  the  Law  as  given  through  liim  was  of  the  nature  of  a  con- 
tract between  two  parties,  God  and  the  Jewish  people— valid,  there- 
fore, only  as  long  as  both  parties  fulfil  its  terms,  therefore  contingent 
and  not  absolute  ;  '  but  God,' the  Giver  of  the  Promise,  'is  One.'  Unlike 
the  Law,  therefore,  the  Promise  is  absolute  and  unconditional. 

^  Ovid,  Ars  Amat.,  i.  76  ;  Juv.  Sat.  xiv.  96  sq.  See  Merivale,  Romans 
under  the  Empire,  chs.  liv,  Ixii. 


ROMANS  703 

in  the  imperial  city  is  unknown.  That  it  was  at  an  early 
period  may  be  inferred  from  the  circumstance  that,  when 
Paul  wrote  this  epistle,  the  faith  of  the  Roman  Christians 
'was  spoken  of  throughout  the  whole  world,'  i^.  It  is 
probable  that  some  of  those  *  strangers  of  Rome,  Jews  and 
proselytes,'  who  were  present  at  Jerusalem  on  the  great  Day 
of  Pentecost  (Ac  2"^°),  carried  back  to  that  city  the  knowledge 
of  the  gospel.  And  it  is  not  improbable,  also,  considering 
the  constant  intercourse  between  Rome  and  the  provinces, 
that  some  of  the  numerous  converts  to  Christianity  in 
Judaea,  Asia  Minor,  and  Greece,  might  soon  have  found 
their  way  to  the  capital.  This  would  explain  the  wide 
range  of  the  salutations  in  ch.  16  ;  although  another  explana- 
tion has  been  given,  as  noted  below. 

The  traditions  of  some  of  the  ancient  Fathers,  that  Peter  was  the 
founder  of  the  church  at  Rome,  appears  ph\inly  inconsistent  with  the 
evidence  derived  from  this  epistle,  as  well  as  from  the  Book  of  Acts, 
which  shows  him  to  have  been  at  Jerusalem  at  the  very  time  when  he 
is  alleged  to  have  been  at  Rome.  In  this  whole  epistle  there  is  no 
mention  of  Peter  as  ever  having  been  at  Rome.  Now,  if  Peter  had 
not  only  been  there,  but  had  actually  founded  the  church,  and  had 
presided  over  it,  it  is  impossible  to  suppose  that  Paul  could  have  failed 
to  advert  to  that  fact.  And,  further,  had  Peter  been  at  Rome  when 
Paul  wrote  this  epistle,  he  would  certainly  have  been  included  in  the 
particular  enumeration  of  persons  to  whom  salutations  are  sent,  in 
ch.  16. 

494.  The  Date  of  this  Epistle  is  very  precisely  fixed  by 
the  following  facts.  Paul  had  not  yet  been  to  Rome 
(jii.13.15^^  He  was  intending  to  visit  it,  after  first  visiting 
Jerusalem  (15-""^^),  and  this  was  his  purpose  during  his 
three  months'  residence  at  Corinth,  Ac  19^^.  He  was 
about  to  carry  a  collection  from  Macedonia  and  Achaia  to 
Jerusalem  (15^^"^^) :  and  this  he  did  carry  from  Corinth 
to  Jerusalem  at  the  close  of  his  visit,  Ac  24^"^.  When  he 
wrote  the  epistle,  Timothy,  Sosipater,  Gains,  and  Erastus 
were  with  him  (i6^^--^).     Gains  was  his  host,  and  resided  at 


704  THE   EPISTLES 

Corinth,  i  Cor  i^*.  Erastus  was  himself  a  Corinthian,  and 
had  been  sent  shortly  before  from  Ephesus  with  Timothy 
on  their  way  through  Corinth  to  Macedonia,  Ac  19^2  j  Qqj. 
i6^^-^^ ;  and  the  first  three  are  expressly  mentioned  in 
Acts  20*  as  being  with  Paul  at  Corinth.  Phoebe,  moreover, 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  bearer  of  the  epistle, 
was  a  member  of  the  church  at  the  Corinthian  port  of 
Cenchreae  (16^).  As  Paul,  therefore,  was  preparing  to  visit 
Jerusalem,  one  of  his  converts  was  also  departing  from 
Corinth  in  an  opposite  direction  for  Rome,  and  by  her  this 
epistle  was  taken  to   that   city.      Its   date    is   thus   fixed, 

A.D.   58. 

The  constitution  of  the  Roman  church  when  the  Apostle  wrote, 
whether  consisting  mainly  of  Jews  or  Gentiles,  has  been  keenly 
discussed.  That  the  majority  of  the  Christians  in  Rome  were  of 
Gentile  origin  is  the  view  of  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Tholuck,  Alford, 
S.  Davidson,  Godet  ;  that  the  Jews  outnumbered  them  is  maintained 
by  Neander,  Meyer,  Baur,  Sabatier.  An  intermediate  position  adopted 
by  Jowett,  Farrar,  Sanday,  and  others  is  that  the  Christian  community 
in  Rome  may  possibly  have  predominantly  included  Jewish  Christians 
in  belief,  yet  at  the  .same  time  Gentiles  in  origin — Jewish,  for  the 
Apostle  everywhere  argues  with  them  as  Jews  ;  Gentiles,  for  he 
expressly  addresses  them  as  Gentiles.  Cf.  2^'^  4^"  7  16',  &c.,  with 
113.15  iii3  1415^  &c^ 

To  such  converts  it  was  especially  important  that  they 
should  have  a  full  and  inspired  exhibition  of  Divine  truth, 
especially  to  strengthen  them  against  the  Judaizers  whose 
influence  had  been  so  disturbing  in  the  churches  of  Galatia 
and  at  Corinth.  The  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  had 
been  employed  to  justify  immoral  practices  (3^),  and  more- 
over dissensions  had  sprung  up  between  Jewish  converts 
and  Gentile  Christians  (ii^'-^^  14).  The  Jewish  believer  was 
unwilling  to  regard  his  uncircumcised  Gentile  brother  as  his 
equal  in  Christ's  kingdom  (3^  15^^^^) ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  more  enlightened  Gentile  convert  was  inclined  to 
treat  the  lingering  scruples  of  the  Jew  with  contempt  (14^). 


ROMANS  705 

Here,  therefore,  the  doctrine  of  justification  is  shown  to  pro- 
duce holiness.  To  the  Jewish  Christian,  truth  and  its  claims 
are  revealed ;  to  the  Gentile  Christian,  love  and  its  claims  ;  and 
both  are  taught  that  faith  in  Christ  and  subjection  to  Him 
are  the  only  conditions  of  a  place  in  the  Church  and  of  an 
interest  in  the  covenant.  In  the  whole  of  this  discussion 
principles  are  laid  down  of  the  greatest  value  to  the  Church 
in  every  age. 

495.  Contents  of  the  Epistle. — As  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  treats  of  the  doctrine  which  has  been  regarded  as 
the  test  of  a  true  church,  and  is  moreover  the  most  full  and 
systematic  of  all  the  Apostle's  writings,  we  append  a  full 
analysis,  showing  the  course  of  argument  and  illustration. 
The  significance  of  particular  passages  depends  in  a  great 
degree,  as  will  be  readily  seen,  on  their  connexion. 

I.    Introduction  (i^~^^). 

1.  The  salutation  (i^"''). 

2.  Introduction,  and  Paul's  estimate  of  the  gospel  i^^''). 

The  sixteenth  verse  contains  in  brief  the  subject  of  the  whole  epistle. 
The  gospel  is — (i)  the  power  of  God  unto  salvation,  (2)  to  every  one 
that  believeth  ;    (3)  to  the  Jew  first,  and  also  (4)  to  the  Greek. 

II.    DocTRiNAii  Exposition  (i^* — S^**). 

(a)  Sinfulness  of  the  human  race. 

1.  Condition  of  the  Gentiles — 

In  relation  to  God  (i^^^s^^ 

In  relation  to  human  duty  (24-32^^ 

2.  Condition  of  the  Jews — 

Mere  knowledge  will  not  save  f  2^"^!). 
It  even  aggravates  guilt  (^'^~'^^). 

3.  Comparison  of  Jews  and  Gentiles — • 

Value  of  Old  Testament  dispensation  not  lowered  (3^"*). 
Both  guilty,  and  needing  salvation  (^~-o). 
(6)  The  gospel  plan  of  salvation  explained,  in  itself,  and  in  its  results. 

1.  This  plan  explained,  a  revelation  of  Divine  justice  and  mercy — 

Excludes  all  boasting  (3^^"^),  and — 
Saves  all  on  the  same  terms  (2^~^^). 

2.  Holy  men  of  old  justified  by  faith — 

Illustrated,  Abraham  (4^-5)  :  David  («-»). 
z  z 


70G  THE   EPISTLES 

Circumcision  the  sign  (^~^'^),  and  the  theocracy  the  result  (i^-i^^ 
of  the  covenant:  the  result,  therefore,  of  justiQcation,  rather 
than  subservient  to  it. 

3.  Abraham's  faith  described.     Its  results  (4}^'^^). 

4.  The  fruits  of  faith  in  Christian  experience,  in  imparting  peace, 
joy,  and  hope  (5^"^^). 

5.  The  excellence  of  faith  shown  by  a  comparison  betw^een  Adam, 
the  head  of  the  fallen  race,  and  Christ,  the  Author  of  spiritual  life,  to 
all  who  are  united  to  Him  (5^'^"^^). 

(c)  This  way  of  salvation  (x^ipty,  Sucatoavvr))  favourable  to  holiness. 
(See  3«.) 

1.  We  cannot  go  on  in  sin,  that  grace  may  abound  ;  for  we  are  one 
with  Christ  our  Head,  in  His  baptism,  death,  and  life  (6^~^*) ;  verses 
12-14  illustrating  the  idea  that  Christ  is  our  King,  as  well  as  Head. 

2.  Nor  can  we  go  on  in  sin,  because  under  grace  and  not  under  law. 

For  the  servants  of  another  are  bound  to  obey  their  master,  and 
moreover — 

Men  are  increasingly  swayed  by  that  authority,  which  they 
heartily  acknowledge.  It  becomes  a  yoke,  which,  however, 
if  it  be  righteousness,  is  free,  and  has  a  glorious  issue  (6^^~^^). 

3.  The  same  truth  illustrated,  as  in  6^,  by  an  example  founded  on 
the  Law  (7^-*^). 

4.  Hence  a  twofold  objection : 
(i)  Either  the  Law  is  sin — 

No  ;  for   it   reveals   sin,  and  impresses   it   on   the   conscience 

(ii)  Or  being  itself  good,  it  has  become  death  {']'^^~'^^). 

No;  for  we  ('our  inner  man')  admit  it  to  be  spiritual,  even 

when   not  obeying    it  ;  the   paradox   of  the    awakened   and 

regenerate  conscience. 

Both  facts  meet  the  objection,  and  show  our  need  of  a  new  system. 

(rf)  The  Law  having  fa tied  to  justiftj  and  sanctify,  Christ  fur  us  and  Christ 

in  us  is  our  justification  and  holiness. 

1.  The  Christian  justified  in  Christ  and  sanctified  in  Him,  through 
the  Spirit  ;  which  sanctification  will  be  complete  (8^~^^). 

2.  The  Christian's  duty  and  privilege  (8^'^"^''). 

3.  The  connexion  between  the  perfection  of  creation,  and  that  of  the 
children  of  God  (Bi^-^O). 

4.  Exultant  assurance  of  salvation  f  8""^^). 

III.     Special  Relation  of  the  Jews  to  the  Gospel  (9-11). 
As  in  ii8_320  |;jje  Apostle  has  explained  the  relation  of  Jews  and 
Gentiles  to  the  Law,  no  in  9^-11*°  he  explains  the  relation  of  both  to  the 
gospel. 


CONTENTS   OF    ROMANS  707 

That  salvation  is  liy  Christ,  and  for  all  that  believe,  is  the  con- 
clusion to  which  the  Apostle  has  come  ;  but  if  so,  the  great  majority 
of  the  Jews  perish,  and  the  C4entiles  have  taken  their  place  ;  a  result 
apparently  severe,  and  to  the  Jew  particularly  startling.  The  Apostle 
meets  this  feeling. 

1.  He  affirms  his  own  distress  at  their  state  of  rejection  (g^"^). 

2.  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  the  promise  is  unfulfilled,  or 
that  this  difference  of  treatment  is  without  precedent  ;  for — 

The  promise  did  not  extend  to  all  the  children  of  Abraham,  but 
only  to  the  descendants  of  Saiah  ;  nor  to  all  her  descendants,  but  only 
to  Isaac  (9'^"*),  and  of  Isaac's  children,  to  Jacob  (9^^^^),  the  ground  of 
the  difference  being,  not  the  actual  merit  of  the  persons,  but  the  election 
of  God. 

Least  of  all  does  it  follow  that  God  is  tmjust,  for  all  mercy  on  God's 
part  is  evidence  of  kindness,  and  is  altogether  undeserved. 

That  God  has  a  right  to  make  distinctions  in  His  dealings,  and  does 
make  them,  is  further  shown  in  the  case  of  Pliaraoh  (9'*"'*). 

3.  But  does  not  this  idea  of  purpose  on  God's  part  free  us  from 
blame  ?  No,  for  first  God  has  a  right  to  do  as  He  will ;  and  in  the 
exercise  of  that  right,  there  can  be  no  wrong ;  and  secondly,  in 
exercising  that  will,  both  the  justice  and  the  mercy  of  God  will  be 
the  more  illustriously  revealed  (9''"^*),  saving  all  on  the  same  condi- 
tions, both  Jews  and  Gentiles. 

4.  Both  this  call  of  the  Gentiles,  and  the  salvation  of  a  remnant 
only  of  the  Jews,  are  foretold,  or  have  their  precedents  in  the  Old 
Testament  (9-^-2"). 

5.  The  failure  and  rejection  of  the  Jews,  though  in  one  sense  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Divine  purpose,  are  really  results  of  unbelief  (9^*^'^). 

This  last  thought  is  expanded  (10).  After  again  expressing  his 
distress  at  the  unbelief  of  the  Jews,  the  Apostle  shows  that  their 
rejection  is  the  result  of  Tmbelief ;  and  that  all  who  call  on  the  name 
of  the  Lord,  Jews  or  Gentiles,  shall  be  saved  (io*~^'). 

Objected,  that  the  Jews  could  not  call  upon  one  of  whom  they  had 
not  heard  ( ro^*"^'^).  Answer,  they  have  heard,  so  that  their  rejection  01 
truth  was  not  owing  to  ignorance,  but  to  disobedient  unbelief;  as 
foretold  by  their  own  prophets  {jo^^~^^). 

6.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Israel,  as  a  whole,  have  been 
rejected. 

Not  Jews  as  Jews,  but  Jews  as  unbelievers;  for  *  I  myself,'  says  he, 
*am  an  Israelite'  (11').  In  Elijah's  days  there  were  thousands  who 
had  not  bowed  to  Baal,  so  now  there  is  a  remnant  according  to  the 
election  of  grace,  chosen  not  for  their  works,  but  from  free  favour  ; 
while  the  rest  have  missed  the  blessing  through  unbelief  (ii-~'^^). 

Nor,  speaking  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  is  there  utter  rejection  : 
Z  Z    2 


708  THE   EPISTLES 

Their  unbelief  gave  occasion  for  the  proclamation  of  the  truth  to 
the  Gentiles,  and  their  conversion  will  be  connected  with  the  general 
diffusion  of  the  truth  (ii^^-^^),  of  all  which  the  faith  of  their  fathei's  is 
a  kind  of  earnest  (n^*"). 

7.  Humility,  faith,  adoring  reverence  of  the  justice  and  mercy  of 
God,  with  hope  in  this  general  issue,  become  all  Gentile  converts 
(iii''-*-^*),  and— 

8.  By  and  by  Israel,  as  a  whole,  shall  be  converted  to  God  (ii^'*"''^). 

9.  The  whole  scheme  of  salvation  an  evidence  of  the  unfathomable 
wisdom  and  love  of  God  (ii^^~^^),  to  Whose  praise  all  will  ultimately 
redound. 

IV.     Ethical  Development  op  Truth  (12-15^^). 

(a)  In  relation  to  general  behaviour. 

1.  All  previous  doctrine  points  to  consecration  of  the  whole  life  as 
the  appropriate  result,  and  with  this  consecration  all  holiness  begins 

(121-2). 

This  founded  in  humility,  i.e.  in  a  true  and  healthy  view  of  our- 
selves, and  of  our  position  (12^). 
This  consecration  will  include — 

2.  The  Christian's  relation  to  the  Church  (la*-^^),  including  love, 
faith,  and  hope  ;  and — 

3.  The  Christian's  relation  to  the  world  {i2^*~'^'^). 

4.  Ch.  13.  Especially  is  this  spirit  of  consecration  seen  in  submission 
to  the  ruling  power,  which  has  the  force  of  a  Divine  law  (^~^). — 
Obedience  in  such  cases  is  another  form  of  the  great  law  of  love  i^~'^^), 
which  is  especially  incumbent  under  the  gospel,  as  is  all  spiritual 
holiness  (i^-^*). 

(h)  In  relation  to  our  behaviour  in  things  indifferent  (14^-15'^). 

Here,  forbearance  is  our  rule.  He  who  regards  things  indifferent  as 
binding  may  be  the  weaker  Christian,  but  God  has  received  him  ;  he 
does  all  to  Christ,  Who  is  his  judge ;  and  in  accordance  with  his  own 
conscience,  which  is,  subordinately,  his  law. 

Therefore,  neither  is  he  the  less  welcome,  nor  is  he  to  be  tempted 
by  ridicule  or  rebuke  to  violate  what  he  himself  believes  {i^"^''^^). 

The  example  of  Christ,  and  the  ultimate  design  of  the  Scriptures, 
teach  this  duty  on  even  more  comprehensive  grounds — the  common 

good  (i5^~'^)- 

The  lesson  is  repeated,  that  Gentiles  and  Jews  are  one  body,  and 
that  the  salvation  of  each  illustrates  the  faithfulness  and  mercy  ol 

God(i5^-'-0. 


CONTENTS   OF   ROMANS  709 


V,  Personal  Cojimunications. 

1.  Explanation  of  the  Apostle's  relation  to  the  Gentiles  and  of  his 
earnestness  on  their  behalf  (15^*"'^^). 

2.  Notice  of  his  proposed  journeys  (is'^^"'^^). 

3.  Salutations  (i6^~^^),  with  cautions  in  reference  to  such  as  caused 
divisions  (^■^~'^°). 

4.  Conclusion  (i62<-27^^ 

The  interesting  series  of  salutations,  twenty-six  in  all,  in  the  last 
chapter,  addressed  to  a  community  personally  unknown  to  the  Apostle, 
has  presented  a  difficulty  to  expositors  which  has  been  variously  met. 
Certain  variations,  and  the  absence  from  some  early  copies  of  the  text  of 
the  last  two  chapters,  have  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  epistle 
'  was  circulated  at  an  early  date  in  two  forms,  both  with  and  without 
the  last  two  chapters.  In  the  shorter  form  it  was  divested  as  far  as 
possible  of  its  epistolary  character  by  abstracting  the  personal  matter 
addressed  especially  to  the  Komans'  (Bp.  Lightfoot).  Or  early  copies 
of  the  epistle  may  have  been  sput  with  varying  terminations  to  different 
churclies,  one  being  the  church  at  Ephesus,  as  the  salutations  (i6^~-<') 
are  addressed  to  pei'sons  whom  one  would  expect  to  find  rather  there 
than  in  Eome  (e.  g.  verse  3  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  verso  5  Epaenetus) ; 
so  in  other  districts  where  the  Apostle  had  resided  and  laboured, 
verses  9,  13.  There  seem  in  fact  to  be  at  least  two  distinct  endings 
to  the  epistle,  one  beginning  15^0,  the  other  16^'^.  There  are  two  (or 
three)  closing  benedictions,  15'^  16^°-'^*,  but  according  to  the  best 
texts  one  of  them  is  to  be  omitted.  R.  V.  omits  i6'-'^  See  papers  by 
Bp.  Lightfoot  and  Dr.  Hort  in  Biblical  Essays. 

496.  Key-words  and  expressions.  —  LKAniNO  Thought.  'The 
gospel  of  Christ  :  the  power  of  C4od  unto  salvation  to  every  one  that 
believeth.  .  .  .  Therein  is  revealed  a  righteousness  of  God  by  faith 
unto  faith,  i.  e.  which  begins  in  faith  and  ends  in  faith,  of  which 
faith  is  the  beginning,  the  middle,  the  end'  (iI^.it  r.  v.).  'The 
righteous  shall  live  by  faith'  (i^*^),  a  motto  from  Habakkuk  2*.  'The 
righteousness  of  God,'  s^-"^"^  10^,  &c.  Though  there  is  much  greater 
consistency  in  the  rendering  of  the  same  word  in  the  R.  V.  than  in 
the  A.  v.,  it  should  be  noted  that  'righteous,'  'righteousness,'  'just,' 
'justified,'  'justification'  are  from  the  same  root-word.  So  are  the  two 
words  '  faith '  and  '  believe,'  forms  of  which  occur  about  fifty-seven 
times.  Observe  the  frequency  of  the  use  of  the  word  'law'  with  and 
without  the  article.  Of  the  distinction  Bp.  Lightfoot  says: — 'The 
written  law — the  Old  Testament — is  always  6  vo^os.  At  least  it  seems 
never  to  be  quoted  otherwise;  vonos  without  the  article  is  "law'' 
considered  as  a  principle,  exemplified  no  doubt  chiefly  and  signally  in 


710  THE   EPISTLES 

the  Mosaic  Law,  but  very  much  wider  than  this  in  its  application.' 
Another  noteworthy  expression,  'the  flesh,'  occurs  twenty-eip;ht  times, 
with  various  shades  of  meaning  which  should  be  carefully  distin- 
guished. Other  prominent  words  are  'sin'  and  'death,'  the  former 
occurring  forty-seven  times,  the  latter  about  half  as  many.  The  strong 
expression,  a*^  yevoiro,  'let  it  not  be,'  sliould  also  be  noted  ;  rendered 
'  God  forbid,'  3*-'^  &c.  In  this  epistle  Paul  first  speaks  of  himself  as 
'  a  servant,'  i.e.  bondservant  of  Jesus  Christ,  i^,  and  substitutes  for  '  to 
the  church'  or  'churches,'  as  in  his  former  epistles,  the  expression 
'  to  the  beloved  of  God,  called  [to  be]  saints,'  i^. 

The  Prison  Epistles. 

Of  the  thirteen  Paulino  Epistles,  four  were  written  during 
the  latter  part  of  the  Apostle's  two  years'  imprisonment, 
when  he  was  a  prisoner  under  guard  in  his  own  '  hired 
house.'  The  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians  were 
written  at  the  same  time,  and  sent  by  the  same  messenger, 
Tychicus,  who  carried  with  him  also  a  letter  from  Paul  to 
Philemon.  That  to  the  Philippians  is  generally  regarded 
as  the  latest  of  the  four,  written  when  the  author  was 
awaiting  the  issue  of  his  trial  before  Nero  \ 


*to 


Epistle  to  the  Ephesians 
Rome,  A.D.  62. 

497.  To  whom  addressed.  —  That  this  epistle  was 
written  by  the  Apostle  Paul  there  is  abundant  evidence, 
both  external  and  internal.  But  as  the  name  Ephesus  is 
wanting  in  i^  in  a  few  ancient  manuscripts,  it  has  been 
doubted  to  whom  it  was  addressed.  Some  have  supposed 
it  to  be  '  the  Epistle  from  Laodicea,'  referred  to  in  Col  4^^. 
Others  extend  this  view  further,  and  more  reasonably  con- 
jecture from  the  general  character  of  its  contents,  and  the 
absence  of  local  and  personal  allusions,  that  it  was  a 
Circular  Letter  to  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor ;  sent  on  from 

•  Lightfoot,  however,  regards  Philippians  ae  the  earliest. 


EPHESIANS  711 

one  to  another,  with  a  blank  in  the  address  to  be  filled 
up  according  to  its  immediate  destination.  This  is  the 
view  now  generally  held  by  scholars. 

Ephesns,  the  chief  city  of  the  district,  was  a  large  city 
of  Ionia,  the  capital  of  the  Eoman  province  of  Asia.  It 
was  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Artemis  (Diana), 
which  was  of  extreme  magnificence,  enriched  with  immense 
treasures,  and  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
Its  inhabitants  were  noted  for  luxury  and  voluptuousness^ 
and  for  the  practice  of  magical  arts. 

The  Book  of  Acts  (iS^^-^^  19)  mentions  two  visits  of 
Paul  to  Ephesus.  The  first  time,  on  his  way  to  Jerusalem, 
he  preached  on  one  Sabbath  in  the  synagogue,  leaving 
behind  him  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  who  were  shortly  after- 
wards joined  by  Apollos.  On  his  second  visit,  Paul  remained 
there  more  than  two  years ;  probably  on  account  of  the 
importance  of  the  place,  as  a  principal  seat  of  idolatry  and 
a  great  centre  of  influence,  and  his  labours  were  crowned 
with  signal  success,  both  among  the  citizens  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  surrounding  country.  About  a  year 
subsequently,  when  he  was  on  his  way  from  Macedonia  to 
Jerusalem,  he  had  an  interview  with  the  elders  of  the 
Ephesian  church  at  the  neighbouring  seaport  of  Miletus. 

498.  Character  and  contents  of  the  Epistle. — This 
epistle  is  one  of  those  written  by  Paul  while  he  was  a  prisoner 
at  Kome,  and,  like  the  letters  to  Philippi  and  Colossae,  is 
remarkable  for  a  peculiar  pathos  and  elevation  of  thought 
and  feeling.  The  Apostle's  whole  mind  seems  to  have  been 
filled  with  the  transcendent  excellency  of  the  privileges  and 
hopes  of  believers  in  Christ,  the  all-comprehensive  character 
of  the  Christian  dispensation,  and  its  certain  triumphs  and 
glorious  results. 

Anxious  for  the  welfare  of  his  Asiatic  converts,  the 
Apostle  was  about  to  send  Tychicus  to  them  ;  and  he  wrote 


712  THE   EPISTLES 

this  epistle,  one  object  of  which  was  to  remove  any  feelings 
of  distrust  or  discouragement  which  the  intelligence  of  his 
imprisonment  might  have  produced  in  their  minds,  and  to 
prevent  that  circumstance  being  taken  advantage  of  by- 
Jewish  zealots  to  lower  his  apostolic  authority,  or  oppose 
the  great  truth  in  which  he  gloried — the  unity  and  uni- 
versality of  the  Church  as  the  body  of  Christ.  In  the  words 
of  the  Dean  of  Westminster,  the  epistle  is  '  one  supreme 
exposition,  non-controversial,  positive,  fundamental,  of  the 
great  doctrine  of  his  life,  the  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  man- 
kind in  Christ,  and  of  the  purpose  of  God  for  the  world 
through  the  Church*.' 

Contents. — This  epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  parts  : — (r)  Doc- 
trinal (1-3)  ;  and  (2)  Practical  (4.-6). 

1.  After  the  opening  salutation,  Paul  breaks  forth  into  expressions 
of  praise  to  God  for  the  blessings  of  redemption,  and  especially  for 
the  extension  of  them  to  the  Gentiles,  of  which  they  had  an  earnest 
in  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit  ;  dwells  on  the  two  wonderful  displays  of 
omnipotent  grace,  first  in  the  glorification  of  Christ,  and  then  in  that 
of  His  regenerated  people  (i,  2^~^°),  and  reminds  his  Asiatic  readers  of 
their  former  heathen  state  of  spiritual  death  and  distance  from  God, 
and  of  the  great  change  in  their  condition  by  being  now,  through  His 
sovereign  mercy,  admitted  to  the  fellowship  of  the  saints  (2^^--"^)  ^ 
Then,  describing  himself  as  a  prisoner  in  the  cause  of  Christ  fof  the 
sake  of  the  Gentiles,  he  speaks  of  the  special  revelation  and  eemmis- 
sion  granted  to  him  in  reference  to  them  ;  grounds  upon  it  an  exhor- 
tation not  to  be  discouraged  at  his  sufferings  ;  and  assures  them  of  his 
prayers  that  they  might  be  increasingly  enlightened  and  strengthened, 
and  have  a  full  enjoyment  of  the  benefits  of  Christ's  redeeming  love  (3). 

2.  In  the  remaining  chapters  of  the  epistle,  which  are  chiefly 
practical,  the  Apostle  beseeches  them  to  maintain  a  conduct  and  spirit 
worthy  of  the  exalted  privileges  to  which  they  had  been  called  ; 
reminds  them  of  the  great  ends  which  the  spiritual  gifts  bestowed 
upon  them  were  designed  to  promote  ;  enjoins  upon  them  a  course  of 
conduct  in  direct  contrast  to  that  of  the  heathen  around  them  and  to 
their  own  former  lives  ;  exhorts  them  particularly  to  unity,  truthful- 
ness, meekness,  honesty,  and  industry  ;  to  purity  of  speech  ;  to  kind- 

*  J.  Armitage  Kobinson,  Ephesians,  p.  10. 

^  On  the  Divine  grace  manifested  towards  heathen  converts,  see 
Col  1 2^  a^-i*  I  Pet  ii«  2^\ 


EPHESIANS   AND   COLOSSIANS  713 

ness  and  generosity,  after  the  example  of  Christ  ;  and  to  universal 
uprightness  and  holiness  of  conduct  (4,  5^"-").  He  then  enforces,  by 
motives  peculiar  to  the  gospel,  an  exemplary  discharge  of  all  relative 
duties  (5^^-6^)  ;  concluding  with  animated  exhortations  to  fortitude, 
watchfulness,  and  prayer  ;  followed  by  a  commendation  of  Tychicus, 
the  bearer  of  the  epistle,  and  by  his  apostolic  benedictions  (6^^"^*). 

Iiessons. — In  the  circumstances  in  which  this  epistle  was  written, 
and  in  the  subsequent  history  of  the  churches  to  which  it  was 
addressed,  there  is  much  that  is  instructive.  The  epistle  which  dwells 
most  on  the  unsearchable  riches  of  God's  wisdom  and  love  was  written 
when  its  author  was  in  bonds.  A  heart  filled  with  thoughts  most 
spiritual  and  heavenly  devotes  attention  to  relative  and  moral  duties 
(42*  5,  6i~3),  and  enforces  them  by  appeals  founded  on  our  relation  to 
Christ  and  to  the  Holy  Spirit  (430-  '^  5^-25  6^).  The  churches  a  few 
years  later  were  in  a  very  different  state  from  that  which  is  here 
implied,  Rev  2^"^  3^*"^^-  Their  history  is  a  solemn  warning  to 
Christians  in  every  age. 

499.  Key-words  and  characteristic  expressions.— On  the  leading 
thought  of  this  epistle  Dr.  Marcus  Dods  says  :  *  Unify  is  the  key  to  this 
epistle  :  the  unity  of  the  Church  with  God,  the  unity  of  the  two  great 
sections  of  the  Christian  Church,  the  unity  of  the  members  of  the 
Church  Catholic'  In  Christ  all  things,  both  in  heaven  and  on  earth, 
are  gathered  together  in  one,  i^**.  Five  times  in  tliis  epistle  occurs  the 
phrase  'heavenly  places'  (ra  (TTovpavia)  ;  and  'grace'  no  less  than  twelve 
times.  '  Riches  '  is  another  recurrent  expression,  '  riches  of  grace,' 
i^  2'';  'riches  of  glory,'  i'^  s^" ;  'riches  of  Christ,'  3^.  'Mystery,' 
in  the  sense  of  a  secret  once  hid  but  now  revealed,  is  characteristic 
indeed  generally  of  Paul,  but  characteristic  specially  of  this  epistle, 
in  which  it  is  five  times  used  (i^  3"'-^-^  6"),  and  each  time  with 
remarkable  emphasis  ;  see  Robinson's  ^p/jesians,  p.  234.  The  compari- 
son of  the  church  to  a  magnificent  building,  and  the  allegory  drawn 
from  the  armour  of  a  Roman  soldier,  have  their  fullest  expression  in 
this  epistle  (2"o~22  6""^'').  The  omission  of  personal  greetings  has 
been  already  noted. 


Epistle  to  the  Colossians 

Rome,  A.D.  62. 

500.  Colossae  or  Colassae  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  of 
Phrygia.  It  was  situated  on  the  Lycus,  a  branch  of  the 
Maeander,    'distant,'  says   Professor    Ramsay,   'only   about 


714  THE   EPISTLES 

ten  miles  from  Laodicea  and  thirteen  from  Hierapolis,  and 
hence  the  three  cities  formed  a  single  sphere  of  missionary 
labours  for  Epaphras,  an  inhabitant  of  Colossse '  (4^2-^2). 
From  2^  it  seems  certain  that  Paul  had  never  visited  Colossae  ; 
but  he  knew  several  of  the  Colossian  Christians,  among 
whom  were  Philemon,  Apphia,  and  Archippus,  possibly 
husband,  wife,  and  son  ^.  The  Colossians,  having  heard  of 
Paul's  imprisonment,  sent  to  him  Epaphras,  to  comfort  the 
Apostle,  and  to  inform  him  of  their  state.  Epaphras,  shortly 
after  reaching  Rome,  was  also  imprisoned,  Philem  '-^'K 

501.  Place  and  time  of  writing. — This  epistle  was 
written  during  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome  (i-'*  4^^)^  ; 
and  probably  about  the  same  time  as  those  to  the  Ephesians 
and  to  Philemon  ;  the  three  letters  being  all  sent  by  the 
same  messengers,  Tychicus  and  Onesimus,  the  latter  of 
whom  was  returning  to  his  master,  Philemon,  at  Colossce. 
The  account  given  of  the  church  by  Epaphras  was  on  the 
whole  satisfactory.  There  appears,  however,  to  have  been 
some  danger  from  false  teachers,  who  aimed  to  combine  with 
Christianity  the  speculations  of  the  philosophers,  such  as  in 
the  next  century  developed  into  gnosticism.  The  supreme 
dignity  of  Christ  was  denied,  by  ascribing  to  angels  the  work 
of  creation  (i^^)  and  of  mediating  in  redemption  between 
God  and  man  ;  the  worship  of  angels  was  introduced  into 
the  church  (2^^).  Reference  is  also  clearly  discernible  to 
the  disturbing  influence  of  Judaizing  and  of  ascetic  teachers 
(2^^  311-18.19),  To  correct  and  refute  this  threefold  error 
was  the  purpose  of  this  epistle  c. 

*  See  Lightfoot,  Colossians  and  Philemon,  pp.  301-308.  Onesimus  was 
a  slave  in  the  same  household. 

^  With  less  probability  the  letter  has  been  assigned  to  the  two  years' 
captivity  at  Caesarea;  so  Reuss,  Meyer,  Holtzmann,  De  Pressens6. 
But  by  far  the  larger  number  of  critics  refer  the  letter  to  the  Roman 
captivity. 

°  On  the  Colossian  heresy,  especially  in  its  bearing  on  the  date  and 
authenticity  of  the  epistle,  see  Lightfoot,  Colossians,  pp.  71-111. 


COLOSSIANS  715 

Colossians  and  *  Ephesians.'^ — The  striking  resemblance 
between  tliir»  epistle  and  that  '  to  the  Ephesians '  indicates 
some  similarity  in  the  tendencies  of  the  churches  addressed, 
and  is  also  ascribable  to  the  fact  that  both  epistles  being 
written  about  the  same  time,  the  same  ideas,  and  even  the 
same  expressions,  would  be  likely  to  rec^ur.  The  two 
epistles  must,  in  fact,  be  read  together.  'The  one  is,' 
as  Michaelis  observes,  'a  commentary  on  the  other.'  A  differ- 
ence of  stress  may  be  noted.  The  controversial  note  in  this 
epistle  leads  to  insistence  on  the  nature  of  Christ  and  on 
what  He  is  to  His  Church  ;  in  Ephesians  Paul  expounds  the 
unity  of  the  Church  and  its  glorious  destiny  in  the  purposes 
of  its  Divine  Lord. 

This  epistle  was  to  be  sent  to  Laodicea,  and  the  Colossians 
were  to  receive  from  Laodicea  the  epistle  he  had  directed 
to  be  sent  on  to  them  (4^^),  probably  the  circular  letter  known 
as  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 

502.  Contents  of  the  Epistle. — The  epistle  may  be  divided  into 
two  parts — doctrinal  and  practical. 

1.  After  the  usual  salutation,  the  Apostle  expresses  his  thankfulness 
for  the  effects  of  the  gospel  among  the  Colossians,  and  his  prayerful 
anxiety  that  they  might  continue  to  advance  in  spiritual  knowledge 
and  in  Christian  virtues  (i^~^*)  ;  he  sets  forth  the  creative  and  the 
mediatorial  function  of  the  Divine  Redeemer,  giving  a  sublime  view 
of  the  whole  doctrine  of  reconciliation  by  Christ,  both  in  its  ampli- 
tude, as  affecting  all  created  beings,  and  in  its  individual  application  to 
'His  body,  the  Church,'  and  especially  to  these  Gentile  converts 
^ji4-2S^^  He  then  speaks  of  his  own  labours  and  sufferings  as  the 
Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  and  expresses  his  intense  solicitude  for  their 
stability  and  perseverance  (i'^*-a'^). 

He  cautions  them  against  particular  errors  ;  showing  that  no  philo- 
sophical speculations,  no  human  ordinances  or  traditions,  no  ascetic 
austerities,  could  raise  the  soul  above  gross  pursuits,  or  enable  it  to 
realize  unseen  and  eternal  objects.  But  that,  on  the  other  hand,  in 
Christ  is  perfect  salvation ;  faith  in  Him  not  only  reconciling  us  to 
God,  but,  by  connecting  us  with  an  ascended  Redeemer,  leading  our 
thoughts  and  desires  to  things  above  (2^-3*). 

2.  He  then  expands  the  application  of  the  foregoing  doctrine,  points 
out  the  operation  of  this  vitalizing  faith,  in  subduing  the  propensities 


716  THE   EPISTLES 

of  the  old  sinful  nature,  and  producing  and  sustaining  the  varied  holi- 
ness of  the  new  man  ;  and,  above  all,  brotherly  love,  which  is  to  be 
exercised  in  social  woi'ship  and  mutual  edification  (3^"'^'*').  He  gives 
brief  directions  for  the  fulfilment  of  domestic  duties  (3^^-4^) ; 
exhorts  the  Colossians  to  constancy  in  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  and 
to  consistent  conduct  before  the  world  (4^"^)  ;  and,  in  conclusion, 
mentions  Tychicus  and  Onesimus,  who  would  give  them  full  informa- 
tion of  all  his  circiimstances ;  and  sends  salutations  from  his  fellow 
labourers  and  from  himself,  with  a  special  message  to  Archippus  : 
adding  a  touching  injunction,  at  the  moment  of  signing  the  letter,  to 


503.  Key-words  and  phrases  of  the  Epistle. — Leading  thought 
— *  Christ  all,  and  in  all,'  3I1.  <  In  Him  dwelleth  all  the  fullness  of 
the  Godhead  bodily.'  '  Christ  is  the  Pleroma,  the  Plenitude,  at  once 
the  brimmed  receptacle  and  the  total  contents  of  all  the  gifts  and  attri- 
butes of  God '  (F.  W.  Farrar).  Note  the  constant  repetition  of  '  to  fill,' 
'to  fulfil,'  and  kindred  words,  i^-^^-^s  2^^  412;  'fullness'  or  'pleni- 
tude,' i^»  2^;  the  repetition  of  <all,'  'every,'  ii'i-i6-n.23.28^  ^^^^  ^nd  the 
use  of  current  terms  of  incipient  gnosticism,  '  knowledge,'  '  full 
knowledge,*  'wisdom,'  'understanding.'  'Mystery,'  i2o.27  ^1  ^r^  ^^ 
in  other  Pauline  writings,  is  generally  accompanied  by  the  idea  of 
revelation,  or  manifestation,  to  signify  a  secret  made  known.  As  in 
'  Ephesians,'  so  here  appears  his  favourite  expression  'riches,'  'the 
I'iches  of  the  glory  of  this  mystery,'  i^'^  ;  'riches  of  the  full  assurance 
of  understanding,'  2^  ;  and  in  adverbial  form,  '  let  the  word  of  Christ 
dwell  in  you  richly,'  3^^ 

Among  the  peculiar  words  to  be  noted  as  occurring  only  once  are  : 
'philosophy,'  2^;  'will  worship,'  2-^;  to  beguile  of  one's  reward 
('rob  you  of  your  prize,'  R.  V.)  {Kara^pa^ivuv),  2^^,  from  the  word 
denoting  the  judge  or  umpire  in  the  public  games  (see  3^^  R.  V.  marg.). 

The  shorter  form  of  benediction,  characteristic  of  Paul's  later  epistles, 
occurs  here  for  the  first  time.     Cf.  4^^  with  i  Tim  6^1  2  Tim  4'^^  <m  315. 


The  Epistle  to  Philemon 

Home,  A.D.  62. 

604.  A  private  Letter:  subject  and  contents. — This 
inspired  model  of  private  Christian  correspondence  was 
addressed   by  the   Apostle  Paul  to  Philemon,  one  of  his 


PHILEMON  717 

converts  residing  at  Colossae  (compare  verses  2,  10,  19  with 
Col  4^*^^),  of  whom  nothing  more  is  known  than  may  be 
gathered  from  the  letter.  From  this  it  has  been  supposed 
that  Philemon  was  an  elder  or  deacon  in  the  church,  and 
that  Apphia  was  his  wife.  Archippus  seems  to  have  been 
pastor  at  Colossae,  Col  4^"^. 

This  epistle  was  evidently  written  (see  verses  10-12,  23) 
and  sent  at  the  same  time  as  that  to  the  Colossians  (see 
Col  4^:  compare  also  verses  23,  24  with  Col  ^^^~^*). 
Onesimus,  the  subject  of  this  epistle  and  the  bearer  of  both, 
was  a  slave  (probably  a  domestic  servant)  of  Philemon, 
who,  having  fled  from  his  master,  had  found  his  way  to 
Rome ;  and,  while  there,  had  been  converted  by  the  instru- 
mentality of  Paul,  verse  10.  After  a  time,  Paul,  thinking 
it  right  that  he  should  return  to  his  master,  wrote  this 
beautiful  and  persuasive  letter  in  order  to  secure  for  him 
a  kind  reception.  'A  few  friendly  lines,'  says  M.  Sabatier, 
'  so  full  of  grace  and  wit,  of  earnest  trustful  affection,  that 
this  short  epistle  shines  among  the  rich  treasures  of  the 
New  Testament  as  a  pearl  of  exquisite  fineness.' 

After  an  affectionate  salutation  from  himself  and  Timothy,  the 
Apostle  expresses  his  thankfulness  at  hearing  of  the  good  reputation 
which  Philemon  as  a  Christian  enjoyed,  and  then  gracefully  intro- 
duces the  main  subject  of  his  letter  :  requesting  as  *  Paul  the  aged,' 
now  a  prisoner  for  their  common  faith,  what  he  might  as  an  Apostle 
have  commanded.  Acknowledging  the  fault  of  Onesimus,  he  mentions 
the  happy  change  which  had  taken  place  in  him  :  and  hints  that  his 
flight  had  been  overruled  for  his  master's  benefit  as  well  as  his  own  ; 
and  entreats  that  he  may  be  received  back,  no  longer  as  a  slave,  but  as 
a  beloved  Christian  brother.  He  then  delicately  proposes  to  make 
good  any  loss  Philemon  might  have  sustained  ;  whilst  he  intimates 
how  great  were  his  friend's  obligations  to  himself. 

This  short  letter  is  invaluable,  as  offering  an  example  of  humility, 
courteousness,  and  freedom,  in  the  intercourse  of  Christian  friendship : 
and  we  cannot  but  suppose  that  the  gentleness  and  address  of  the 
Apostle's  pleading  were  effectual. 

505.  Key- words  and  phrases. — Short  as  is  this  letter,  there  are 
a  few  distinctive  expressions  of  which  note  should  be  made.     It  is  here 


718  THE   EPISTLES 

the  Apostle  speaks  of  himself  as  '  Paul  the  aged,'  verse  9  "  ;  plays  with 
a  touch  of  humour  on  the  name  Onesimus,  which  means  '  Helpful,'  and 
the  word  ovaiyi-qv  ('  have  joy  or  help  ')  in  verse  20,  and  uses  in  close 
antithesis  'unprofitable'  (ax/"7<''Toj)and  'profitable'  {ivxprjor os),yer^G.  11. 
Characteristic  of  this  epistle  is  the  thrice-repeated  '  bowels'  (airA<i7x»'a) 
in  the  sense  of  the  heart,  tender  affection. 


Epistle  to  the  Philippians 

Borne,  A.D.  63. 

506.  Introduction  of  the  Gospel  to  Europe. — Philippi 
was  a  city  of  Macedonia,  enlarged  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
and  afterwards  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  Roman  military 
colony  by  Julius  Caesar,  who  gave  the  people  the  privileges 
of  a  Roman  city  ;  and  it  is  distinguished  as  having  been  the 
first  place  in  Europe  which  received  the  gospel,  Paul  having 
been  specially  directed  thither  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  in 
opposition  to  his  previous  plans  (Ac  16).  On  arriving  at 
Philippi,  Paul  followed  his  usual  custom  of  addressing 
himself  first  to  the  Jews  ;  who  appear,  however,  to  have 
been  few  in  number.  Those  who  met  for  worship  at  a 
place  of  prayer  outside  the  city  were  chiefly  women ;  one 
of  whom,  a  visitor  from  Asia,  was  the  first  convert  to 
Christianity.  The  successful  labours  of  Paul  and  Silas, 
and  the  persecution  raised  against  them,  which  led  to  their 
sudden  departure  from  it,  are  related  in  Ac  16.  That  Paul 
twice  visited  Philippi  again,  before  his  first  imprisonment  at 
Rome,  is  plain  from  Ac  20^-'^-".  On  his  first  visit  he  seems 
to  have  left  Luke  behind  him  (16^-  17^).  Luke  also,  who 
was  with  him  in  the  earlier  part  of  his  imprisonment  (Ac  27 
Col  4^*),  seems  now  to  have  left  him  [o.'^^-'^^). 

507.  Place  and  time  of  writing  the  Epistle.— This 

epistle    was   manifestly   written  at   Rome    (see   i^^-J-i  4-^^j^ 

*  Or  possibly  'Paul  the  ambassador.'     See  Lightfoot. 


PHILIPPIANS  719 

and,  perhaps,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Apostle's  first 
captivity  in  that  city.  For  Paul,  at  the  time  of  writing  it, 
seems  to  anticipate  a  speedy  decision  of  his  case,  and  hopes 
to  obtain  his  release  (i-5-27  2-''--*).  It  appears  to  have  been 
written  on  the  occasion  of  the  return  of  Epaphroditus, 
whom  the  Philippian  church  had  sent  to  Eome  with  a 
pecuniary  contribution  for  the  Apostle's  relief  during  his 
imprisonment,  and  who,  while  zealously  performing  this 
service,  had  fallen  dangerously  ill :  the  tidings  of  which 
so  afllicted  the  Philippians,  that  the  Apostle  was  induced, 
upon  his  recovery,  to  send  him  back  sooner  than  he  had 
intended  (2"-^-^^'). 

Character  of  the  Church  at  Philippi. — The  church  at 

Philippi  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the  most  pure  and 
generous  of  that  age.  Its  members  showed  the  tenderest 
regard  for  Paul.  Twice  while  he  was  at  Thessalonica,  and 
once  when  at  Corinth,  they  had  sent  him  contributions  for 
his  support,  which  he  accepted,  to  prevent  the  gospel  being 
burdensome  to  more  recent  converts  (4^^-^^  2  Cor  ii'^).  They 
had  also  cheerfully  borne  many  sufferings  for  their  adherence 
to  the  Saviour  (i^^~^").  Their  conduct  had  been  uniformly 
so  exemplary  that  he  had  only  to  rejoice  over  them. 
Accordingly,  in  this  epistle,  he  pours  forth  his  heart  in 
expressions  of  devout  thankfulness  and  hearty  commenda- 
tions, not  unmingled,  however,  with  exhortations  and 
counsel. 

508.  Contents. — The  epistle  may  be  divided  into  three  parts  : — 
I.  Alter  an  affectionate  introduction,  Paul  expresses  his  gratitude 
to  God  for  the  Philippians,  and  his  earnest  desire  for  the  increase  of 
their  knowledge  and  holiness  (i^~^^).  That  they  might  not  be  dejected 
on  his  account,  he  assures  them  that  his  imprisonment  had  not  hin- 
dered but  promoted  the  gospel  ;  some  gathering  boldness  from  his 
bonds,  and  others  preaching  Christ  in  a  spirit  of  rivalry.  If  Christ  be 
but  preached  and  magnified,  whether  it  be  by  Paul's  labours  or  by  his 
martyrdom,  he  himself  is  more  than  content.  The  former  he  thinks 
the  more  probable  ;    and  he  exhorts  the  Philippians  at  all  events  to 


720  THE   EPISTLES 

maintain  a  conduct  worthy  of  the  gospel,  to  be  steadfast  and  courageous, 
united,  generous,  and  humble,  copying  tlie  example  of  their  blessed 
Lord,  and  reminds  them  that  their  consistency  and  usefulness  are  his 
own  highest  rewards.  He  promises  to  send  Timothy  to  them,  gives 
his  reason  for  sending  Epaphroditus,  and  commends  the  character  of 
each  (112-230). 

2.  He  exhorts  them  to  rejoice  in  their  Christian  privileges  ;  and  to 
be  on  their  guard  against  Judaizing  teacliers,  who  prided  themselves 
upon  distinctions  in  which  he  himself  could  more  than  compete  Avith 
them  ;  but  which,  however  once  valued,  he  now  regarded  as  utterly 
worthless,  in  comparison  with  the  surpassing  excellency  of  the  know- 
ledge of  Christ ;  and  then,  referring  to  his  own  holy  ambition  to  strive 
after  perfection,  urges  upon  the  Philippians  a  similar  spirit ;  contrast- 
ing with  this  the  conduct  of  some  false  professors,  against  whom  he 
had  previously  warned  them  (3^-4^). 

3.  Admonitions  are  addressed  to  individual  members  of  the  church, 
hinting  at  some  kind  of  disagreement ;  followed  by  exhortations  to 
holy  joy,  moderation,  prayer,  and  thanksgiving  ;  and  to  the  study  and 
practice  of  all  that  is  true,  just,  pure,  amiable,  and  praiseworthy  (42"^). 
The  epistle  concludes  with  grateful  acknowledgements  of  the  repeated 
proofs  of  affection,  care,  and  sympathy  which  he  had  received  from 
the  Philippians,  in  which  he  rejoiced  for  their  sakes,  intimating, 
however,  with  noble  delicacy,  his  contentment  with  either  poverty  or 
abundance  ;  and  closes  with  salutations  and  a  benediction  (i^^^~^^). 

509.  Key-words  and  characteristic  expressions. — Joy  is  the 
key-note.  *  "I  rejoice,"  "ye  rejoice,'"  says  Bengel,  '  is  the  sum  of  the 
epistle.'  This  spirit  of  joy  finds  expression  in  i4i8.25  ^'^mm  gi  ^1.4.10^ 
The  epistle  abounds  likewise  in  expression  of  Love.  'I  long  after  you 
all  in  the  bowels  ('tender  mercies,'  R.  V.)  of  Jesus  Christ,'  i*,  cf.  2^. 
•Brethren  dearly  beloved  and  longed  for,' 4^.  'Beloved' and  *  brethren* 
again  and  again  recur.  Unity  is  another  prominent  idea,  i27-3o  2}-* 
4-.  Perhaps  there  was  some  special  cause  for  insisting  upon  this,  and 
a  measure  of  rebuke  is  most  delicately  conveyed.  See  4-"'.  Among  ex- 
pressions peculiar  to  the  epistle  : — *  to  depart,'  i.  e.  from  life  (avaKvav), 
i'^",  literally  '  to  unloose,'  as  of  a  ship  weighing  anchor,  or  of  a  camp 
breaking  up.  The  references  to  Christ: — 'in  the  form  of  God '  (ev 
fxup(p-p  6eov),  2^  ;  *  He  made  Himself  of  no  reputation  '  (i  e.  '  emptied 
Himself,'  R.  V.),  2'^ ;  *  thought  it  not  robbery'  (apnayfius)  ('counted  it 
not  a  prize,'  R.  V.),  2'.  The  comparison  of  Judaizers  (?)  to  '  dogs,'  3'^ ; 
Hhe  mark,'  'the  goal'  {oKo-nos),  3^*.  Observe  the  famous  doctrinal 
passage  on  the  Godhead  of  Christ  and  His  Manhood,  2^^',  and  the 
striking  and  beautiful  directions  for  profitable  thought,  with  the  six 
times  repeated  '  whatsoever  things  '  (ocra),  4**.  Note  also  Paul's  allu- 
sions to  the  Praetorian  guard, 


THE   PASTORAL   EPISTLES  721 

well  known  as  a  prisoner  for  the  cause  of  Christ,  and  to  '  the  saints  of 
Cajsar's  household,'  4^2,  probably  slaves  or  freedmen  in  Nero's  palace. 
Observable  also  is  it  that,  writing  to  those  who  had  the  Roman  fran- 
chise, the  Apostle  speaks  of  the  rights  and  duties  of  citizens,  i^^ 
(marg.  R.  V.)  320. 

The  Three  Pastoral  Epistles. 

510.  Specialities  of  these  Epistles. — Of  these  epistles 
it  has  been  well  said :  '  They  were  not  addressed  to  churches, 
but  to  individuals — to  two  younger  men,  friends  and  com- 
panions of  Paul's  travels,  who  were  in  perfect  sympathy 
with  him — to  men  who  had  submitted  themselves  to  his 
personal  influence,  and  were  familiar  with  his  methods  of 
thought.  To  them  there  was  no  need  to  expound  the 
philosophy,  whether  of  law,  or  of  sin,  or  of  redemption. 
It  was  unnecessary  for  him  in  these  epistles  to  vindicate 
his  apostolic  office,  or  to  recount  either  his  afflictions  or  his 
services.  Timothy  and  Titus  had  suffered  with  him.  They 
had  difficult  duties  to  discharge,  and  needed  both  advice 
and  stimulus.  The  principles  and  details  of  church  dis- 
cipline, the  motives  and  law  of  Christian  sei*vice,  were  the 
themes  on  which  he  dilated.  It  is  in  harmoiLy  with  these 
obvious  peculiarities  of  the  epistles  that  they  should  abound 
in  phrases  suitable  to  confidential  intercourse,  and  that  they 
should  refer  to  matters  which  were  not  included  in  other 
and  earlier  correspondence*.' 

Their  authenticity  has  been  more  questioned  than  that  of 
any  other  of  the  Apostle's  writings ;  but  as  there  was  never 
any  doubt  on  the  subject  in  the  early  Church,  and  all  the 
differences  observable  between  these  and  the  other  Pauline 
epistles  may  be  accounted  for  by  differences  of  time  and  sub- 
ject, as  well  as  by  the  hypothesis  of  a  journey  by  Paul  after 
his  first  Koman  imprisonment,  there  is  little  real  ground 
for  doubt  on  the  question.  See  a  valuable  excursus  on  the 
subject  in  Conybeare  and  Howson,  Appendix  I. 

*  Dr.  H.  R.  Reynolds  in  the  Expositor,  vol.  i,  first  series. 


722  THE   EPISTLES 


First  Epistle  to  Timothy 

Macedonia,  a.  d.  64  07-  67. 

511.  Training  and  character  of  Timothy. — Timothy 
was  an  inhabitant,  perhaps  a  native,  of  Lystra,  Ac  16^-2. 
His  father  was  a  Greek,  his  mother  and  grandmother  were 
devout  Jewesses,  by  whom  he  was  carefully  trained  in  a 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures,  2  Tim  3^*.  He  was  probably 
converted  by  Paul  when  but  a  boy''  on  the  Apostle's  first 
visit  to  Lystra,  Ac  14^  16^  (see  i  Tim  i^  2  Tim  i''^  i  Cor  4^"^)  ; 
and  on  his  second  visit  was  chosen  to  be  the  companion 
of  the  Apostle  in  his  journeys  and  labours.  He  is  every- 
where spoken  of  in  terms  of  high  praise,  i  Th  3^  Phil  2--, 
and  is  a  noble  instance  of  eminent  gifts  and  grace  in  one 
young  in  years  and  feeble  in  health,  4^^  5-^. 

512.  Date  of  the  Epistle. — It  is  difficult,  perhaps  impossible,  to 
determine  when  this  epistle  was  written.  From  i^  it  has  been  sup- 
posed that  it  belongs  to  the  period  when  Paul  left  Ephesus  after  the 
uproar  caused  by  Demetrius,  and  went  to  Macedonia  (Ac  20^).  There 
are,  however,  serious  difficulties  in  the  way  of  this  supposition,  and 
it  is  now  the  generally  accepted  conclusion  that  this  epistle  must 
have  been  written  at  a  later  period,  after  the  Apostle's  first  im- 
prisonment at  Rome,  while  upon  a  journey  undertaken  by  him 
shortly  before  his  final  imprisonment. 

Considerations  of  style  and  diction,  of  subject-matter  in  refer- 
ence to  the  state  of  the  church,  and  disturbing  heresies  indicate  an 
interval  of  several  years  from  the  time  of  the  earlier  prison  epistles. 

513.  Its  purpose  and  contents. — The  epistle  appears 
to  have  two  chief  objects  : — 

I.  To  counteract  the  false  doctrines  of  Jewish  teachers, 
who,  whilst  professing  adherence  to  the  Law,  taught  doctrines 
at  variance  with  its  holy  requirements.     Their  fallacies  and 

*  Some  sixteen  years  afterwards  Timoth;y  is  addressed  as  a  young 
man,  i  Tim  4'"''. 


I   TIMOTHY  723 

the  contrary  truths  are  forcibly  exhibited  in  i  4"^"^^  53-5.20.21^ 
Compare  Ac  20-"^""^  2  Cor  4^""^. 

2.  To  guide  and  encourage  Timothy  in  the  duties  of  his 
office ;  directing  him  as  to  (i)  public  devotions,  2^~^ ;  (2) 
the  duties  and  behaviour  of  Christian  women,  2^-^^ :  compare 
I  Cor  ii3-i6  1434-40  J  Pet  2I-6.  (3)  church  officers,  s^-^^. 
(4)  his  own  teaching,  3^^  4 ;  (5)  his  personal  holiness, 
411^^6 .  ^j^^  ^5j  i^ig  church  administration  in  the  treatment 
of  offenders,  of  widows,  of  good  elders  and  bad,  of  slaves, 
of  the  rich ;  and  the  duties  of  those  several  classes  of 
persons,  5,  6  :  compare  Tit  i^^-3^^.  With  this  teaching  are 
mingled  many  urgent  and  affectionate  appeals,  tender 
references  to  Paul's  own  conversion,  and  solemn  anticipa- 
tions of  the  coming  of  Christ. 

Views  of  the  Christian  Ministry. — In  tlie  Epistles  to  Timothy  and 
Titus — the  Pastoral  Epistles — we  have  the  clearest  revelation  given  in 
Scripture  of  the  character  (a),  qualifications  (6;,  and  duties  (c)  of  the 
Christian  minister.  Though  the  whole  are  often  described  in  the 
same  passage,  they  may  be  thus  arranged  : 

(a)  I  Tim  I  2  Tim  i^-^  2^-8-  i*--6  a  Cor  4I-'  Ac  ao^^-ss. 
(6)  I  Tim  3^-7  Tit  i^-". 

(c)  I  Tim  46-621  Tit  ii3  (see  Ro  i6i^-i8)  2  Tim  3^*-4^ 

With  all  these  passages  compare  Paul's  description  of  his  own 
experience,  motives  and  labours  ^see  2  Cor  4-6)  ;  a  model  of  the  gospel 
ministry. 

Deacons. — The  qualifications  of  deacons  are  described  in  i  Tim  3^"^' ; 
see  also  Ac  6'-"^.  In  Phil  i^  ministers  and  deacons  are  addressed 
with  all  the  saints. 

On  the  other  hand,  churches  owe  to  their  ministers  support  (d), 
affection  and  respect  (e),  and  within  proper  limits,  obedience  (/) 

(d)  I  Tim  5i'-i8  Gal  66-7  i  Cor  9*-^*  2  Th  3^-^  (cf.  Mt  lo^o  Lu  10^). 
(«)  I  Tim  517  I  Th  5I213. 

(/)  Heb  13I7  ;  for  the  limits  see  i  Cor  ii^  Phil  3^^  Heb  13^ 

Warnings  against  error. — These  epistles  contain  also  the  fullest 
account  of  the  approaching  corruption  of  Christianity  (gr),  and  of  the 
extensive  prevalence  of  infidelity  (A),  in  what  Scripture  calls  the 
last  times. 

3  A   2 


724  THE   EPISTLES 

{g)  I  Tim  4I-5  2  Tim  3^-"  2  Th  2^-1^  (cf.  2  Pet  2    Ju  ^^-^S). 

(A)    (Cf.  2   Pet  33  LU  1235-38  188.) 

To  correct  these  errors,  inspired  writers  direct  us  to  appeal  to 
apostolic   doctrine   and   example,    and   to   the   Scriptures   generally, 

1  Tim  46-11  2  Tim  3"  41-^^   2  Th  2I3-17  ^  Pet  112-21  j^  20.21,      xhia 
Scriptural  plan  of  checking  error  is  highly  instructive. 

514.  Key-words  and  memora'ble  saying's. — The  verbal  peculiarities 
of  the  Pastoral  Epistles  have  given  rise  to  much  discussion  ;  concern- 
ing many  of  them  considerations  of  time  and  of  their  special  topic 
afifoi'd  satisfactory  explanation.  Among  the  phrases  which  characterize 
this  and  other  epistles  of  the  Pastoral  group  note  the  following: — 
The  epithet  '  sound*  or  'healthful  doctrine '  {vyi-qs,  vyiaivdv),  i  Tim  i^° 
53*  2  Tim  1^3  43  Tit  i^-'3  2!-^,  suggested  probably  by  the  tendency  of 
growing  heresies  or  diseased  forms  of  thought.  'It  is  a  faithful 
saying,'  a  phrase  of  repeated  occurrence,  prefacing  words  of  peculiar 
significance,  may  denote  certain  Logia  current  in  the  early  churches, 
or,  as  some  writers  have  suggested,  the  use  of  liturgical  forms  ;  see 
r  Tim  ii^  3I  48  2  Tim  2^^  Tit  38.  'Godliness,'  'godly'  {ivai&ua, 
fvat^ws),  rarely  found  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament,  occurs  thirteen 
times  in  the  Epistles  as  a  compendious  term  for  the  religion  of 
Christians.  The  words  '  fables'  (fiC^oi),  i  Tim  i''  4"^  2  Tim  4*  Tit  i^* ; 
'  genealogies,'  i  Tim  i*  Tit  3^  ;  *  vain  janglings '  {fxaraioKo'^ia),  i  Tim  6^° 

2  Tim  2I6,  are  all  such  as  owe  their  use  to  the  progress  of  heresy. 

Of  memorable  passages  and  phrases  in  this  epistle,  especially  note- 
worthy are  i^^  the  Gospel  Message  ;  2^-^  Christ  the  Mediator ;  3^^ 
Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,  'the  Mystery  of  godliness  manifested 
in  the  flesh' ;  6^  '  Godliness  with  contentment  is  great  gain';  6i°  'The 
love  of  money  is  a  root  of  all  kinds  of  evil '  R.  V. 


Epistle  to  Titus 

Macedonia,  a.  d.  64  or  67. 

515.  Notices  of  his  life. — Titus  is  not  mentioned  in 
the  Acts,  and  nothing  more  is  known  of  him  than  we  find 
in  the  epistles  of  Paul.  From  incidental  allusions  we  learn 
that  he  was  a  Greek  by  birth.  Gal  2^,  who  had  been  converted 
to  Christianity  by  the  instrumentality  of  Paul,  Tit  i*.  He 
went  up  Vfiih.  Paul  and  Barnabas  to  Jerusalem,  Gal  2^,  and 
afterwards  accomi)anied  Paul  on  his  travels,  being  sent  by 


TITUS  726 

him  orb  various  important  missions ;  and  he  is  repeatedly- 
mentioned  by  the  Apostle  in  terms  of  approbation  and 
affection,  2  Cor  75-7.13-15  316-24  isH.is^ 

Being  the  son  of  Gentile  parents,  and  therefore  in  a 
different  position  from  that  of  Timothy,  he  was  not  circum- 
cised. Circumcision  in  his  case  would  have  involved,  as 
Paul  reasoned,  a  compromise  of  principle,  especially  if 
performed  at  the  bidding  of  the  Judaizing  party.  Gal  2^, 

Titus  at  Crete. — At  the  time  when  this  epistle  was 
written,  Titus  had  been  left  by  the  Apostle  in  the  island 
of  Crete,  that  he  might  establish  and  regulate  the  churches 
there  (i^).  It  is  not  easy  to  determine  when  this  occurred  ; 
no  opportunity  for  it  having  been  afforded  by  the  only  visit 
to  Crete,  recorded  in  Ac  :if-^  ;  for  Paul  was  then  on  his 
way  to  Rome  as  a  prisoner,  his  stay  was  short,  nor  could 
he  then  expect  to  spend  the  ensuing  winter  in  Nicopolis 
(see  3^2j, 

Some  have  supposed  that  Paul  may  have  landed  at  Crete  on  his 
voyage  from  Corinth  to  Ephesus,  mentioned  Ac  18'^ ;  and  that  he 
vsrrote  this  epistle  .subsequently  from  Ephesus,  having  formed  the  in- 
tention of  spending  the  winter  at  a  town  named  Nicopolis  in  Cilicia, 
between  Antioch  and  Tarsus  (see  3^^).  Others  have  placed  Paul's 
visit  to  Crete  between  his  leaving  Epliesus  for  Macedonia  and  his 
second  visit  to  Corinth,  Ac  ao^.  But  such  hypotheses  are  forced  and 
artificial,  and  the  simplest  account  of  the  matter  is  that  Paul,  sailing  to 
Asia  after  his  first  imprisonment  in  Rome  (see  Introd.  to  i  Timothy), 
took  Crete  in  his  way  and  left  Titus  there,  and  that  he  wrote  this 
epistle  from  Macedonia,  when  on  his  way  to  the  Thracian  Nicopolis. 

It  is  further  supposed  that  Titus,  according  to  Paul's  desire,  joined 
the  Apostle  at  Nicopolis,  and  afterwards  accompanied  him  on  his  last 
journey  to  Rome,  being  with  him  there  during  part  of  his  second 
imprisonment,  2  Tim  4^^ ;  and  having  then  been  sent  into  Dalmatia, 
probably  to  preach  the  gospel,  or  to  visit  churches  already  formed 
there. 

516.  The  Gospel  in  Crete. — We  know  nothing  of  the 
first  introduction  of  the  gospel  into  Crete,  but  as  there  were 
Jews  from  that  island  among  Peter's  audience  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost  (Ac  2^^),  it  is  probable  that  the  Christian  faith 


726  THE   EPISTLES 

was  carried  thither  by  converts  from  among  them.  It 
appears  also  from  this  epistle  that  Paul  had  laboured 
there,  and  probably  with  considerable  success;  but  that 
by  some  means  he  had  been  hurried  thence  before  he  could 
order  the  state  of  the  churches  in  a  regular  manner. 

The  commission  entrusted  to  Titus  in  Crete  appears  to 
have  been  peculiarly  difficult.  Although  nature  had  en- 
dowed this  island  with  all  that  could  tend  to  render  man 
happy,  and  the  inhabitants  had  formerly  been  renowned 
for  the  wisdom  of  their  constitution  and  their  laws,  long 
before  this  time  the  state  of  law  and  of  morals  had  sunk 
very  low.  The  character  of  the  people  was  unsteady,  in- 
sincere, and  quarrelsome:  they  were  notoriously  given  to 
licentiousness  and  intemperance.  Some  of  the  Jews  who 
had  settled  among  them  seem  to  have  been  regarded  by  the 
Apostle  as  more  dangerous  in  many  respects  than  the  natives 
themselves. 

517.  Contents  of  the  Epistle. — There  is  a  striking  resemblance 
between  this  epistle  and  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy  ;  and  they  are 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  written  about  the  same  time.  This 
epistle  is  particularly  remarkable,  as  compressing  into  a  very  short 
compass  a  large  amount  of  insti'uction,  embracing  doctrine,  morals, 
and  discipline.     Its  contents  are  as  follows  : — 

After  an  apostolic  salutation,  declaring  the  object  for  which  Paul 
had  invested  Titus  with  special  authority,  he  describes  the  qualifica- 
tions required  in  those  who  were  to  be  ordained  to  the  ministry  ;  and 
which  were  the  more  necessary  on  account  of  the  dangerous  principles 
of  the  false  teachers  whom  they  had  to  oppose,  and  the  genei-al 
character  of  the  Cretans  (i).  He  next  describes  the  instructions 
which  were  to  be  given  to  various  classes  of  persons,  enjoining  upon 
the  aged  and  the  young  tlie  virtues  which  ought  severally  to  distin- 
guish them  ;  exhorting  Titus  (himself  a  young  man)  to  set  a  pattern, 
in  his  own  conduct,  of  the  virtues  he  was  to  inculcate  ;  teaching 
servants  to  be  obedient  and  faithful  ;  for  the  salvation  of  the  gospel 
was  designed  for  all  orders  and  classes  of  mankind,  making  them 
holy  in  this  life,  and  preparing  them  for  a  higher  and  better  (2. 
Titus  is  then  instructed  to  enjoin  obedience  to  rulers,  and  a  peaceable 
and  gentle  behaviour  to  all  men  ;  remembering  their  own  former  sin- 
fulness, and  their  salvation  through   the  free   grace   of  God.      The 


TITUS:    II   TIMOTHY  727 

indispensable  obligation  which  believers  are  under  to  excel  in  good 
works  is  insisted  upon ;  cautions  are  given  against  engaging  in 
frivolous  inquiries  and  unprofitable  disputations ;  and  after  some 
other  brief  directions  to  Titus,  the  epistle  is  closed  with  salutations 
and  a  benediction  (3). 

It  is  very  observable  in  this  epistle  that  those  of  the  humblest  rank 
are  exhorted  to  adorn  the  gospel  (2^°),  and  that  while  our  salvation  is 
ascribed  exclusively  to  grace  (a^^),  to  the  'kindness  and  love  of  God 
our  Saviour'  (^*),  this  fact  is  made  the  ground  of  most  urgent 
exhortations  to  holiness  (2^*  3^). 

On  the  duties  Christians  owe  to  civil  government,  compare  Tit  3' 
Ro  13^-10  I  Pet  2^3-17  2  Pet  2^0  Ju  «. 

518.  Key- words  :  special  phrases  and  passages.  —  Prominent 
among  the  leading  words  of  the  epistle  is  that  of  Saviour.  The  word 
occurs  six  times  in  the  three  chapters,  i^-*  s^o.u  ^^.a .  ^f  these  instances 
three  (i'  2^'^  3*)  refer  to  God  ;  2^^  is  of  uncertain  application.  See  also 
2".  '  Sound '  or  'healthy '  doctrine  is  another  characteristic  expression 
(as  in  I  Tim)  i^-^^  a^-^-s.  <  Sober-  (or  "  sound-  ")  minded  '  {awcppcuv  and 
its  derivatives)  occurs  i^  a^-^-^-^^^^  'Good  works'  as  the  practical  issue  of 
faith  is  a  recurrent  phrase,  z'-^*' ^'^•^■^^.  Noteworthy  also  the  quotation 
from  a  heathen  poet  descriptive  of  the  Cretan  character,  i^'^;  and  the 
two  doctrinal  summaries,  2^^"^*  and  3*"'^. 


Second  Epistle  to  Timothy 

Home,  A.D.  67  or  68. 

519.  When  written. — This  epistle  was  written  when 
Paul  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome  (see  i^-^'^  4^) ;  during  his 
second  captivity,  not  long  before  his  martyrdom.  That  it 
was  not  written  during  his  first  imprisonment  may  be 
gathered  in  part  from  the  absence  of  several  who  were 
with  him  then  (see  Phil  i^  Col  i^  Philem  ^ :  compare  also 
^10.11  ^vith  Col  4^^-'*) ;  and  from  the  difference  in  the 
Apostle's  expectations,  which  were  now  fixed  upon  a  speedy 
decease  (compare  4*^  with  Phil  i^'^  2^*  Philem  ^^) ;  as 
well  as  from  his  circumstances  of  increased  restriction 
and  greater  solitude  (compare  ii'^-is  with  Ac  sS^*^-^^  and 
Phil  i^^).     But  more  decisive  evidence  is  afforded  by  several 


728  THE   EPISTLES 

incidental  allusions  to  evcuts  which  had  clearly  occurred 
not  long  before  this  letter  was  written.  Mention  is  made  of 
a  cloak  and  books  left  at  Troas  (4^^),  which  Paul  had  not 
visited  for  five  years  before  his  first  imprisonment  at  Eome  ; 
of  Trophimus,  who  had  been  left  sick  at  Miletus  (4^^),  but 
who  had  been  with  the  Apostle  at  Jerusalem  at  the  time 
of  his  first  apprehension,  Ac  21^^ ;  of  Erastus  as  having 
stayed  at  Corinth  (4^^),  where  Paul  had  not  been  since 
his  visit  there  five  years  before,  accompanied  by  Timothy, 
Ac  20*.  All  these  circumstances  point  to  a  date  later,  pro- 
bably by  two  years,  than  that  of  his  first  epistle.  Such 
incidental  allusions  are  quite  unlike  the  work  of  a  forger. 
The  interval  between  Paul's  two  imprisonments  he  seems 
to  have  spent  in  Asia,  Philem  ^^,  afterwards  in  Macedonia, 
Phil  1^5  2^^  I  Tim  i^ ;  wintering  in  Nicopolis  (of  Epirus), 
Tit  3^2.  Why  he  returned  to  Rome  we  are  not  told,  but  he 
was  soon  imprisoned  as  an  evil-doer,  2  Tim  2^ ;  and  among 
his  accusers  was  Alexander,  the  coppersmith  of  Ephesus, 
*who  did  him  much  evil,'  4^^. 

If  this  view  be  correct,  and  this  epistle  was  the  last 
which  the  Apostle  wrote  before  his  martyrdom,  it  is  invested 
with  peculiar  interest  as  containing  the  dying  counsels  of 
one  who  was  not  'behind  the  chief  est  of  the  Apostles.' 

520.  Purpose  and  contents  of  the  Epistle. — One  object 
of  writing  this  epistle  was  to  request  Timothy  to  come  to 
him  speedily  (4^^) ;  because  his  other  friends  had  left  him 
— all  but  his  faithful  comrade  Luke  (see  4^^""^-).  He  desired 
the  presence  of  Timothy  and  Mark  (the  old  alienation  having 
been  completely  healed)  that  they  might  both  cheer  him 
in  his  trials,  and  aid  him  in  the  work  of  the  ministry 
(see  verse  11). 

Commencing  with  strong  expressions  of  affectionate  regard,  he 
addresses  to  his  'son  Timothy'  a  series  of  earnest  exhortations  to 
steadfastness,  diligence,  and  patience  in  his  work  ;  to  courage  and 
constancy  under  persecutions;    and  to  the  exercise  of  all    personal 


II   TIMOTHY  729 

virtues  :  encouraging  him  by  calling  to  mind  his  early  training  in 
piety  and  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  ;  reminding  him  of 
some  who  had  proved  unfaithful  in  the  hour  of  trial ;  warning  both 
Timothy  and  his  flock  against  false  teachers,  vain  controversies,  and 
false  professors,  the  increase  of  whom  is  predicted  ;  foretelling  the 
grievous  times  which  were  yet  to  come  ;  and  enforcing  his  solemn 
charge  to  Timothy  to  be  vigilant,  faithful,  and  zealous  in  the  dis- 
charge of  his  ministry,  by  the  consideration  that  his  own  course  was 
nearly  run,  and  the  time  of  his  departure  was  at  hand. 

This  epistle  contains  a  noble  view  of  the  consolation  which  Chris- 
tians enjoy  in  the  midst  of  suffering,  and  in  the  prospect  of  death, 
i9-i8  a-'-is  46-8.16-18^  The  holiest  spiritual  affection  to  God  and 
Christ  is  not  only  consistent  with  human  friendships,  but  productive 
of  them,  1 2-5  49-21  Nowhere  are  privilege  and  duty,  grace  and  holi- 
ness more  closely  combined,  2}^.  In  the  approaching  corruption 
of  Christianity,  Paul  directs  Timothy  to  the  true  conservative  prin- 
ciple of  its  purity  ;  not  new  miracles  nor  a  fresh  revelation,  but  the 
doctrine  in  which  Timothy  had  been  instructed,  and  those  Scriptures 
which  make  the  man  of  God  perfect,  thoroughly  furnished  unto  all 
good  works  ;  cf.  3^*"^'^  2  Th  2  2  Pet  1I5-21  ^i-^i^-it^  How  instructive 
that  in  the  last  writings  of  both  Peter  and  Paul,  nor  less  in  the 
writings  of  John  (Rev  22),  and  in  the  prospect  of  the  heresies  that 
were  to  prevail  in  the  Church,  we  should  be  directed  to  the  study  of 
the  Scriptures,  and  that  we  are  thus  led  to  expect  no  additional  dis- 
closure of  the  Divine  will. 

521.  Key-words  and  special  allusions. — The  peculiarities  of  lan- 
guage are  similar  to  those  of  the  other  Pastoral  Epistles,  but  in  this 
there  is  greater  abruptness  of  style,  as  if  strong,  overflowing  emotion 
affected  the  writer  concerning  memories  of  the  past  and  apprehen- 
sions of  the  future.  The  motive  of  this  epistle  is  the  desire  for 
Timothy's  presence  ;  its  key-note  is  *  Hasten  !  Come!  greatly  desiring 
to  see  thee'  (longing,  R.  V. ),  i*  ;  *  Do  thy  diligence  to  come  shortly,' 
4^ ;  'Do  thy  diligence  to  come  before  winter,'  4^^.  Conspicuous  in  this 
epistle  are  the  personal  allusions  ;  no  fewer  than  twenty-three  names 
being  mentioned.  Much  interest  attaches  to  that  of  Onesiphorus,  and 
the  expression  of  hope  concerning  him,  i^*  ;  also  to  the  mention  of  the 
grandmother  and  mother  of  Timothy,  and  the  references  to  Demas, 
Luke,  and  Mark.  The  meaning  of  Paul's  request  concerning  his 
cloak  {(f>e\6vris),  books,  and  parchments  is  much  disputed,  and  the 
interpretations  of  the  commentators  curiously  inventive.  Another  of 
the  *  faithful  sayings'  appears  in  this  epistle,  2^^"^^,  and  among  its 
memorable  passages  is  that  on  the  profitableness  of  inspired  Scripture, 
3'^'',  and  the  Apostle's  triumphant  retrospect  of  life,  4*^"^ 


730  THE   EPISTLES 

Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 

Written  about  a.  d.  68. 

522.  The  occasion  and  object  of  writing  this  epistle 
are  not  difficult  to  discover.  The  epistle  was  apparently 
addressed  to  Hehreiv  Christians^,  who  appear  to  have  been 
inhabitants  of  some  particular  city  or  region  (see  IS""^),  and 
to  have  formed  an  organized  society  or  church  which  had 
existed  some  time ;  having  had  pastors  who  had  been  removed 
by  death  (13^) ;  and  having  now  teachers  whom  they  are 
exhorted  to  obey.  It  has  been  generally  assumed  that 
they  were  resident  in  Palestine,  either  at  Jerusalem  or 
Caesarea.  Some  considerations,  however,  favour  the  view 
that  the  epistle  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  at 
Alexandria  (Wieseler,  S.  Davidson,  &c.);  other  arguments 
are  advanced  to  show  it  was  intended  for  Jewish  converts 
at  Rome  (Alford,  Westcott,  Farrar).  An  opinion  has  also 
found  considerable  support  that  at  Antioch  were  the  readers 
to  whom  it  was  originally  sent.  '  There  alone,'  argues  the 
Rev.  F.  Rendall,  following  Hofmann,  'existed  flourishing 
Christian  churches  founded  by  the  earliest  missionaries  of 
the  gospel  ;  animated  with  Jewish  sympathies ;  full  of 
interest  in  the  Mosaic  worship,  and  glorying  in  the  name 
of  Hebrew  ;  who  nevertheless  spoke  the  Greek  language  and 
used  the  Greek  version  of  the  Scriptures.' 

523.  Time  and  place  of  writing. — Where  and  when 
this  epistle  was  written  cannot  be  definitely  determined. 
Only  one,  and  that  a  doubtful  indication  of  jilace  is  given, 
13^'^,  'They  of  Italy  salute  you,'  which  may  mean  those 
among  whom  the  writer  was  at  Rome,  or  it  may  mean 
certain  Italians  who  were  with  the  writer  and  sent  greetings 

*  Some  modern  critics,  however,  argue  for  a  strong  Gentile  element 
in  the  church. 


HEBREWS  731 

to  their  fellow  countrymen.  Westcott,  Farrar,  and  other 
authorities  regard  the  place  of  writing  as  left  in  complete 
uncertainty.  In  reference  to  the  date  of  the  epistle  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  it  was  written  near,  but  not  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  The  writer  throughout  speaks  of 
the  Levitical  ritual  as  still  in  force.  'It  is  impossible,'  as 
Prof.  Marcus  Dods  observes,  '  to  suppose  that  a  writer  wish- 
ing to  demonstrate  the  evanescent  nature  of  the  Levitical 
dispensation,  and  writing  after  the  Temple  services  had 
been  discontinued,  should  not  have  pointed  to  that  event  as 
strengthening  his  argument.' 

524.  Authorship.— The  question  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  epistle 
has  given  rise  to  a  large  amount  of  discussion.  Though  popularly- 
ascribed  to  the  Apostle  Paul  ^,  great  uncertainty  has  existed  from  the 
earliest  times.  Many  arguments,  external  and  internal,  are  adduced 
in  favour  of  the  Pauline  authorship. 

1.  Those  to  whom  the  epistle  was  sent  must  have  known  the  writer 
(see  lo^*  1218.19.23^  .  ^nd  in  preserving  and  circulating  it  could  hardly 
fail  to  communicate  their  knowledge.  Now  the  early  Fathers  of  the 
Eastern  and  Alexandrian  Churches,  in  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
tell  us  that  the  '  ancients,'  who  must  have  been  contemporary  with 
those  who  received  the  original,  if  not  the  same  persons,  had  handed 
it  down  to  them  as  a  writing  of  Paul's.  And  the  most  learned  among 
them,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  and  Eusebius,  though  sensible 
of  some  difficulties  and  doubts  on  the  point,  held  this  testimony  to  be 
conclusive.  Clement,  however,  regards  it  as  really  a  translation  by 
Luke  from  a  Hebrew  (?  Aramaic)  original  signed  by  Paul**,  a  theory ^ow 
universally  and  rightly  rejected  ;  while  Origen  is  of  opinion  that 
'the  thoughts  are  the  thoughts  of  the  Apostle,  but  the  language  and 
the  composition  are  those  of  one  who  recalled  from  memory  and,  as 
it  were,  made  notes  of  what  was  said  by  his  master'  ;  adding  'Who 
wrote  the  epistle  God  only  knows  with  certain tj'.' 

2.  The  Pauline  authorship  is  corroborated  by  the  author's  intimate 

*  The  heading  in  the  Authorized  and  Eevised  Versions,  'The  Epistle 
of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Hebrews'  (Stephens,  not  Elzevir),  is,  of 
course,  not  authoritative.  The  American  Revision  omits  Paul's 
name. 

^  Eusebius,  however,  holds  that  the  translation  was  made  by 
Clement  of  Rome,  vrhose  Letter  to  the  Corinthians,  indeed,  shows 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  this  epistle. 


732  THE    EPISTLES 

acquaintance  with  the  Jewish  system — so  worthy  of  the  disciple  of 
Gamaliel ;  and  by  his  sympathizing  interest  in  the  salvation  of  the 
Jewish  people — so  like  that  which  is  expressed  in  Ro  9,  10,  11  and 
Phil  3. 

3.  The  few  personal  allusions  found  in  the  epistle  are  all  perfectly 
compatible  with  what  we  know  of  the  history  of  Paul. 

4.  Nor  is  there  anything  in  the  peculiarities  of  style  and  treatment 
of  the  subject  that  cannot  be  satisfactorily  reconciled  with  Paul's 
other  epistles.  If  found  to  differ  from  them  in  the  rhetorical  length 
of  words  and  finish  of  sentences,  it  is  only  the  more  like  his  speeches 
recorded  by  Luke.  So  regular  a  composition  would  naturally  vary  in 
manner  from  letters  of  a  different  character,  written  under  different 
circumstances.  Yet  the  careful  reader  may  sometimes  find  the 
concise  expressions,  abrupt  transition,  reasonings  addressed  to  the 
latent  thoughts  and  objections  of  the  readers,  and  the  occasional 
involutions  and  long  parentheses,  resulting  from  the  kindling  of  soul 
and  exuberance  of  feeling,  which  characterize  the  Apostle's  other 
writings.  So  that  the  internal  as  well  as  external  evidence  appears 
to  support  the  opinion  of  the  early  Fathers,  that  the  epistle  is  sub- 
stantially Paul's  ;  though  he  may  have  adopted  occasionally,  as  some 
critics  suppose,  the  phraseology  of  his  companion  Luke. 

'There  is  unquestionably  a  sense  in  which  Origen  is  right  in  saying 
that  "the  thoughts"  of  the  epistle  are  the  thoughts  of  Paul.  The 
writer  shows  the  same  broad  conception  of  the  universality  of  the 
gospel  as  the  Apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  the  same  gi'asp  of  the  age-long 
purpose  of  God  wrought  out  through  Israel,  the  same  trust  in  the 
atoning  work  of  Christ  and  in  His  present  sovereignty'  (Westcott, 
Introd.  p.  Ixxviii).  Of  modern  commentators  and  biblical  critics  in 
favour  of  the  Pauline  authorship  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  the 
eminent  names  of  John  Owen,  Lardner,  Bengel,  Rosenmiiller,  Ebrard, 
Moses  Stuart,  Bloomtield,  Kay,  Hofmann. 

On  the  other  hand,  to  many  and  not  less  capable  minds,  it  has 
seemed  equally  discernible  that  the  difference  in  style  and  language 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  from  that,  for  instance,  of  the  Epistles 
to  the  Romans,  Ephesians,  and  Philippians  is  such  that  there  cannot 
be  identity  of  authorship.  Fundamentally  the  doctrine  is  the  same, 
but  a  different  tinge  is  given  to  its  expression  :  it  is  that  of  the 
Alexandrian  rather  than  the  Palestinian  school  ;  there  is  a  marked 
difference  in  the  spirit  and  the  manner  of  the  citations  from  the  Old 
Testament  ;  of  the  twenty-nine  direct  quotations,  all  but  three  arc 
from  the  Septuagint.  Differences  also  may  be  noted  in  the  method  of 
argument  and  style  of  composition.  *  The  language  of  Paul  is  rugged, 
disjointed,  and  impetuous,  while  this  epistle  is  distinguished  by 
rhetorical   skill,  studied  antithesis,  even  fiow  of  faultless  grammar 


AUTHORSHIP   OF   HEBREWS  73S 

and  measured  march  of  rhythmical  period  '  (Rendall).  The  strong 
personal  element  and  character  of  Paul  is  altogether  wanting  here  ; 
nor  would  Paul,  it  is  urged,  who  lays  such  stress  on  the  fact  that  his 
gospel  was  not  taught  to  him  by  any  man,  but  by  direct  revelation 
(Gal  i),  have  classed  himself  among  those  who  received  the  message 
of  salvation  from  the  personal  disciples  on  the  evidence  of  the 
miracles  with  which  God  confirmed  their  word,  2^*.  Nor  is  it  after  the 
manner  of  Paul,  who  always  spoke  of  Timothy  as  his  '  son,'  to  call 
him  '  brother,'  13^'.  For  these  and  other  reasons,  it  is  now  gene- 
rally agreed  that  the  epistle  must  be  assigned  to  other  than  Paulino 
authorship. 

The  range  of  possibilities  as  to  the  authorship  must,  in  any  case, 
be  limited  to  the  Pauline  circle  :  and  the  writer  was  one  who  could 
fittingly  speak  of  Timothy  as  *  brother.'  Luther's  conjecture  that  it 
might  be  Apollos,  based  upon  the  description  of  him  in  Ac  iS'^^'^s 
as  a  Hellenist  Jew,  has  many  supporters  :  among  others,  Tholuck, 
Bunsen,  Kurtz,  De  Pressens^,  Hilgenfeld,  and  Farrar.  Another 
name  to  which  prominence  is  given  is  that  of  Barnabas.  Tradition  as 
early  as  the  days  of  Tertullian  ascribed  it  to  him,  and  much  known 
of  him  gives  weight  to  the  supposition  that  is  accepted  as  probable  by 
Ullmann,  Wieseler,  Weiss,  Renan,  Zahn,  Salmon,  and  Godet.  Certain 
resemblances  in  style  and  tone  of  the  epistle  to  words  and  idioms 
occurring  in  the  Third  Gospel  and  the  Acts  have  suggested  Luke  as 
the  author,  and  to  him  it  is  attributed  by  Calvin,  DoUinger,  Delitzsch, 
and  others.  It  has  been  recently  surmised  that  Priscilla  may  have 
written  it,  Ac  iS^^.  Paul  places  her  name  first,  Ro  16^  2  Tim  4^^,  as 
though  for  some  reason  the  more  distinguished.  So  keenly  disputed, 
however,  are  all  these  claims,  that  such  authorities  as  Ewald,  Grimm, 
Lipsius,  S.  Davidson  are  content  to  attribute  the  epistle  to  some 
Alexandrian  Christian  of  name  unknown.  Tlie  glory  of  the  author- 
ship, like  the  name  of  the  place  where  the  epistle  was  written,  and 
the  locality  of  the  readers  to  whom  it  was  addressed  must  be  left  in 
complete  uncertainty.  But  while  such  confession  of  ignorance  is 
disappointing,  it  is  really,  as  Bishop  Westcott  finely  says,  '  the  con- 
firmation of  an  inspiriting  faith.  We  acknowledge  the  Divine 
authority  of  the  epistle,  self-attested  and  ratified  by  the  illuminated 
consciousness  of  the  Christian  society  ;  .  .  .  and  we  confess  that  the 
wealth  of  spiritual  power  was  so  great  in  the  early  Church  that  ho 
who  was  enabled  to  commit  to  writing  this  view  of  the  fullness  of  the 
truth,  has  not  by  that  conspicuous  service  even  left  his  name  for  the 
grateful  reverence  of  later  ages.' 

525.  To  whom  addressed. — Regarding  the  community 
to  which  the  epistle  was  primarily  addressed,  there  are  brief 


734  THE   EPISTLES 

allusions  which  may  direct,  if  they  cannot  wholly  decide 
our  inquiry.  That  they  were  inhabitants  of  some  particular 
city  or  region  is  indicated  in  13''^'.  That  they  formed  an 
organized  society  or  church,  which  had  existed  for  some 
time,  having  had  pastors  who  had  been  removed  by  death, 
appears,  as  already  observed,  from  13"^ ;  and  that  they  had 
recognized  teachers  to  whom  obedience  was  due,  is  implied 
in  13^^.  But  these  remarks  would  almost  equally  apply  to 
Jewish  Christians  in  Palestine  (as  in  Jerusalem  or  Caesarea) 
and  to  those  of  the  Dispersion.  The  authority  and  value 
of  the  letter  is  plainly  irrespective  of  the  condition  of  any 
particular  church.  For  everywhere  Christians  of  Hebrew 
descent  were  exposed  to  tlie  danger  of  falling  back  into 
Judaism,  or  of  attaching  too  much  importance  to  the  ancient 
Law.  The  writer,  accordingly,  sets  before  them  the  supreme 
authority,  the  peculiar  sanctions,  and  the  transcendent  glory 
of  the  Christian  dispensation,  as  concurring  to  render  un- 
belief the  more  inexcusable,  and  apostasy  the  more  criminal 
and  fatal. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark  how  the  whole  reasoning  was 
fitted  to  those  for  whom  the  epistle  was  written.  Address- 
ing Jews,  the  writer  exhibits  with  due  i^rominence  all  that 
they  justly  venerated  ;  and  draws  all  his  illustrations  (12^^-^^ 
j22.io.i2.i4j  and  examples  of  what  is  noble  and  excellent  (11) 
from  their  own  records  and  history.  When  about  to  make 
a  statement  at  variance  with  Jewish  views  and  feelings,  he 
cautiously  prepares  their  minds  for  it  (5^^) ;  and  he  con- 
stantly reasons  upon  their  own  principles.  The  Jews  had 
looked  upon  themselves  as  especially  favoured  in  possessing 
a  Divine  revelation  which  appointed  Moses  as  the  lawgiver, 
Aaron  and  his  race  as  the  priests,  and  all  the  Temple  rites 
as  the  worship  of  God.  The  writer  does  not  overlook  this 
peculiarity ;  but,  accommodating  to  it  his  line  of  proof, 
shows  that  the  Christian  faith  is  but  the  completion  of 
thek  own. 


HEBREWS  735 

526.  Outline. — This  epistle  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts : 
the  first,  intended  to  explain  the  meaning,  and  prove  the  inferiority  of 
the  Jewish  dispensation  :  the  second,  to  confirm  and  comfort  Jewish 
believers  in  their  religious  profession. 

I.  Having  noticed  that  the  Mosaic  and  the  Christian  dispensa- 
tion both  proceed  from  the  same  Divine  Author,  the  writer  shows 
the  surpassing  excellency  of  the  latter,  as  being  introduced  by  the 
Messiah,  (i)  Greater  than  prophets,  and  even  than  angels  ;  notwith- 
standing His  humiliation  unto  death,  which,  so  far  from  diminishing 
His  glory,  was  the  very  means  of  accomplishing  His  great  work  of 
redemption  (1-2).  (2)  Superior  to  Moses,  their  venerated  lawgiver, 
who  nevertheless  was  but  a  servant.  Here  the  writer  solemnly  warns 
the  Hebrew  Christians,  lest  they  should  lose  through  unbelief  that 
present  rest  and  final  glory,  of  which  the  Canaan  into  which  Joshua 
had  led  their  forefathers  was  but  a  type  (3  4^"^').  (3)  Then,  as  the 
Jews  rightly  attached  the  highest  importance  to  their  priesthood  and 
sacrifices,  he  expatiates  at  length  upon  the  superior  excellence  and 
efficacy  of  the  priesthood  and  sacrifice  of  Christ ;  shows  that  the  necessary 
qualifications  of  a  high-priest,  namely,  that  he  should  be  appointed  by 
God  and  able  to  sympathize  with  men,  were  found  in  the  Lord  Jesus 
(4^5.16  ^10^ .  and  having  cited  from  the  prophetic  Scriptures  a  declaration 
concerning  the  supreme  and  eternal  priesthood  of  the  Messiah  as 
typified  by  Melchisedec,  he  interrupts  his  argument  with  a  reproof 
to  those  whom  he  addressed  for  their  small  proficiency  in  Christian 
knowledge  ;  adding  warnings  and  encouragements  (5^^-6).  Then, 
returning  from  this  digression,  he  compares  the  priesthood  of  Christ 
with  that  of  the  Jewish  high-priests  in  several  particulars  (7,  8).  He 
next  illustrates  the  emblematical  and  temporary  nature  of  the  Levitical 
services,  which  are  realized  in  Christ ;  compares  the  ministrations  of 
the  high-priest  in  the  worldly  sanctuary  with  the  intercession  of 
Christ  in  the  presence  of  God  above  ;  and  contrasts  the  merely  typical 
virtue  of  the  oft-repeated  Jewish  sacrifices  with  the  intrinsic  and 
perpetual  efficacy  of  the  one  perfect  and  all-sufficient  propitiation 
(9  ioi-^«). 

2.  Upon  this  reasoning  the  practical  application  is  grounded.  After 
a  general  exhortation  to  steadfastness  in  faith,  hope,  and  mutual 
encouragement,  the  writer  points  out  the  aggravated  guilt  and  awful 
issue  of  apostasy.  Then,  having  reminded  the  Hebrew  believers  of 
their  fortitude  and  faithful  adherence  under  former  trials,  he  shows 
the  indispensable  necessity,  in  order  to  their  perseverance  and  salva- 
tion, of  maintaining  the  life  of  faith  (lo^^^s-)^  After  describing  the 
nature  of  faith,  he  proves  it  to  have  been  the  main  principle  of  religion 
in  every  age  ;  and  illustrates  its  powerful  operation  and  triumphant 
efficacy  in  a  long  line  of  heroes,  martyrs,' and  confessors,  from  Abel  to 


736  THE   EPISTLES 

the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  dispensation  ;  and  above  all  in  Jesus 
Christ  Himself,  Whose  temptations  and  sufferings  were  far  beyond 
theirs  (ii  i2^~').  He  further  encourages  them  by  reminding  them 
that  their  afflictions  were  but  the  discipline  of  a  Father's  hand,  and 
designed  for  their  ultimate  good  (12*"^^)  ;  enjoins  upon  them  tender 
mutual  consideration  and  watchfulness  ;  warns  them  against  barter- 
ing, like  Esau,  spiritual  privileges  for  present  gratifications  (12^2-17)  . 
stimulates  them,  by  contrasting  the  terrific  material  splendours  of  the 
Mosaic  Law  with  the  solemn  but  cheering  spiritual  glories  of  the  gospel; 
and  infers  that,  in  proportion  to  the  magnitude  of  their  privileges, 
would  be  the  danger  of  neglecting  them  (12^^^^). 

In  conclusion,  he  gives  specific  precepts  on  various  practical  duties, 
and  closes  with  salutations  and  a  beautifully  comprehensive  benedic- 
tion embodying  the  chief  theme  of  the  epistle— the  *  everlasting  cove- 
nant '  and  the  dignity  and  glory  of  Jesus  the  Mediator  (13^"^^). 

527.  Characteristic  words  and  special  passages. — 'The  key- 
notes of  the  epistle,'  says  Dean  Farrar,  '  are  the  phrases  "by  how  much 
more,"  and  "a  better  {KpdrTwv)  covenant.'"  This  word  better,  he 
notes,  occurs  in  this  epistle  no  fewer  than  thirteen  times ;  whereas 
elsewhere  it  only  occurs  twice  in  St.  Peter,  and  three,  or  perhaps  four, 
times  in  St.  Paul.     See  i*  6^  77.19-22  q&  ^23  ^^u  „i6.35.4o  ^^li^ 

Other  leading  words  which  indicate  the  characteristics  of  the  epistle 
are  Priest  and  Faith.  The  former,  with  its  compounds,  occurs  upwards 
of  thirty  times.  Of  faith  there  is  the  grand  and  comprehensive 
description  in  ii^~',  with  the  series  of  illustrations  drawn  from  the  Old 
Testament  that  form  what  has  well  been  called  *  the  Hymn  of  Faith.' 

Setting  aside  the  features  which  this  epistle  shares  with  one  or 
another  of  the  New  Testament  writings,  it  is  observable  that  many 
words  occur,  not  found  elsewhere  in  the  apostolic  writings,  a  full  list 
of  which  is  given  in  Thayer's  Grimm  s  Lexicon  ;  see  also  Bishop  Westcott's 
article  on  'Hebrews'  in  Smith's  Diet.  BihL,  revised  edition.  A  noticeable 
characteristic  of  the  style  is  its  literary  and  rhetorical  finish.  Of  this 
the  writer  just  referred  to  observes  :  '  it  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  Book 
of  Wisdom,  but  it  is  nowhere  marred  by  the  restless  striving  after 
effect  which  not  unfrequently  injures  the  beauty  of  that  masterpiece 
of  Alexandrine  Greek.' 

On  the  use  in  this  epistle  of  the  word  '  eternal,'  it  has  been  pointed 
out  that  '  St.  John,  in  his  Gospel  and  epistles,  uses  this  word  twenty- 
three  times,  but  inv.iriably  to  qualify  life  ;  and  with  him  it  is  rather 
the  combination  than  the  adjective  which  is  characteristic.  But  in 
Hebrews  alwvios  is  used  far  more  significantly,  though  less  frequently. 
Jesus  is  Author  of  "eternal"  salvation  (5^),  i.e.  of  final  salvation, 
which  has  no  peril  beyond  ;  all  that  salvation  can  mean  is  secured  by 


THE   CATHOLIC   EPISTLES  737 

Him.  The  elements  of  Christianity  include  preaching  on  ''eternal" 
judgement  (6^^),  i.  e.  a  judgement  which  has  the  character  of  finality, 
from  which  there  is  no  appeal,  beyond  which  there  is  no  fear  or  no 
hope.  Christ  has  obtained  ''eternal"  redemption  for  us  (9^^)  ;  not 
a  redemption  like  that  which  was  annually  achieved  for  Israel,  and 
which  had  to  be  annually  repeated,  as  though  its  virtue  faded  away, 
but  a  redemption  the  validity  of  which  abides  for  ever.  Christ  has 
offered  Himself  through  "  eternal  spirit  "  (9^*),  i.  e.  in  Christ's  sacrifice 
we  see  the  final  revelation  of  what  God  is,  that  behind  which  there  is 
nothing  in  God  ;  so  that  the  religion  which  rests  on  that  sacrifice  rests 
on  the  ultimate  truth  of  the  Divine  nature,  and  can  never  be  shaken. 
Those  who  are  called  receive  the  promise  of  the  "eternal  "  inheritance 
(9^^),  not  an  eartlily  Canaan,  in  which  they  are  strangers  and  pilgrims, 
and  from  which  they  may  be  exiled,  but  the  city  which  has  the  foun- 
dations, from  which  God's  people  go  no  more  out.  And,  finally,  the 
blood  of  Christ  is  the  blood  of  an  "eternal"  covenant  (13^°),  i.e.  in 
the  death  of  Christ  a  religious  relation  is  constituted  between  God 
and  men  which  has  the  character  of  finality.  God — if  it  may  be  so 
expressed — has  spoken  His  last  words.  He  has  nothing  in  reserve, 
the  foundation  has  been  laid  of  the  kingdom  which  can  never  be 
removed.  It  is  this  conception  of  absoluteness  or  finality  in  every- 
thing Christian  which  dominates  the  book.' — The  Death  of  Christ,  by 
James  Denney,  D.D.   (^1902),  pp.  207,  208. 


The  Seven  *  Catholic  Epistles.* 

528.  We  have  now  arrived  at  the  epistles  called  Catholic 
or  General,  viz.  those  ascribed,  respectively,  to  James, 
Peter,  John,  and  Jude.  The  title  of  this  group  is  of  ancient 
origin,  dating  from  the  second  century,  and  is  usually 
supposed  to  have  been  given  to  distinguish  these  epistles 
from  those  of  Paul  addressed  either  to  separate  churches,  or 
directly  to  individuals.  Strictly  speaking  three  only  are 
general  in  their  character,  viz.  2  Peter,  i  John,  and  Jude. 
The  objection  that  the  Second  and  Third  of  John  certainly 
can  lay  no  claim  to  the  title  ^general'  is  regarded  by  Dr.  Gloag 
as  met  by  the  assertion  that  these  epistles  were  considered 
merely  as  an  appendix  to  the  principal  epistle.  Of  the  title 
catholic  he  says,  '  In  process  of  time  it  became  a  technical 

3B 


738  THE   EPISTLES 

term,  used  to  designate  that  grouj)  of  epistles  as  distinguished 
from  the  other  three  groups  of  writings  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, viz.  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  the  Pauline  Ej^istles, 
including  Hebrews,  and  the  Apocalypse ;  and  thus  lost  in 
a  measure  its  primary  meaning.' 


General  Epistle  of  James 

Jerusalem  a.  d.  45  or  62. 

529.  The  Writer. —  There  were  two  Apostles  named 
James  or  Jacob  ;  one  of  whom  was  the  son  of  Zebedee  and 
the  brother  of  John,  and  was  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa, 
as  related  in  Ac  12^;  the  other,  called  James  the  Less,  or 
the  Little  (Mk  15*"),  probably  in  allusion  to  his  stature,  was 
the  son  of  Alphaeus  or  Clopas  (see  Mt  10^  Mk  3^^  Ac  i^^ 
Lu  24I8). 

The  latter  of  these  has  been  generally  supposed  to  have  written  the 
epistle.  That  James  '  the  brother  of  the  Lord  '  was  the  author  is  held 
with  practical  unanimity  by  Biblical  scholars.  But  whether  the  two 
were  identical  has  been  gravely  doubted.  Those  who  hold  the 
affirmative  read  'brother'  as  'cousin,'  and  regard  Mary  the  wife  of 
Clopas  as  sister  of  Mary  the  mother  of  Jesvis,  a  double  unlikelihood  ; 
and  modern  opinion  inclines  to  the  belief  that  '  the  Lord's  brother ' 
was  not  one  of  the  Twelve.  The  question  has  been  fully  discussed  by 
Bishop  Lightfoot  {Galatians,  Diss.  ii.  p.  241),  and  by  Dr.  J.  B.  Mayor 
(Epistle  of  St.  James,  Introd.),  and  the  conclusion  seems  fairly  estab- 
lished that  this  James,  known  as  'James  the  Just,'  was  a  son  of 
Joseph  and  Mary,  converted  after  the  Lord's  Resurrection,  and  sub- 
sequently chief  pastor  of  the  church  in  Jerusalem  :  see  Mk  6^  Jn  7'^ 
I  Cor  15'^  Ac  12"  15^^  21^^^  Gal  2^.  The  martyrdom  of  this  James  in 
Jerusalem  is  recorded  by  Josophus,  Ant.  xx.  9.  i,  and  by  Hegesippus 
the  ecclesiastical  historian  (apud  Euseb.  ii.  23). 

Date  of  the  Epistle. — Indications  there  are  that  this 
epistle  was  written  at  a  very  early  date.  Many  recent 
authorities  regard  it  as  the  earliest  of  all  the  epistles,  and 
assign  it  to  about  a.  d.  45  (Neander,  Alford,  Salmon,  Weiss, 


JAMES  739 

Plumptre,  Gloag,  Mayor).  They  argue  that  the  epistle  could 
not  have  been  written  after  the  council  at  Jerusalem  with- 
out some  allusion  to  what  was  then  decided ;  and,  further, 
because  the  non-recognition  of  Gentile  Christians  in  the 
use  of  the  term  '  synagogue '  (2^)  for  a  place  of  Christian 
worship,  the  expectation  of  the  speedy  coming  of  Christ, 
and  the  marked  absence  of  anything  like  developed  Christian 
doctrine  are  regarded  as  indications  of  an  early  date.  Those 
who  assign  a  later  date  to  the  epistle  regard  it  as  probably 
written  by  James  shortly  before  his  martyrdom,  a.  d.  62  or 
63,  and  as  designed  to  correct  certain  perversions  of  Paul's 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  (Bleek,  Ewald,  Pfleiderer, 
Wordsworth,  Farrar). 

The  letter,  it  is  noteworthy,  is  addressed  to  Christians  in  the  twelve 
tribes  of  the  Dispersion  (R,V.). 

530.  Contents. — As  they  were  in  trying  circumstances,  the  inspired 
writer  begins  with  encouragements  and  counsels  specially  suited  to 
their  condition  (i^~^^).  He  then  describes  the  nature  of  true  religion, 
in  its  origin,  and  in  its  effects  upon  the  heart  and  the  conduct  (i^^"'^''^); 
enjoins  sincere  and  impartial  love,  without  reference  to  outward  con- 
dition and  circumstances  (2^"^^) ;  and  exposes  the  hypocrisy  of  the 
man  who  pretends  to  have  faith,  while  his  works  do  not  answer  to 
his  words  ;  quoting  Scripture  examples  to  show  that  the  faith  which 
God  had  approved  had  been  always  evidenced  by  works  (2^*"^'^),  Then, 
to  check  some  prevailing  evils  arising  from  a  fondness  for  becoming 
teachers  and  censors,  he  gives  cautions  and  rebukes  on  those  subjects. 
He  exhibits,  in  a  series  of  striking  metaphors,  the  evils  of  an  un- 
bridled tongue  ;  and  contrasts  the  disputatious,  envious,  and  angry 
spirit  of  the  schools  of  earthly  wisdom  with  the  pure,  peaceful,  gentle, 
and  beneficent  character  of  that  which  is  of  heavenly  origin  (3).  He 
exposes  the  effects  of  the  spirit  of  the  world,  as  exhibited  in  the 
conduct  of  those  who  are  under  its  influence  ;  and  exhorts  to  sub- 
mission to  God  and  resistance  to  the  devil.  He  calls  sinners  and 
hypocrites  to  repent,  and  to  humble  themselves  before  God  ;  and 
warns  Christians  against  speaking  evil,  censuring,  or  sitting  in  judge- 
ment upon  each  other  (4^"^^).  He  reproves  the  presumption  of  those 
who  formed  their  worldly  projects  without  any  sense  of  their  depend- 
ence upon  God  ;  and  the  covetousness  and  oppression  of  the  rich 
(413-17  5I-6).  Then,  returning  to  the  suffering  Christians,  he  en- 
courages them  to  patience  by   the  prospect  of  the    Lord's   coming  ; 

3  B  2 


740  THE   EPISTLES 

cautions  them  against  swearing  ;  recommends  prayer  as  the  best 
resource  in  sorrow,  and  praise  as  the  best  expression  of  joy ;  gives 
special  directions  to  the  sick  ;  enjoins  mutual  confessions  of  faults 
and  intercessions  for  each  other  ;  the  efficacy  of  which  he  illustrates 
in  the  case  of  Elijah  ;  and,  finally,  urges  the  duty  of  seeking  to  save 
an  erring  brother  ;  and  shows  the  blessed  consequence  of  such  an 
effort  where  successful  (s'"'^*^). 

The  epistle  well  illustrates  the  importance  of  comparing  Scripture 
with  Scripture.  According  to  James,  Abraham  was  justified  'by 
works'  (2-I) ;  according  to  Paul,  'by  faith '  (Ro  4^).  Yet  there  is  no  con- 
tradiction, but  a  deep  interior  harmony.  This,  unfortunately,  Luther 
could  not  see,  when  he  called  the  epistle  *  straw.' 

Eusebius  speaks  of  this  epistle  as  at  first  questioned  in  the  Church. 
In  the  East,  however,  it  was  received  from  the  beginning ;  and  its 
canonicity  was  at  length  universally  acknowledged.  See  Jerome, 
Augustine,  and  the  Council  of  Carthage,  a.  n.  397. 

531.  Key-words  and  unusual  expressions. — 'Wisdom*  is  one  of 
the  key-w^ords  of  this  epistle,  and  its  style  may  be  compared  with  that 
of  the  wisdom  literature  {Chokhmah)  of  the  Old  Testament.  See  i^~^ 
and  3^3-18  fQj.  ^^q  enumeration  of  the  qualities  of  false  wisdom  and  the 
true.  Note  likewise  the  prominence  given  to  faith  and  works ;  to 
prayer,  i^""^  4^  5^^~" ;  to  temptation,  i2-i'.i.i3.u.  and,  notwithstanding  the 
severity  of  the  style  of  address  in  the  epistle,  the  constant  recurrence 
of  the  word  *  brethren.'  There  are  close  resemblances  between  the 
epistle  and  our  Lord's  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

Among  peculiar  and  unusual  expressions  are — *  driven  by  the  wind 
and  tossed,'  1^ ;  'a  doubleminded  man  '  {^v^p  biipvxos),  literally  a  two- 
souled  man,  '  unstable,'  i*  ;  *  scorching  wind  '  {navauv),  i^^ ;  •  cannot  be 
tempted  '  (a-nupaaTSs  kari),  i^^ ;  *  the  Father  of  lights,'  i^'^ ;  'shadow  of 
turning'  (rpoTr^s  diroaKiaafxa),  i.e.  shadow  caused  by  turning,  i^'' ; 
'  shudder,'  2^^ ;  '  the  wheel  of  nature '  or  *  of  birth '  (rpoxos  ttjs  ytveffeus), 
3^;  'heaviness'  («aTi7c^€ta),  literally  the  downcast  look  of  sorrow,  4'  ; 
the  exclamation  'Go  to'  (a7€),  5^,  or  'come,  come  now,'  employed  to 
call  attention  ;  '  rusted  '  or  tarnished,  5^. 

Of  special  passages  observe  that  in  ch.  i  on  the  sources  of  evil  and 
of  good  in  man,  and  that  on  respect  of  persons ;  with  the  famous  passage 
on  justification  in  ch.  a  ;  and  in  ch.  3  on  the  responsibility  of  speech, 
and  the  qualities  of  the  eartlily  wisdom  and  the  wisdom  from  above. 


I   PETER  741 

First  Epistle  General  of  Peter 

*  Babylon,^  c.  a.  d.  64. 

532.  The  Writer. — Peter,  whose  original  name  was 
Simeon  or  Simon,  was  a  native  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  Sea  of 
Galilee ;  and  the  son  of  Jonas  (or  John,  R.  V.),  whence  he 
is  called  JBar-jonah  (R.  V.),  Mt  i6^^  At  the  time  of  his  first 
appearance  in  the  gospel  history  he  was  married,  and  living 
at  Capernaum,  Mk  1 2^-30.  and,  like  the  sons  of  Zebedee, 
followed  the  occupation  of  a  fisherman.  He  was  brought  to 
Jesus  by  his  brother  Andrew,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of 
John  the  Baptist,  but  was  led  by  his  master's  testimony  to 
attach  himself  to  the  Divine  Teacher.  For  some  time  after 
this,  the  two  brothers  continued  to  follow  their  business, 
until  they  were  summoned  by  our  Lord  to  be  in  constant 
attendance  upon  Him,  Mt  4I8-20  .  after  which  they  were 
His  devoted  followers. 

The  numerous  facts  related  of  Peter  during  his  attendance  upon  our 
Saviour  throw  much  light  upon  his  character  at  that  period.  His 
sincere  piety,  ardent  attachment  to  his  Master,  and  zeal  for  His 
honour,  seem  to  have  been  blended  with  rashness  and  inconstancy  ; 
but,  after  his  fall  and  restoration,  and  when  '  endued  with  power 
from  on  high,'  a  great  change  is  observable  in  him.  So  that  he  fully 
justifies  the  appellation  which  our  Lord  had  prophetically  bestowed 
on  him,  calling  him  Cephas  or  Petros  ;  the  former  an  Aramaic,  the  latter 
a  Greek  word,  both  signifying  a  stone  or  rock.  Immediately  after  the 
outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  Peter  was  honoured  by  being  com- 
missioned to  open  the  gates  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  first  to  the  .Jews, 
and  afterwards,  in  the  case  of  Cornelius  and  his  family,  to  the 
Gentiles. 

These  facts  do  not  imply  that  he  had  any  supremo  dignity  ;  while 
Mt  23*  Gal  2^  plainly  prove  that  he  had  not — a  conclusion  which  the 
testimony  of  antiquity  confirms. 

His  Later  Life. — Of  the  latter  part  of  Peter's  life  nothing 
is  known  with  certainty ;  but  it  is  supposed  that,  after  his 
visit    to    Antioch,    mentioned    Gal    2^^,   he    remained    at 


742  THE   EPISTLES 

Jerusalem  for  some  years,  and  then  visited  Syria  and  the 
countries  mentioned  in  the  inscription  of  this  epistle,  which 
he  wrote  when  he  had  gone  into  the  Parthian  empire.  It 
is  said  by  some  that  he  afterwards  went  to  Kome  and  was 
there  put  to  death  by  crucifixion,  in  fulfilment  of  the 
prophecy  of  our  Lord  respecting  him,  Jn  21^^-^^.  Others 
maintain  that  he  died  in  Babylonia.  Both  parties,  how- 
ever, agree  that  he  was  put  to  death  in  Nero's  reign,  in  the 
persecutions  excited  by  that  emperor. 

His  alleged  residence  in  Rome. — Three  different  opinions  have 
been  maintained  as  to  whether  Peter  ever  was  at  Rome.  By  some, 
especially  by  Roman  Catholic  historians,  it  is  alleged  that  Peter  was 
for  twenty-five  years  in  Rome,  and  that  he  was  bishop  of  the  church 
there.  By  others  it  is  denied  that  he  was  ever  at  Rome  at  all ;  while 
by  a  third  class  of  writers  it  is  admitted  that  the  Apostle  may  possibly 
have  gone  to  Rome,  a  short  time  before  his  death,  in  the  brief  interval 
between  the  date  of  Paul's  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  and  his  martyr- 
dom. The  last,  considering  the  weight  of  traditionary  testimony, 
seems  to  be  the  most  probable  opinion.  The  subject  of  Peter's  connexion 
with  Rome  is  fully  discussed  in  Farrar's  Early  Days  of  Christianity, 
in  Dr.  Gloag's  Introduction  to  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  in  Dr.  Chase's 
article  on  Simon  Peter  in  Hastings'  Diet,  of  the  Bible. 

This  epistle  is  generally  assigned  to  between  a.  d.  64  and 
67,  the  latter  being  the  date  of  the  traditional  martyrdom 
of  Peter,  and  the  former  subsequent  to  the  epistles  of  Paul 
to  the  Komans  and  to  the  Ephesians,  with  the  language  and 
arguments  of  which  Peter  was  evidently  acquainted. 

533.  Destination  of  the  Epistle. — This  epistle  was 
addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  of  '  the  Dispersion ' 
throughout  the  different  provinces  of  Asia  Minor ;  yet  not 
altogether  without  reference  to  the  numerous  Gentile  con- 
verts which  those  churches  contained  (i^*  4^).  It  appears 
to  have  been  written  from  '  Babylon '  (5^^),  which  some  have 
supposed  to  be  a  mystical  name  for  Kome. 

This  notion  has  been  favoured  not  only  by  writers  of  the  Church 
of    Rome,    but   by   numerous   Protestant  authorities,   e.g.    Lardner, 


I   PETER  743 

Olshausen,  Hofmann,  Ewald,  Schaff,  Salmon,  Cook,  Farrar,  Kamsay, 
and  Moffatt.  Early  ecclesiastical  writers  accepted  the  interpretation, 
regarding  it  as  confirmed  by  the  name  of  Babylon  being  applied  to 
Rome  in  the  Book  of  Revelation  (14^).  Further,  there  is  no  definite 
information  that  Peter  ever  was  in  Babylon,  nor  of  a  Christian  church 
existing  there.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  conclusive  evidence 
that  at  the  time  the  epistle  was  written  the  name  Babylon  was  ever 
given  to  Rome  ;  nor  can  any  conclusive  reason  be  assigned  why  such 
a  name  should  at  that  time  be  applied  to  it ;  or  why  Peter  should 
choose  a  figurative  name,  which,  though  adapted  to  a  symbolical  style, 
is  plainly  unsuited  to  epistolary  writing.  In  the  opinion,  therefore, 
of  Erasmus,  Calvin,  Bengel,  Neander,  Lightfoot,  Pearson,  Alford,  &c., 
it  has  appeared  most  reasonable  to  take  the  name  as  it  stands  for 
Babylon  on  the  Euphrates.  Others,  amongst  them  Hatch,  Gloag.  Dods, 
regard  it  as  still  an  open  question  where  the  epistle  was  written. 
Certainly  the  order  of  the  names  in  i^  is  rather  that  in  which 
they  would  appear  from  the  west  (Rome)  than  from  the  south-east 
(Babylon). 

534.  Its  character  and  contents. — This  epistle  is  well 
described  by  Leighton,  as  'a  brief  and  yet  very  clear 
summary,  both  of  the  consolations  and  instructions  needful 
for  the  encouragement  and  direction  of  a  Christian  in  his 
journey  to  heaven  ;  elevating  his  thoughts  and  desires  to 
that  happiness,  and  strengthening  him  against  all  opposition 
in  the  way,  both  that  of  corruption  within,  and  temptation 
and  afflictions  from  without.  The  heads  of  doctrine  con- 
tained in  it  are  many ;  but  the  main  that  are  most  insisted 
on  are  these  three,  faith,  obedience,  and  patience  ;  to  establish 
in  believing,  to  direct  in  doing,  and  to  comfort  in  suffering  ; 
often  setting  before  those  to  w^hom  he  wrote  the  matchless 
example  of  the  Lord  Jesus,  and  the  greatness  of  their 
engagements  to  follow  him.' 

The  general  object  of  the  epistle  is  stated  in  5^2,  and  the  whole  may 
be  divided  into  two  parts,  exclusive  of  the  salutation  (i^-'*),  intro- 
duction ('~^^\  and  conclusion  (5^^-^*). 

I.  General  exhortations  to  love  and  holiness  (i^-a^^). 

Antitypes  of  Judaism.  — In  this  portion  of  the  epistle  it  is  especially 
shown  how  the  distinctions  and  privileges  of  the  ancient  Church  are 
not  lost,    but  reproduced  in  a  higher  form,  and  conferred  upon  all 


744  THE   EPISTLES 

believers.  Tliey  are  a  chosen  gemration,  and  thoir  election  is  in  Christ, 
i^ ;  they  have  a  land  of  promise,  incorruptible  and  unfading,  as  their 
'inheritance,'  i*;  they  are  a  people /or  Ood's  own  possession,  2^ ;  the  Temple 
remains,  a  spiritual  house,  with  Christ  the  corner-stone,  2*-^ ;  they 
have  an  Altar  and  a  Sacrifice,  the  precious  blood  of  Christ,  i^^-^^  ;  while 
they  themselves  are  a  hohj  and  royal  Priesthood,  2'^-^ ;  and  the  Prophets 
themselves  wrote  and  spoke  for  the  Christian  Church.  There  are  in 
this  epistle  proportionally  more  quotations  from  the  ancient  Scrip- 
tures than  in  any  other  book  of  the  New  Testament. 

a.  Particular  exhortations  on  specific  duties  (2^^-5^^). 

While  the  epistle  has  thus  a  practical  design,  it  is  as  evangelical  as 
if  it  had  been  chiefly  doctrinal.  It  points  everywhere  to  Christ ;  to 
His  atonement  foretold  by  prophets,  contemplated  by  angels  appointed 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world ;  to  His  resurrection,  ascension, 
and  gift  of  the  Spirit ;  His  example  as  a  suflering  Saviour,  and  the 
awful  solemnities  of  the  last  judgement.  Like  Paul,  he  urges  the 
doctrines  of  the  gospel  as  the  great  motives  to  holiness  and  patience  ; 
like  him  he  descends  to  the  enforcement  of  every  relative  duty,  while 
giving  the  most  exalted  view  of  our  privileges  as  believers  in  Christ. 

His  honourable  notice  of  Paul  (a  Pet  3^^),  who  had  publicly  re- 
proved him,  and  recorded  that  reproof  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
to  whom  Peter  himself  was  now  writing.  Gal  2}^  1  Pet  i^  2  Pet  3^, 
is  a  manifestation  of  true  humility.  He  illustrates  in  this  way  his 
own  precept,  i  Pet  5 5,  and  had  clearly  not  forgotten  the  lessons  of  the 
last  days  of  our  Lord.  His  explicit  reference  to  Christ  as  the  true 
corner-stone  of  the  Church,  a*~'^,  seems  to  betoken  allusion  to  the 
name  which  had  been  conferred  upon  him,  and  by  anticipation  to 
refute  the  inference  drawn  from  it  that  Peter  is  the  foundation. 

535.  LeadinsT  Ideas  and  peculia-^ities  of  expression. — Hope  is  the 
leading  idea  and  subject  of  the  epistle.  Hope  founded  on  the  Eebur- 
rection  ;  not  a  dead,  but  an  energizing  hope,  such  as  the  Resurrection 
had  wrought  in  the  Apostles  by  dispelling  their  despair  (Parrar) ; 
a  hope  life-giving,  and  looking  to  life  (De  Wette),  of  which  the  Resur- 
rection was  *not  only  the  exemplar,  but  the  eflEicient  cause.'  Cf. 
1 3.6.7.9.1 1.13^  &c.  With  this  is  linked  the  duty  of  patience  under  suffer- 
ing and  trial,   i''-'^  2I9-21  313-18  4i2.13.19_ 

Another  prominent  feature  of  the  epistle  is  the  usp  of  the  term  grace 
as  the  designation  of  the  whole  Christian  revelation,  corresponding 
with  the  epistle  *  to  the  Ephesians.'     See  ii^-i'  3''^  4^0  5^2^ 

The  practical  nature  of  the  epistle  is  seen  in  the  frequency  of  the 
expression  to  do  good,  z^*-^^-'^^  3G.11.13.16.17  ^19^ 

Many  words,  never  or  rarely  used  by  other  New  Testament  writers, 
occur  in  this  epistle,  which  in  their  vividness  of  expression  recall  the 


II  PETER  745 

touches  of  graphic  description,  generally  ascribed  to  Peter,  in  Mark's 
Gospel  :  'That  fadeth  not  away,'  unwithering  {ajxapavTos),  x*  ;  ama- 
ranthine {aixapavTivos),  5*  ;  '  without  respect  of  persons,'  i^'^,  cf.  Ac  10^*. 
*  Spiritual  milk  which  is  without  guile,'  2^,  R.  V.  spiritual,  un- 
adulterated milk  (Farrar).  *An  example'  {vnofpanixos),  2^^,  literally 
a  copy  traced  by  the  master,  over  which  the  scholar  was  to  write. 
*A  busybody'  (meddler,  R.  V.)  in  other  men's  mattei-s,  4^^,  is  the 
rendering  of  one  expressive  word  {dWorpiofTriaKonos)  that  indicates 
a  man  prying  into  and  overseeing  everybody's  business  but  his  own. 
Farrar  translates  it  'other  people's  bishop.'  The  title  'Chief-*  or 
Arch-Shepherd  applied  to  Christ,  5*,  is  also  peculiar  to  this  epistle.  So 
also  the  remarkable  expression,  5^  '  Gird  yourselves  with  humility,' 
literally  as  with  a  sort  of  frock  or  apron  {eyfcufiPajfia),  worn  especially  by 
slaves   to   keep  the  under   garment   clean,  the  verb   used  being  I7- 

The  passage  317-22  contains  thoughts  and  expressions  peculiar  to 
this  epistle  :  Christ  preaching  to  '  the  spirits  in  prison  '  (li/  (pv\aKTJ)  • 
baptism  as  the  '  interrogation  '  (R.  V.  i-nepwTTjfxa)  of  a  good  conscience 
toward  God. 


Second  Epistle  General  of  Peter 

Between  a.  d.  64  and  68. 

536.  Destination  and  Purpose  of  the   Epistle. — The 

epistle  is  addressed  to  all  believers  (i^),  and  especially  to 
the  same  persons  as  the  former  (3^).  It  was  written  not 
long  before  the  Apostle's  martyrdom  (i^^),  a  circumstance 
that  gives  it  a  solemn  interest. 

As  in  the  earlier  epistle  he  exhorts  to  patience  under 
persecution,  so  here  he  exhorts  to  perseverance  in  truth 
amidst  prevailing  error  and  practical  infidelity.  The  best 
preservative  is,  as  he  tells  them,  progressive  piety  (i^~^^) : 
decisive  evidence  of  the  truth  of  Scripture  doctrine  being 
given  also  by  irrefragable  testimony  and  fulfilled  prophecy 
^ji6-2ij^  In  terms  most  energetic  and  awful  he  warns  false 
teachers,  and  those  who  were  beginning  to  yield  to  their 
seductions,  of  their  guilt  and  danger  {2^~^'^),  and  assures 


746  THE  EPISTLES 

them  that  the  second  coming  of  the  Lord,  though  long 
delayed,  through  long-suffering,  is  as  certain  as  the  fact  of 
the  Deluge  (3^"^).  He  then  exhibits  the  bright  side  of  the 
same  truth,  and  bids  Christians  be  diligent  and  holy  (3^*"^^). 
Appealing  to  Paul's  teaching,  in  confirmation  of  his  views, 
he  marks  how  men  had  wrested  his  teaching  so  as  to  make 
it  countenance  most  pernicious  practices,  an  evil  to  be 
remedied  not  by  neglecting  those  Scriptures,  but  by  increased 
teachableness  and  humility  (3^^*^^). 

Who  were  the  heretics  condemned  in  this  epistle  is  not  certainly 
known.  Probably  no  definite  sect  is  referred  to,  but  corrupters  of 
the  Christian  Church,  whose  errors  subsequently  developed  into  the 
various  forms  of  reckless  immorality  and  extravagant  asceticism 
known  as  Antinomian  gnosticism.  Their  licentious  practices  (2^°"^^), 
their  covetousness,  their  denial  of  the  Lord  (2^),  their  promises  of 
freedom  (2^^)  are  clearly  defined,  and  serve  to  connect  the  advocates  of 
such  views  with  those  mentioned  (in  nearly  the  same  terms  through- 
out) by  Jude  and  by  John,  Kev  2^*,  &c. 

537.  Question  of  its  authenticity. — The  absence  of  reference  to 
the  epistle  in  the  earliest  Christian  writers,  and  its  enumeration 
among  the  Eusebian  Antilegomena  or  disputed  books  (Part  I,  §  37), 
have  given  rise  to  grave  doubts  as  to  its  Petrine  authorship.  Differences 
in  tone  and  style  from  the  first  epistle  have  also  caused  its  genuine- 
ness to  be  questioned  even  by  such  commentators  as  Calvin,  Erasmus, 
Grrotius,  and  in  later  times  by  Neander,  Credner,  Huther,  Hatch,  and 
Farrar.  The  large  majority  of  commentators,  including  such  recent 
authorities  as  Alford,  Plummer,  Cook,  Lumby,  Salmon,  and  Bigg, 
accept  the  epistle  as  a  genuine  work  of  Peter.  With  the  points  of 
diffeience  between  the  epistles  there  are  also  remarkable  points  of 
resemblance.  Similarity  in  style  and  sentiment  is  recognized  in  this 
and  the  first  epistle,  and  also  in  the  recorded  speeches  of  Peter.  The 
same  striking  peculiarities  of  pictorial  expressions  characteristic  of 
Peter's  utterances  elsewhere  appear  here.  Difference  of  purpose  must 
also  be  noted,  to  account  for  difference  in  treatment  of  subject ;  the  first 
epistle  being  chiefly  hortatory  and  the  second  polemical.  '  Besides,' 
observes  Dr.  Gloag,  '  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  Fathers  of  the 
fourth  century,  when  the  canon  of  the  New  Testament  was  fixed, 
had  many  more  grounds  to  go  upon  than  we  possess  .  .  .  and  it  was 
only  as  the  result  of  careful  examination  that  any  writing  was 
?idmitted  as  part  of  the  canonical  Scriptures.' 


II   PETER  747 

Among  the  peculiarities  of  this  epistle  is  the  remarkable  resemblance 
of  certain  passages,  especially  in  the  second  chapter,  to  the  Epistle  of 
Jnde.  It  is  impossible  to  resist  the  conclusion,  either  that  one  writer 
drew  from  the  other,  or  both  from  a  common  source,  oral  or  documen- 
tary. The  preponderance  of  opinion  in  modern  times  is  that  Jude 
was  the  original  ;  so  Neander,  Credner,  De  Wette,  Ewald,  Lechler,  and 
Reuss,  and  amongst  English  scholars  Alford,  Farrar,  Plumptre,  Eadie, 
and  Salmon  ;  while  the  opinion  of  Luther,  Michaelis,  Bengel,  Stier, 
and  Hengstenberg  that  Peter's  is  the  earlier  epistle  has  the  support  of 
Hofmann,  Luthardt.  Wordsworth,  Plummer,  Lumby,  Marcus  Dods, 
and  Bigg.  It  is  perhaps  impossible  to  come  to  a  definite  conclusion 
on  the  question,  nor  indeed  is  it  important. 

538.  Special  words  and  phrases. — 'Knowledge'  (yuSxris or  eniyvcuais) 
is  the  key-note  of  this  epistle  :  cf.  i^  2^^  3^^  This  knowledge  is  the 
central  point  of  the  Christian  life,  both  theoretically  and  practically 
considered.  Interesting  and  important  as  a  sign  of  identity  in  author- 
ship of  this  and  the  first  epistle  is  the  recurrence  of  the  word  '  holy,' 
about  fifteen  times  in  all ;  eight  times  in  the  first,  six  times  in  the 
second  epistle.  In  both  epistles  we  meet  with  the  word  *  conversa- 
tion,' i.  e.  manner  of  life,  i  Pet  iis.n.is  212  3I.2.16  2  Pet  2^-"  3"  ;  also 
the  remarkable  term  *  virtue '  applied  to  God,  i  Pet  2^  2  Pet  i*.  The 
same  view  of  ancient  prophecy  is  given  in  both  epistles,  cf.  i  Pet  1I0-12 
2  Pet  1 1^21  32^  The  new  birth  by  the  word  of  God,  i  Pet  x^a  2^, 
is  found  again  in  2  Pet  i*. 

The  same  characteristic  duplication  of  terms  appears  in  the  second 
epistle  as  in  the  first  :  '  precious  and  exceeding  great  promises,*  i*  ; 
*  be  not  idle  nor  unfruitful,'  i^  ;  *  he  is  blind,  seeing  only  what  is  near,' 
i^  ;  *  daring,  self-willed,'  2^°  ;  '  spots  and  blemishes,'  2^^ ;  *  the  day  of 
judgement  and  destruction,'  3"^;  *  without  spot  and  blameless,'  3^*; 
Hhe  ignorant  and  unstable,'  3^^. 

Graphic  expressions,  words  which  call  up  a  picture  to  the  mind  as 
we  read  them,  abound  in  both  epistles.  The  following  are  a  few 
examples  from  the  second  epistle  :  '  One  who  cannot  see  afar  '  (nvcund- 
Cq}v)j  i^,  literally  '  one  who  has  his  eyes  tight  closed,'  either  from 
intention  or  weakness  of  sight ;  'tabernacle,'  i^'-^*,  i.e.  the  body,  as 
the  tabernacle  of  the  soul ;  *  eyewitness,'  i^^,  frequently  used  by 
heathen  writers  of  those  who  have  been  admitted  by  initiation  into 
the  highest  mysteries  of  their  religious  worship ;  'day-star'  (<p(u(T<p6pos), 
i^^,  the  light-bringer ;  *  feigned '  (irXaaTos),  2',  that  can  be  moulded  or 
bent  any  way,  plastic ;  *  to  cast  down  to  hell '  (japrapoai),  2*,  to  cast 
down  to  Tartarus ;  'chains'  or  'pits'  (R.V.  'of  darkness'),  2*;  'turning 
into  ashes  '  (rfcppuaas),  2^;  'to  vex'  (^acavi^eiv),  2*,  literally  'to  put  to 
the  torture '  ;  '  with  a  great  noise  '  {poi(T]56v),  3^°,  but  the  word  implies 


748  THE   EPISTLES 

the  hustling  of  weapons,  or  the  plash  of  many  waters  ;  '  with  fervent 
heat '  {Kavadoj),  3^°  ;  '  to  wrest '  {(XTptPKuo})  3^^,  literally  '  to  put  on  the 
rack.' 

What  have  been  called  *  the  retrospective  allusions  '  in  the  language 
of  the  epistle  should  be  noted  as  quite  in  accord  with  the  simple,  out- 
spoken character  of  Peter,  e.  g.  his  reference  to  the  narrative  of  the 
Transfiguration  ;  his  use  of  the  words  '  tabernacle,'  '  decease,'  literally 
'  exodus,'  i^'^,  cf.  Lu  9^^,  and  of  the  fisherman's  expression,  *  to  catch 
with  a  bait.'  Thus  he  speaks  (a")  of  ^beguiling  (literally  "laying 
a  bait  for")  unstable  souls,'  and  *thoy  allure  (set  a  bait)  through  the 
lusts  of  the  flesh,'  2^^. 

We  treasure  up  the  last  words  of  great  men.  In  the 
immediate  prospect  of  martyrdom,  holiness  appears  to  Peter 
of  the  first  importance,  and  steadfastness  the  greatest  blessing. 
His  last  precept  is,  '  Grow  in  the  grace  and  knowledge  of 
our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,'  and  his  last  testimony- 
is  to  the  Divinity  of  his  Lord,  '  To  Him  be  the  glory  both 
now  and  for  ever.     Amen,'  3^^  K.  V. 


General  Epistle  of  Jude 

cir.  A.  D.  67  or  68. 

639.  The  Writer. — Jude  (Judas),  the  author  of  this 
epistle,  describes  himself  as  the  '  brother  of  James,'  but  does 
not  tell  us  of  which  James.  Amongst  the  Apostles  there 
were  two  who  bore  this  name — James  the  son  of  Zebedee, 
and  James  the  son  of  Alphaeus,  Mt  10^  Lu  6^^ ;  and  in 
addition  to  these,  there  was  also  James  '  the  brother  of  our 
Lord,'  Gal  i^^  (see  Introd.  to  the  Epistle  of  James). 

Some  identify  the  author  of  the  present  epistle  with  the  Apostle 
'Judas,  not  Iscariot,' Jn  14^^^,  known  also  as  Lebbaeus,  Mt  10'  (A.V.),  and 
Thaddaeus,  Mt  10',  though  in  Lu  6^®  the  R.  V.,  according  to  the  customary 
rendering  of  the  idiom,  has  *  son  of  James.'  This  was  the  opinion  of 
the  Fathers  in  general,  and  is  adopted  by  Winer,  Hofmann,  Lange, 
Kiel,  Tregelles,  and  Wordsworth.  Others  oppose  this  view,  arguing 
that  if  Jude  had  been  an  Apostle,  he  woijld  have  spoken  of  himself  s^a 


JUDE  749 

such,  instead  of  describing  himself  as  the  brotlier  of  some  one  else. 
Further,  the  reference  in  verse  17  seems  to  imply  that  the  writer  was 
not  one  of  their  number.  More  likely  it  is  that  the  brothers,  James, 
bishop  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  and  this  Judas,  were  the  brethren 
of  our  Lord  referred  to  in  Mt  13^^.  This  opinion  now  finds  most 
acceptance  amongst  expositors. 

Beyond  such  personal  characteristics  as  are  suggested  by  the  epistle, 
little  or  nothing  is  known  of  Jude.  One  incident  of  interest,  not  about 
himself,  but  about  his  descendants,  is  related  by  Eusebius  (Eccles.  Hist. 
iii.  20,  32).  Two  of  Jude's  grandsons,  it  is  said,  were  summoned  before 
Domitian,  for  this  emperor  was  as  much  alarmed  at  the  appearance  of 
Christ  as  Herod.  He  had  heard  they  were  of  the  royal  family  of 
David,  and  they  admitted  their  descent.  But  when  he  learned  that 
their  whole  property  was  only  thirty-nine  plethra  of  land,  i.  e.  about 
nine  acres,  saw  that  their  hands  were  hardened  by  labour,  and  heard 
that  the  kingdom  which  they  expected  was  not  to  be  in  this  present 
world,  he  dismissed  them  as  simpletons  whose  cause  need  no  longer  be 
feared. 

540.  Purport,  Contents,  and  Date. — The  epistle  is 
addressed  to  Christians  in  general,  '  to  them  that  are  called, 
beloved  in  God  the  Father,  and  kept  for  Jesus  Christ ' ; 
probably  with  special  thought  of  Jewish  Christians  in 
Palestine,  as  the  allusions  in  the  epistle  presuppose  acquaint- 
ance not  only  with  the  Old  Testament  scriptures,  but  with 
Jewish  traditions,  as  shown  below.  Keference  has  already 
been  made  (§  537)  to  the  remarkable  resemblance  between 
this  epistle  and  the  second  chapter  of  Peter's  second  epistle : 
on  the  whole,  it  seems  probable  that  Jude  was  the  earlier. 

About  the  year  a.  d.  67  or  68  may,  then,  be  assumed  as 
the  probable  date  of  the  epistle.  No  reference  appears  in 
it  to  Jerusalem's  overthrow,  which  assuredly  would  have 
been  referred  to  among  the  instances  cited  of  God's  retribu- 
tive justice  had  it  occurred  before  this  epistle  was  written. 
The  description  of  the  errors  prevailing  suggests  a  late 
rather  than  an  early  date  in  apostolic  times  for  its  com- 
position. 

The  design  of  the  epistle  is  clearly  to  guard  the  Christian  Church 
against    false   teachers,    who   resolved    all    religion    into    speculative 


750  THE   EPISTLES 

belief  and  outward  profession,  and  sought  to  allure  the  disciples  into 
insubordination  and  licentiousness.  The  whole  maybe  divided  into 
two  parts  :  the  first  descriptive  of  the  punishment,  verses  5-7  ;  the 
second,  of  the  character  of  these  seducers,  verses  8-19.  To  guard 
the  disciples  against  being  led  astray  by  them,  the  Apostle  refers  to  the 
Israelites  who  had  perished  in  the  wilderness,  to  the  angels  who  had 
fallen  from  their  original  dignity,  and  the  cities  of  the  plain  which 
had  been  made  an  example  of  Divine  vengeance ;  and  shows  that 
a  similar  fate  awaited  those  wicked  seducers.  He  reminds  them  that 
it  had  been  predicted  that  such  persons  should  arise  in  the  last  period 
of  the  world  ;  exhorts  them  to  steadfastness  and  prayer,  and  to  efforts 
for  the  salvation  of  others  ;  and  concludes  with  an  ascription  of  praise 
to  Him  Who  alone  could  preserve  them  from  falling. 

Ungodly  men  have  many  pleas  to  urge  in  arrest  of  judgement. 
'  They  had  experienced  deliverance ' :  but  so  had  Israel,  verse  5. 
<  They  had  lived  near  to  God,  and  His  favour  had  exalted  them ' :  so 
had  the  lost  angels,  verse  6.  '  They  but  yielded  to  natural  propensity ': 
so  did  Sodom,  verse  7.  Thus  may  the  Old  Testament  be  used  to  illus- 
trate the  New,  and  facts  to  prove  principles. 

Extra-Biblical  illustrations. — For  purposes  of  illustration  Jude,  as 
Paul  in  certain  instances  (2  Tim  3*  Ac  17^8  Tit  i^^)^  quotes  from  other 
than  scriptural  sources.  The  reference  to  the  dispute  between  Michael 
and  the  devil  about  the  body  of  Moses  is  said  to  be  taken  from 
The  Assumption  or  Ascension  of  Moses,  a  Jewish  apocalyptic  work,  written, 
it  is  supposed,  about  a.  d.  50,  fragments  only  of  which  are  extant  *. 
The  Ethiopic  Book  of  Enoch,  quoted  in  verse  14,  was  well  known  in 
New  Testament  times,  and  coincidences  of  thought  and  language  are 
found  in  some  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
and  in  the  Apocalypse.  Its  production  is  traced  to  the  second  and 
first  centuries  b.  c.  as  belonging  to  a  class  of  apocalyptic  literature  asso- 
ciated with  tlie  name  of  Enoch.  The  work  consists  of  five  parts  or 
books,  multifarious  in  character,  and  abounding  in  interpolations  of 
presumably  later  date  \ 

541.  Expressions   and   allusions  peculiar  to   this  Epistle. — The 

following  expressions,  among  others,  are  peculiar  to  this  epistle  : — 
'  To  contend  earnestly  for '  (^evayaivi^faOai),  verse  3  ;  '  our  common 
salvation,'  verse  3  (see  R.  V.),  cf.  Tit  i*  ;  *  the  faith  once  for  all  (see 
R  V.)  delivered  to  the  saints,'  verse  3  ;  'to  creep  in  unawares,' 
*  privily'  R.  V.  {vapeiaSweiv),  verse  4  ;  *  naturally '  {(pvffiKcus),  verse  10  ; 

•  See  Deane's  Pseudepigrapha,  p.  95  ;  Gloag's  Introduction  to  the  Catholic 
Epistles,  art.  '  Jude.' 

^  See  Bishop  Lawrence's  version,  The  Book  of  Enoch,  p.  49  ;  also  Gloag, 
as  above,  Dillmann,  Das  Buck  Henoch,  and  Drummond's  The  Jewish  Messiah. 


I  JOHN  751 

'feasts  of  charity,'  *  love-feasts  '  R.  V.  (aydncu),  verse  12  ;  'whose  fruit 
withereth'  (cpeivoncopivos,  autumnal),  verse  12  ;  'wandering '(7r\ai/J7Tj;s), 
verse  13;  'to  keep  from  falling,'  Ho  guard  from  stumbling'  R.  V. 
(a.iTTai<TTovs),  verse  24  ;  '  before  all  time '  R.  V.  (irpb  iravrbs  tov  aluivoi), 
verse  25. 

The  writer's  fondness  for  triplets  is  noteworthy.  Observe  the  three- 
fold salutation  and  threefold  benediction,  verses  i,  2.  Three  examples 
of  Divine  retribution  are  cited,  the  unbelieving  Israelites,  the  rebel 
angels,  and  the  cities  of  the  plain,  verses  5-7.  Three  types  of  wicked- 
ness, Cain,  Balaam,  Korah,  verse  11.  Three  classes  of  evil-doers, 
murmurers,  discontented,  self-willed,  verse  16.  Three  exhortations  to 
Christians,  to  pray,  to  keep,  to  look  forward,  verses  20,  21.  Three 
modes  of  Christian  service  towards  the  erring  (see  R.  V.),  *  on  some 
have  mercy,  who  are  in  doubt ' ;  '  some  save,  snatching  them  out  of  the 
fire  ' ;  '  on  some  have  mercy  with  fear,'  verses  22,  23.  Doxology  (R.  V.) 
*  before  all  time,  and  now,  and  for  evermore,'  verse  25. 


First   Epistle  (General)   of  John 

Toivards  the  dose  of  the  first  century. 

542.  Character  and  Destination  of  the  Epistle. — This 
sacred  writing,  though  called  an  epistle,  has  more  of  the 
character  of  a  discourse  on  the  doctrines  and  duties  of 
Christianity.  It  appears  to  have  been  addressed  to  believers 
generally,  especially  to  Gentiles  and  residents  in  Asia 
Minor,  among  whom  John  himself  had  laboured  (2'^-^2-i4. 
20-27^^  The  writer  had  not  deemed  it  necessary  to  prefix  his 
name;  but  its  remarkable  similarity,  both  in  matter  and 
expressions,  to  the  other  writings  of  the  Apostle  John, 
confirms  the  testimony  of  the  early  Christians,  and  aff'ords 
satisfactory  evidence  that  he  was  its  author.  It  was  cer- 
tainly written  by  an  eyewitness  of  the  person  and  labours 
of  our  Lord  (i^~*  4^*).  It  is  commonly  supposed  to  have 
been  written  from  Ephesus,  but  at  what  precise  date  is 
uncertain ;  a  late  date  is  highly  probable  from  the  errors 
which  are  here  condemned.  Ewald  suggests  a.  d.  90,  and 
Prof.  Ramsay  a.  d.  90-100. 


752  THE   EPISTLES 

A  warning  against  prevailing  errors. — It  was  evi- 
dently one  object  of  this  epistle  to  counteract  errors  already 
prevalent.  Some,  whose  errors  were  those  of  the  Ebionites 
and  of  Cerinthus,  questioned  the  Divine  dignity  of  our  Lord, 
and  denied  Him  to  be  the  Son  of  God.  These  the  Apostle 
calls  deceivers  and  antichrist  (2^^  4^^  5^).  Others  denied 
His  humanity,  thus  contradicting  the  real  fellowship  of 
Christ  with  men  (Heb  2^^  4^^),  and  the  reality  of  His  death 
and  propitiation.  His  incarnation  was,  as  they  held,  but  an 
appearance,  and  the  story  of  His  life  a  myth.  This  delusion 
the  Apostle  strongly  denounces  (4'^),  and  declares  that  he 
had  himself  felt  with  his  hand  the  body  of  liis  Lord  (i^), 
and  alludes  in  decisive  terms  to  the  water  and  blood  from 
His  pierced  side  (5^).  A  third  party  seem  to  have  held  that 
it  was  enough  to  worship  God  with  the  spirit,  and  that  the 
body  might  have  all  possible  indulgence.  This  immoral 
creed  the  Apostle  refutes  by  showing  that  every  sin  is  real 
transgression  (3*)  ;  that  fellowship  with  God  purifies  the 
Christian,  and  that  by  this  purity  only  can  we  be  recog- 
nized as  His  (2^  38-10  413  5II). 

The  errors  which  are  thus  rebuked  early  ripened  into  heresy,  and 
their  advocates  were  known  by  different  names  (see  §  475,3,)  e.g. 
the  '  Docetists,'  who  maintained  that  Christ  had  only  an  apparent 
body,  not  a  real  humanity  ;  the  '  Manicheans,'  who  regarded  evil  as 
an  attribute  of  matter;  and  the  'Nicolaitans'  (Rev.),  whose  tenets 
involved  compliances  with  heathenism,  from  a  spurious  liberality 
(Ramsay).  Whether  these  various  forms  of  error  had  made  such  pro- 
gress as  to  have  formed  defined  sects  at  the  time  this  epistle  was 
written  is  doubtful ;  but  its  contents  are  such  as  refute  these  and 
similar  theories,  both  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  and  in  this 
respect  it  possesses  peculiar  value. 

543.  The  principal  truths  enforced. — While  the  cor- 
rection of  prevalent  error  was  clearly  one  aim  of  this 
epistle,  it  was  not  the  only,  perhaps  not  the  chief  aim. 
Other  topics  are  introduced  and  discussed  of  the  deepest 
interest,  and  to  these  the  correction  of  error  seems  regarded 
as  subordinate. 


I   JOHN  753 

1.  We  are  taught  the  true  nature  of  fellowship  with  God 
(i^).  He  is  light  (i^)  and  love  ;  and  fellowship  implies 
conformity  to  Him  :  light,  and  therefore  man  must  be 
purified  and  redeemed  (i'^-2^) :  light,  and  therefore  man 
must  be  holy  (2^^"^) :  love,  and  therefore  we  must  love  one 
another  (2^^).  Let,  however,  Christ  be  denied,  and  all  these 
blessings  are  lost  {2^'^~^^). 

2.  We  are  taught  the  blessedness  and  duties  of  sonship. 
Not  only  fellowship,  but  adoption  is  our  privilege  in  Christ ; 
and  again  we  are  led  to  the  same  results.  God  is  righteous  : 
as  Hls  children  we  too  must  be  righteous  (2^^-3^).  Christ 
came  to  take  away  sin  ;  and  in  Him  is  no  sin ;  to  Him  we 
must  be  conformed  (3*"^°).  He  gave  His  life  for  us,  and 
herein  His  love  is  our  model  (3^^"^^).  Having  His  Spirit  we 
shall  share  His  other  blessings  (3^^"^*).  Again,  let  Christ 
be  denied,  in  His  himian  nature  especially,  and  these 
blessings  are  lost  (3^^-4^). 

3.  He  had  begun  with  the  truth  that  God  is  light,  and 
thence  shown  what  fellowship  with  Him  and  sonship  in- 
volve ;  now  he  gives  another  view.  God  is  love  (4^'®).  Love 
is  His  essence,  was  manifested  in  the  mission  and  character 
of  His  Son,  and  is  the  necessary  condition  of  sonship  (5^^). 
Love  to  God  and  one  another,  faith  in  Christ,  such  confi- 
dence as  casts  out  fear,  are  all  among  the  results  which  this 
revelation  secures.  Only  let  us  truly  believe  that  God 
gives  eternal  life,  and  that  life  in  His  Son  (5""^^),  and  we 
become  holy  and  happy ;  we  are  forgiven  and  sanctified. 
Reject  this  truth  or  any  part  of  it,  and  we  are  left  without 
hope.     Like  the  world  we  lie  in  wickedness  (5^^). 

Very  beautiful  is  it  to  mark  how  from  the  holiness  (light) 
and  love  of  God  the  Apostle  gathers  the  doctrine  of  propitia- 
tion, and  proves  the  necessity  of  holiness.  Compare  1^-2^^ 
and  47-13. 

Charity  and  severity. — The  general  character  of  this  epistle  pro- 
bably gave  occasion  to  the  opinion  early  entertained  that  John  was  of 

3C 


754  THE   EPISTLES 

a  peculiarly  affectionate  disposition ;  and  this  opinion  seems  jnst.  Yet 
none  has  spoken  of  false  doctrine  more  sharply.  The  gentlest  Christian 
may  be  a  son  of  thunder  (Mk  3^'^)  when  Christ's  honour  is  at  stake  ; 
and  charity  may  be  exercised  in  denouncing  sin  as  well  as  in  loving 
the  brethren. 

The  truth  underlying  the  whole  epistle  is  the  necessity  of  holiness,  as 
the  evidence  and  fruit  of  faith,  i«  23-ii-29  33-15.19.21.24  ^is .  compare 
Ro  8ie  Jas  2"-26  Tit  1^^  a^^-^^  ^ph  s^o  Jn  152. 

544.  Iieading'  words  and  phrases. — The  leading  truths  of  this 
epistle  are  '  God  is  light,'  i^ ;  '  He  [God]  is  righteous,'  2^^  ;  '  God  is 
love,'  4^ 

Observe  the  emphatic  repetition  of  the  words  and  phrases  '  truth,' 
16.8  24.21.27  3I9  56.  qove,'  215  3I  47.8.16.17.18 .  Might,*  'in  the  light,'  i^-"^ 
29.10  .  (  being  born  of  God,'  i^-^  4*^  5I.4.18  .  <  ^g  know,'  '  ye  know,'  about 
twenty  times  ;  '  to  keep  His  commandments,'  2^-*  3,'^^  5^ ;  *  my  children ' 
(T6«i/m),  2112-28  37.18  44  ^21 .  qi^tie  children'  (TraiSto),  2"-i8;  'beloved,'  2^ 
(R.V.)  32-21  41.7.11 ;  '  I  write  '  or  '  I  wrote,'  212.13,  &c. 

Among  expressions  which  occur  only  in  this  epistle  note  'propitia- 
tion' {iKaofios),  2^  4I0  ;  'anointing,'  'unction,'  in  a  purely  spiritual 
sense,  220-27  j  <  antichrist,'  218-22  48,  also  in  the  second  epistle  verse  7, 
in  the  sense  of  one  who  claims  to  be  Christ,  or  one  opposed  to  Him, 
and  such  are  all  who  deny  that  Jesus  is  Messiah  (or  Christ),  or  that  the 
Messiah  has  come  in  the  flesh.  The  same  person  or  power  is  elsewhere 
referred  to,  2  Th  2^-12  i  ^im.  4!-^  2  Pet  2\  Whether  a  lawless  but 
impersonal  power,  a  spirit  opposed  to  Christianity,  or  some  great 
power  for  evil  yet  to  be  manifested  and  gathered  about  a  central 
personal  agency  is  meant,  cannot  be  determined. 

Worthy  of  note  as  indications  of  identity  in  authorship  are  certain 
favourite  words  of  the  writer  occurring  in  the  Gospel,  and  reappear- 
ing in  the  epistle,  e.  g.  '  light '  and  '  darkness,'  '  life  '  and  '  death,' 
Move'  and  'hate,'  'truth'  and  'witness,'  'to  have  life'  or  'eternal 
life,'  '  to  overcome  the  world,'  &c. 

On  the  textual  questions  in  5-^,  see  Part  I,  §  63. 


Second  Epistle  of  John 

Written  prohahly  at  Ephesus  towards  the  end  of  the 
first  century. 

545.  Letter   to    a   Christian    Lady. — Of  the   thirteen 
verses  of  this  epistle,  eight  are  in  substance  found  in  the 


II  JOHN  755 

former  letter;  and  it  is  concluded  from  the  similarity  of 
style  and  subject  that  both  were  written  about  the  same 
time,  and  in  reference  to  the  same  topics.  It  is  addressed 
to  a  Christian  lady  and  her  children  for  the  purpose  of 
encouraging  them  to  continue  in  the  truth,  and  to  avoid 
giving  any  countenance  to  deceivers. 

Her  name  is  supposed  by  Clement  of  Alexandria  to  have  been  Eclecta 
{kK\€KTT}),  a  supposition  that  received  the  support  of  Grotius,  Wetstein, 
Middleton,  &c.  Other  expositors,  Athanasius  among  thoseof  earlytiraes, 
and  S.  Davidson,  Alford,  W.  Alexander,  and  Dr.  S.  Cox  of  recent  date, 
assert  the  rendering  should  be  *  to  the  elect  Kyria '  {Kvpia)  ;  but  accord- 
ing to  the  A.  v.,  confirmed  by  the  Revisers,  neither  word  is  a  proper 
name,  both  are  appellatives,  and  correctly  translated  '  the  elect  lady ' ; 
Luther,  Beza,  and  in  more  recent  years  Lardner,  Farrar,  and  Plummer, 
accept  this  interpretation.  The  opinion  that  it  is  not  to  an  individual 
but  to  a  church,  or  the  Church  in  general,  that  the  letter  is  addressed, 
is  likewise  an  old  one,  held  by  Jerome,  and  in  modern  times  it  has  the 
support  of  Bishop  Lightfoot,  Huther,  Ewald,  Salmon,  Marcus  Dods, 
Adeney.  The  reasons  assigned  for  this  opinion  are  that  it  accords  with 
John's  frequent  use  of  symbolical  or  mystical  expressions,  and  that  the 
language  of  verses  lo,  ii,  13  is  more  applicable  to  a  church  than  an 
individual,  and  especially  because  of  the  occurrence  of  a  similar  expres- 
sion in  I  Pet  5^',  a  doubtful  reference  however,  as  the  allusion  cannot 
be  definitely  determined.  As  it  admits  of  no  doubt  that  the  third 
epistle  is  addressed  to  an  individual,  there  can  be  no  necessity  to 
regard  this  letter  other  than  in  its  most  simple  and  obvious  sense,  as 
addressed  to  a  Christian  mother,  probably  a  widow,  for  no  mention  is 
made  of  her  husband,  and  dwelling  most  likely  at  Ephesus. 

'  The  elder,'  literally  *  the  presbyter '  {6  trpea^vTepos),  the  name 
assumed  by  the  author  of  this  and  the  succeeding  epistle,  is  the  same 
title  as  that  by  which  Peter  designates  himself,  i  Pet  5^,  and  may 
have  been  used  in  either  an  ofiicial,  or  in  its  primary,  simple  sense  of 
one  advanced  in  years.  The  view  that  there  was  another  *  John  the 
presbyter,'  the  author  of  these  epistles,  rests  on  a  passage  written  by 
Papias,  preserved  by  Eusebius  {Eccles.  Hist.  iii.  ch.  39),  but  there  are 
strong  reasons  for  believing  that  the  presbyter  John  of  Papias  is  the 
same  as  John  the  Apostle. 

546.  Its  main  topics  and  language. — An  epistle  so 
addressed  shows  with  what  vigilant  affection  the  ministers 
of  the  gospel  ought  to  cherish  the  piety  of  those  whom  they 

3  c  a 


756  THE   EPISTLES 

have  gained,  and  it  shows  no  less  the  importance  in  the 
sight  of  God  of  the  station  of  a  Christian  mother,  and 
the  earnestness  with  which  she  should  interest  herself  in 
the  religious  welfare  of  her  children. 

Of  the  resemblance  which  this  epistle  bears  to  the  first 
as  evidence  that  the  Apostle  John  was  the  writer,  Bleek 
observes:  'Both  epistles  (the  second  and  the  third)  present 
such  an  affinity  with  First  John,  in  ideas,  exposition,  and 
language,  both  generally  and  in  particulars,  as  to  lead  us  to 
attribute  them  to  the  same  writer ;  for  this  affinity  cannot 
be  explained  as  an  imitation.  The  little  that  is  peculiar  to 
these  epistles  as  distinct  from  the  first  epistle  and  the 
Gospel,  is  not  of  a  character  to  warrant  the  supposition  that 
they  have  come  from  a  different  hand,  and  is  far  out- 
weighed by  the  points  of  resemblance/ 

Special  words. — In  this  short  epistle  of  only  thirteen  verses,  the 
word  '  love '  occurs  four  times,  and  '  truth '  five  times.  The  word 
*  commandment '  is  also  repeated  four  times,  and  '  walking '  thrice. 
These  are  all  words  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  other  Johannean 
writings. 


Third   Epistle  of  John 

Written  probably  at  Ephesus  about  the  close  of  the 
first  century. 

547.  To  whom  addressed. — That  the  Gaius  or  Caius,  to 
whom  this  epistle  is  addressed,  was  the  person  mentioned 
in  Ro  16^3  and  i  Cor  i^*,  though  not  certain,  is  highly 
probable  ;  as  he  appears  to  have  been  an  eminent  Christian, 
particularly  distinguished  for  his  hospitality  to  Christian 
evangelists  or  missionaries.  The  Apostle  expresses  his 
affectionate  joy  at  this  and  other  evidences  of  his  piety ; 
cautions  him  against  one  Diotrephes,  noted  for  his  ambition 
and  turbulence  ;  and  recommends  Demetrius  to  his  friend- 
ship ;  deferring  other  matters  to  a  personal  interview. 


Ill   JOHN  757 

This  epistle  is  of  special  interest  from  the  insight  it  affords  us  of 
the  Christian  churches  in  the  closing  years  of  the  first  century.  '  It 
helps  us,'  observes  Prof.  S.  D.  F.  Salmond,  '  to  see  what  these  churches 
were,  not  as  we  idealize  them,  but  in  their  actual  everyday  condition, 
with  their  excellences  and  defects,  their  noble  and  ignoble  figures, 
their  meek  and  their  ambitious  members,  the  errors  into  which  they 
might  be  betrayed  ;  their  varied,  mixed,  and  stirring  life.  It  shows 
us  something,  too,  of  their  independence,  of  the  kind  of  ministry  that 
was  in  exercise  among  them,  and  their  relation  to  it,  of  their  order 
also  and  administration.' 

Comparing  these  two  epistles  with  that  to  Philemon,  it  is 
evident  that  the  Apostles  wrote  as  Apostles  even  in  their 
private  letters,  and  that,  whatever  the  theme  of  their  com- 
munications, they  imparted  to  each  a  savour  of  Christ. 

548.  Characteristic  words.— Short  as  this  epistle  is,  it  is  not  lack- 
ing in  some  of  the  characteristic  words  and  expressions  found  in  the 
Gospel  and  other  writings  of  John,  e.  g.  'in  truth,'  verses  i,  3 ;  'to  be 
of  God,*  '  to  see  God,'  verse  11  ;  *  to  bear  witness,'  verses  5,  12.  Words 
peculiar  to  it  are  '  to  welcome  '  {viro\afxl3av(iv) ,  verse  8  ;  '  love  to  have 
the  pre-eminence'  {(piKoirpwTeveip),  verse  9;  'to  prate  against' 
QpKvapeiv),  verse   10. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


THE  REVELATION  OF  JOHN 

Fatmos,  a.d.  68-70  or  a.d.  95-96. 

549.  Place  and  date  of  writing. — This  book  is  styled 
the  Apocalypse  or  Bcvclation  (i.  e.  the  revealing  or  unveiling 
of  that  which  has  been  hidden),  as  consisting  of  matters 
revealed  to  John  ly  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  This  took  place 
when  he  was  on  Patmos,  a  small  rocky  island  in  the  jEgean 
Sea.  It  is  impossible  to  determine  definitely  whether 
John's  banishment  to  this  island  was  in  the  reign  of 
Domitian  or  Nero.  The  generally  accepted  opinion,  resting 
on  the  ancient  and  explicit  testimony  of  Irenseus  (a.  d.  i  70), 
that  John  saw  the  vision  '  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Domitian,'  quoted  by  Eusebius,  and  repeated  by  Victorinus, 
Bishop  of  Pettau,  towards  the  close  of  the  third  century, 
who  wrote  the  earliest  commentary  extant  on  the  Apocalypse, 
does  not  agree  with  the  tradition  preserved  by  Tertullian 
(a.d.  220),  Jerome  (a.d.  378),  and  others,  that  the  banish- 
ment was  in  the  reign  of  Nero. 

A  strong  argument  for  the  Neronic  date  is  the  difference  in  language 
between  the  Revelation  and  the  Gospel  of  John,  a  difference  so  great 
that  it  can  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  only  by  the  Gospel  having 
been  a  later  work  by  many  years.  The  language  of  the  Revelation  is 
admittedly  rugged  :  Greek  and  Hebrew  constructions  are  strangely 
intermingled.  In  literary  form  it  is  very  unlike  the  smooth  Greek  of 
the  Gospel  and  epistles  written  by  the  Galilsoan  fisherman  Apostle  after 
living  twenty-five  or  more  years  in  Ephesus  amid  the  influences  of 
Greek  culture  and  civilization.  The  contents  of  the  Revelation,  in 
many  of  the  symbolical  expressions  and  allusions,  are  such  as  agree 


DATE   OF   THE   APOCALYPSE  759 

with  the  scenes  of  horror  enacted  at  Jerusalem  at  the  time  of  the  great 
Jewish  revolt,  and  with  those  of  the  persecutions  under  that  monster 
of  cruelty,  Nero.  The  references  to  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple  in 
eh.  II  seem  clearly  to  imply  their  existence  at  the  time  the  book  was 
written.  The  prominence  given  to  the  expectation  of  Christ's  speedy 
second  coming  also  points  to  an  early  date.  With  various  shades  of 
modification,  the  evidence  that  the  Kevelation  was  written  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  has  satisfied  such  writers  as  Wetstein, 
Neander,  Stier,  Auberlen,  Ewald,  Bleek,  S.  Davidson,  Diisterdieck, 
Stuart,  F.  D.  Maurice,  Plumptre,  Lightfoot,  Westcott,  Farrar,  and 
Salmon. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  addition  to  the  traditionary  belief,  there  are 
internal  indications  of  a  later  than  the  Neronic  date.  The  ecclesiastical 
organization  of  the  churches  addressed  in  the  opening  chapters  shows 
that  they  had  been  founded  a  considerable  time;  their  state  of  spiritual 
declension,  as  compared  with  the  warm  commendation  bestowed  by 
Paul  in  his  Epistle  '  to  the  Ephesians,'  a.d.  62,  the  use  of  the  expression 
'the  Lord's  Day,'  instead  of  the  earlier  and  current  phrase  Hhe  first  day 
of  the  week,'  also  that  of  'the  synagogue  of  Satan'  and  the  indications 
of  a  more  widely-spread  persecution  than  that  of  the  time  of  Nero, 
point  to  the  time  assigned  by  Irenaeus,  somewhere  about  a.d.  95-96. 
Such  is  the  opinion  of  Lardner,  Tomline,  Burton,  Woodhouse,  Elliott, 
Ebrard,  Hofmann,  Hengstenberg,  Wordsworth,  Alford,  Lee,  Kamsay, 
and  Milligan. 

The  contradictory  evidence  as  to  date  is  explained  in  some  degree 
by  the  hypothesis  that  this,  presumably  the  earliest  of  the  writings 
of  John,  received  subsequent  additions  and  interpolations.  As 
Prof.  Harnack  suggests,  what  was  written  under  Galba,  a.  d.  68, 
'  afterwards  underwent  revision  under  Vespasian  about  75-79,  and 
perhaps  in  Domitian's  reign  of  terror  about  95-96/  It  is  a  supposition 
that  abates,  while  not  entirely  removing,  the  difficulties  connected 
with  the  testimony  of  Irenaeus,  and  the  difference  in  language  in  the 
Book  of  Kevelation  and  the  Gospel  of  John.  Another  hypothesis,  as 
old  as  the  time  of  Eusebius,  that  the  Revelation  should  be  ascribed  to 
the  *  Presbyter  John,'  a  contemporary  of  the  Apostle  at  Ephesus,  is  now 
generally  regarded  as  untenable.  The  theory  of  Vischer,  a  pupil  of 
Hai-nack,  that  the  book  was  of  Jewish  origin,  written  in  Hebrew 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  subsequently  interpolated 
from  a  Christian  point  of  view,  need  only  be  mentioned.  It  is  well 
stated  and  closely  examined  by  W.  H.  Simcox  {Cambridge  Greek  Testament, 
Excursus  III). 

550.  Character  of  the  Book. — This  book  greatly  re- 
sembles those  of  Ezekiel  and  of  Daniel,  and  belongs  to  the 


760  THE   KEVELATION   OF   JOHN 

class  of  literature  known  as  *  Apocalyptic*  The  Apocalypses 
which  began  with  Daniel  and  appeared  under  the  titles  of 
great  names  like  Enoch,  Moses,  Ezra — titles  merely,  and  not 
meant  to  indicate  authorship — were  always  intended  to 
encourage  and  stimulate  the  people  in  times  of  national 
distress  by  the  assurance  of  a  glorious  future  in  the  triumph 
of  Israel's  long-wished-for  Deliverer.  Traces  of  this  litera- 
ture, as  we  have  seen,  are  found  in  the  Epistles.  As  there 
had  been  Jewish  Apocalyptic  writings,  so  there  were 
Christian  writings  of  the  same  general  character,  conveying 
Divine  assurances  of  overthrow  of  the  forces  of  evil,  and 
the  consummation  of  all  things  at  the  second  coming  of 
Christ.  Of  these  the  noblest  example  is  this  Apocalypse 
of  John  in  its  grandeur,  described  by  Milton  as  'the 
majestic  image  of  a  high  and  stately  tragedy,  shutting  up 
and  intermingling  her  solemn  scenes  and  acts  with  a  seven- 
fold chorus  of  hallelujahs  and  harping  symphonies.' 
The  outline  of  the  book  is  as  follows  : — 

551.  Contents. —  The  Eevelation,  or  Apocalypse,  con- 
sists of  two  principal  divisions. 

Part  I  (1-3)  relates  to  *  the  things  which  are ' ;  comprising 
a  preparatory  vision  exhibiting  the  Divine  perfections  and 
the  human  sympathy  of  the  Eedeemer,  and  the  addresses 
or  epistles  to  the  'angels,'  personifications  of  the  spirit  or 
*  genius '  of  each  of  the  Seven  Churches  ^  ;  each  of  which 
consists  of  three  parts:  (i)  The  Introduction,  referring  in 
each  case  to  some  of  the  attributes  of  Him  Who  addresses 
the  Church,  taken  from  the  preceding  vision,  in  which 
a  progressive  order  is  observable,  and  an  appropriateness 
to  the  general  tenor  of  the  epistle  which  follows ;    (2)   A 

*  So  Lightfoot,  Philippians,  pp.  197-8,  &c.  The  personification  is  in 
the  style  of  the  book — the  *  angel  of  the  waters.'  Others,  as  Bunsen, 
Godet,  Trench,  Schaflf,  Wordsworth,  &c.,  hold  that  the  bishops  of  the 
churches  are  intended  by  the  designation. 


VISIONS   OF   THE  APOCALYPSE  761 

description  of  the  characteristics  of  the  Church,  with  suitable 
encouragement,  admonition,  or  reproof;  and  (3)  Promises  of 
reivard  to  those  who  overcome,  which  are  addressed  to  all 
the  churches. 

The  remainder  of  the  book  (4-22)  is  occupied  with  the 
prophecy  of  'the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter/  It 
consists  of  a  series  of  visions,  showing  forth,  by  means  of 
symbolical  imagery  and  figurative  language,  the  conflicts 
and  sufferings  of  the  people  of  God,  and  His  judgements 
upon  their  enemies ;  and  concluding  with  representations 
of  the  downfall  of  the  mystic  Babylon,  type  of  antagonism 
to  the  truth,  and  the  triumph  of  the  New  Jerusalem,  the 
Church  perfected. 

An  introductory  vision  represents  the  Divine  glory  (4),  the  sealed 
scroll,  and  the  Lamb,  who  alone  is  worthy  to  open  it  (5).  This  is 
followed  by  the  opening  of  the  first  six  seals  (6).  The  sealing  of 
the  144,000  of  the  tribes  of  Israel ;  the  appearance  and  worship  of  the 
innumerable  multitude  from  all  nations  ;  and  the  opening  of 
the  seventh  seal  (7  8^).  The  vision  of  an  angel  offering  incense  at 
the  altar  ;  followed  by  the  sounding  of  the  first  six  trumpets  (S^-i^  9). 
The  vision  of  a  mighty  angel,  with  a  little  scroll  open  in  his  hand ; 
which,  after  the  seven  thunders,  and  the  angel's  proclamation,  John 
is  directed  to  take  and  eat  (10).  The  measuring  of  the  temple  and 
altar  ;  the  two  witnesses  ;  their  prophesying,  death,  resurrection,  and 
ascension  ;  the  sounding  of  the  seventh  trumpet  (11).  The  vision  of 
the  woman  persecuted  by  the  dragon  ;  the  conflict  between  Michael 
and  his  angels,  and  the  dragon  and  his  angels  ;  preservation  of  the 
woman  in  the  wilderness  (12).  The  beast  rising  up  out  of  the  sea,  and 
the  second  beast  coming  up  out  of  the  earth  (13).  The  vision  of  the 
Lamb  and  the  144,000  on  Mount  Sion  ;  the  proclamations  of  the  three 
angels  ;  the  harvest,  and  the  vintage  (15).  The  pouring  out  of  the 
seven  vials  of  plagues  (16).  The  angel's  description  of  the  woman 
sitting  upon  the  beast  (17).  Another  angel's  proclamation  of  Baby- 
lon's fall  and  destruction  (18),  followed  by  songs  of  praise  and  exulta- 
tion (18  19I-I").  <The  Word  of  God'  attended  by  His  faithful 
followers,  by  whom  the  beast  and  the  false  prophet,  and  the  con- 
federate kings,  are  overthrown  and  destroyed  (19^1-21).  The  binding 
of  the  dragon,  and  his  imprisonment  for  a  thousand  years,  during 
which  the  saints  live  and  reign  with  Christ ;  and  at  the  end  of  which, 
Satan,  being  again  loosed,  gathers  the  nations  once  more  to  battle 


762  THE   KEVELATION   OF  JOHN 

against  '  the  beloved  city,'  when  he  and  his  rebellious  hosts  are  finally 
overthrown  and  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (2o^~^°).  Visions  of  the  last 
judgement,  the  new  heaven  and  the  new  earth,  and  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem  (20^^-22'')  :  followed  by  final  addresses  from  the  angel,  from 
Christ,  and  from  the  Apostle,  declaring  the  Divine  origin,  the  abso- 
lute certainty,  and  the  speedy  accomplishment  of  these  predictions 

(326-21). 

552.  Sevenfold  arrangement. — The  whole  may  be 
briefly  summed  up  thus.     After  the  Prologue  (i^~^) : — 

First,  Seven  epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches  (1-3). 

Secondly,  Seven  seals  {^^-S^). 

TJiirdly,  Seven  trumpets  sounded  (8^-11). 

Fourthly,  Seven  Mystic  Figures,  (i)  The  Sun-clothed 
Woman,  (2)  The  Ked  Dragon,  (3)  The  Man-child,  (4)  The 
First  Wild  Beast,  from  the  Sea,  (5)  The  Second  Wild  Beast, 
from  the  Land,  (6)  The  Lamb  on  Mount  Sion,  (7)  The  Son 
of  Man  on  the  Cloud. 

Fifthly,  Seven  vials  poured  out  (15,  16). 

Sixthly,  The  enemies  of  the  Church  overthrown  (17-20). 

Seventhly,  The  Glories  of  the  Holy  City,  the  New 
Jerusalem  (21-22'^);  Epilogue  ('22!'''^^). 

553.  Various  Interpretations.  —  As  no  other  portion 
of  sacred  Scripture  is  more  difficult,  so  of  none  have  the 
explanations  been  more  various.  The  different  theories 
may  be  arranged  under  four  heads. 

I.  Some  consider  the  greater  part  of  these  prophecies  to 
have  had  their  fulfilment  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church. 

In  this  view  Grotius,  Hammond,  Wetstein,  Eichhorn,  De 
Wette,  Stuart,  Hug,  Ewald,  Herder,  Bleek,  Lucke,  Duster- 
dieck,  S.  Davidson,  F.  D.  Maurice,  and  Farrar  in  a  measure 
concur,  and  of  course  maintain  the  earlier  date  of  the  book. 
This  is  the  Frceterist  interpretation. 

*  Write  the  things  which  thou  hast  seen,  and  the  things  which  are, 
and  the  things  which  shall  be  hereafter.'  These  words  Dean  Farrar 
regards  as  the  basis  of  the  Prseterist  system  of  interpretation  of  the 
Revelation  ;    it  describes  *  the  contemporary  state  of   things  in  the 


INTEKPKETATION  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE  763 

Church  and  the  world,  and  the  events  which  were  to  follow  in  imme- 
diate sequence,'  Those  who  take  this  view  regard  a  large  portion  of 
the  Revelation  as  referring  to  the  Neronian  persecution  and  the  Jewish 
rebellion.  The  'seven  kings'  of  17^°  are  identified  with  the  emperors 
Augustus,  Tiberius,  Gains  (Caligula),  Claudius,  Nero,  Galba,  Otho. 
What  is  said  in  13^^  regarding  the  *  number '  of  the  beast,  666,  is  found 
to  correspond  with  the  numerical  value  of  the  letters  in  the  words 
Neron  C^sar  in  Hebrew  characters  (-\d;:  pi:,  200  +  60  +  100  +  50  +  6  +  200 
+  50  =  666) ;  or  reading  Nero  for  Neron,  and  thus  deducting  N  =  50, 
we  have  616,  which  corresponds  with  an  alternative  reading.  That 
the  writer  set  forth  his  great  secret  according  to  the  numerical  value 
of  the  Hebrew  letters,  while  the  book  is  written  in  Greek,  may  cer- 
tainly appear  strange,  until  it  is  remembered  that  while  with  Jewish 
fellow  Christians  the  secret  would  be  safe,  to  treacherous  Gentile 
informers  the  more  difficult  its  discovery  was  made  the  better. 

2.  A  second  class  of  expositors,  comprising  the  greater 
number  of  Protestant  writers,  regard  these  prophecies  as 
a  delineation  of  the  great  features  in  the  history  of  the 
world,  or  of  the  Church,  from  the  apostolic  age  to  the  end 
of  time. 

This  system  of  interpretation,  generally  called  thellistoricalf 
regards  the  narrative  as  a  continuous  history  reaching  on  to 
the  end  of  time,  though  some  parts  of  the  book  are  treated 
as  synchronological.  Its  advocates  are  Mede  (1627),  whose 
conclusions  were  in  a  large  measure  approved  by  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  in  his  Prophecies  of  Holy  Writ,  Yitringa,  Bishop 
Newton,  Scott,  Woodhouse,  Bengel,  Hengstenberg,  Elliott, 
Keith,  Birks,  Bishop  Wordsworth,  Alford  (in  a  modified 
form),  and  Grattan  Guinness. 

While  agreeing,  however,  in  this  general  view,  the  historical  inter- 
preters display  the  utmost  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  application  of 
the  different  symbols  in  numbers,  animated  forms,  forces  of  nature, 
colours,  &c. ;  some  extending  them  more  or  less  to  the  events  of 
secular  history,  while  others  restrict  them  entirely  to  tlie  affairs  of  the 
Church.  It  would  be  wrong  to  ridicule  the  mistakes  and  contradic- 
tions of  interpreters  whose  solemn  pursuit  was  that  of  truth,  in  their 
calculations  of  times  and  seasons  and  their  interpretations  of  apoca- 
lyptic symbols ;  but  in  the  fact  that  authorities  of  such  reputation  as 
Bengel,  Wordsworth,  Elliott,  and  others  are  at  hopeless  variance,  this 


764  THE   REVELATION   OF   JOHN 

system  breaks  down.  "Where  one  interpreter  (Elliott)  sees  in  the  sixth 
seal  a  reference  to  Constantine,  another  (Faber)  sees  allusion  to  the 
first  French  Revolution ;  where  one  sees  in  the  star  fallen  from 
heaven  a  good  angel  (Bengel),  another  (Elliott)  discerns  Mohammed  : 
the  scorpion  locusts  that  have  power  for  five  months  mean  to  Mede 
one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  the  dominion  of  the  Saracens,  but  to 
Vitringa  they  mean  Goths,  and  to  Scherzer  Jesuits.  All  this  seems  to 
be  arbitrary  and  hazardous  in  the  extreme. 

3.  Another  class  of  interpreters,  taking  an  entirely  dif- 
ferent view  from  any  of  those  already  mentioned,  consider 
the  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  this  series  of  prophecies, 
to  belong,  in  its  strictest  and  fullest  sense,  to  the  last  days. 

This  interpretation  is  the  Futurist,  and  has  been  advocated 
by  Maitland,  Burgh,  J.  H.  Todd,  Isaac  Williams,  W.  Kelly, 
and  others. 

According  to  this  system,  the  epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches  cover 
and  predict  seven  actual  successive  stages  of  church  history.  The 
visions  beginning  with  the  fourth  chapter,  and  all  the  prophetical 
parts  of  the  book,  are  to  be  viewed  as  a  representation  of  events 
which  are  to  take  place  shortly  before  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  and 
the  consummation  of  all  things  ;  the  Israel  spoken  of  here  being  the 
literal  Israel, — the  'two  witnesses'  being  two  individuals,  probably 
Moses  and  Elijah  ;  the  days  in  the  chronological  periods,  literal  days — 
and  the  antichrist  or  apocalyptic  beast,  under  his  last  head,  a  personal 
infidel  antichrist,  who  is  to  reign  over  the  whole  extent  of  the  old 
Roman  empire,  and  to  persecute  and  triumph  over  the  saints  for  just 
three  years  and  a  half,  until  Christ's  coming  to  destroy  him.  '  It  is 
clear  that  there  can  be  no  discussion  as  to  the  accuracy  or  inaccuracy 
of  the  results  of  this  system  of  interpretation  in  any  of  its  forms.  The 
future  defies  criticism.'     Archdeacon  Lee,  in  Speaker^  Commentary. 

4.  A  fourth  system  of  interpretation,  known  as  the 
Spiritual  or  Ideal,  is  adopted  by  some  of  the  modern  Anglican 
interpreters,  e.  g.  Bishop  Boyd  Carpenter  in  Ellicott's  Com- 
mentary, Archdeacon  Lee  in  the  Speakers  Commentary, 
Professor  Milligan,  and  in  part  by  Dean  Farrar.  This 
system  regards  the  Kevelation  as  the  pictorial  unfolding  of 
great  principles  in  constant  conflict,  though  under  varioug 
forms,  and  eclectic  in  its  character. 


I^ROPHECIES  IN  THE  APOCALYPSE        765 

'The  Praeterist,'  says  Bishop  Carpenter,  'may  be  right  in  finding 
early  fulfilments,  and  theFutui-ist  in  expecting  undeveloped  ones,  and 
the  Historical  interpreter  is  unquestionably  right  in  looking  for  them 
along  the  whole  line  of  history  ;  for  the  words  of  God  mean  more  than 
one  man,  or  one  school  of  thought,  can  compass. . ..'  'The  visions  of  the 
book  do  find  counterparts  in  the  occurrences  of  human  history.  They 
have  had  these,  and  they  yet  will  have  these  fulfilments,  and  these 
fulfilments  belong  neither  wholly  to  the  past  nor  wholly  to  the  future. 
The  prophecies  of  God  are  written  in  a  language  which  can  be  read  by 
more  than  one  generation.*  Such  a  view  accords  well  with  that  of 
Bacon  in  his  Advancement  of  Learning,  that  Divine  prophecies  'have 
springing  and  germinant  accomplishment  throughout  many  ages, 
though  the  height  or  fullness  of  them  may  refer  to  some  one  age' 
(bk.  ii.  3). 

554.  Distinct  and  Certain  Prophecies. — Whatever 
difference  of  opinion  may  exist  among  interpreters  with 
respect  to  the  precise  times  and  countries,  events,  and 
persons,  to  which  it  is  supposed  these  visions  refer,  they  are 
mostly  agreed  both  as  to  its  general  character  and  design, 
and  as  to  the  lessons  to  be  deduced  from  it — lessons  more  or 
less  appropriate  to  every  age  of  the  Church.  Thus  all  have 
learned  from  these  symbolical  representations  that  Christ 
is  exalted  to  the  highest  dignity  in  heaven,  and  exercises 
universal  dominion  on  earth — that  the  state  of  the  Church 
of  Christ  is  for  a  long  time  to  be  one  of  trouble  and  conflict 
— that  steadfastness  and  fidelity  are  our  duty — that  after  the 
overthrow  of  its  first  adversaries  the  Jews,  the  great  enemy 
would  employ  against  it  other  agents — that  worldly  power 
and  policy,  the  persecutor  and  the  false  prophet,  would  be 
allied  in  seeking  to  destroy  or  to  corrupt  it — that  the  marks 
of  this  unhallowed  combination  are  pride,  worldly  pomp, 
a  persecuting  spirit,  a  careless  and  luxurious  life — that 
while  exposed  to  the  assaults  of  these  foes,  it  would  ever 
be  under  Divine  protection  —  that  whatever  was  opposed 
to  the  kingdom  of  Christ  would  certainly  be  overthrown — • 
that  even  now  there  is  a  constant  and  most  intimate  con- 
nexion between  the  visible  and  the  invisible  world,  prayer 


766  THE   EEVELATIOi^  OF  JOHl^ 

and  praise  ascending  continually  to  the  throne  of  God,  and 
messengers  of  wrath  and  mercy  descending  thence— that 
the  providence  and  government  of  God  comprehend  all 
subjects  and  events,  and  render  them  subservient  to  the 
best  ends — that  the  Church,  after  passing  through  a  condi- 
tion of  abasement,  warfare,  and  tribulation,  will  be  brought 
to  a  state  of  honour,  peace,  and  felicity — that  the  Saviour 
Who  redeemed  His  people  by  the  sacrifice  of  Himself,  ever 
regards  them  with  infinite  tenderness  and  benignity,  aids 
and  defends  them  by  His  almighty  power,  and  will  receive 
them  at  last  to  His  heavenly  kingdom — and  finally  that, 
the  unholy  being  excluded,  all  the  followers  of  Christ,  of 
every  age  and  country,  will  be  united  in  one  glorious  society, 
exhibiting  perfect  holiness,  and  enjoying  everlasting  happi- 
ness, in  the  j)resence  of  their  God  and  Saviour.  These  are 
some  of  the  most  important  truths  contained  in  this  book ; 
they  are  presented  with  peculiar  vividness  and  power ;  and 
they  have  contributed  much  to  the  faith  and  love,  the 
fortitude  and  patience,  the  hope  and  joy,  of  all  the  followers 
of  the  Lord. 

The  'Millennium,'  depicted  in  the  later  part  of  the  book, 
is  a  period  in  which  the  martyred  saints  shall  reign  with 
Christ,  20*.  Some  interpreters  take  the  'thousand  years' 
literally :  in  accordance,  however,  with  the  style  of  Scripture, 
it  more  probably  signifies  a  prolonged  though  finite  dura- 
tion ;  and  the  symbolism  seems  to  denote  a  period  during 
which  the  moral  and  spiritual  influence  of  those  who  have 
bravely  witnessed  for  the  truth  ('the  souls  of  those  that 
were  beheaded,'  &c.)  shall  '  reign '  or  prevail  among  men  \ 

*  Thus  George  Eliot  speaks  of 

'  those  immortal  dead  who  live  again 
In  minds  made  better  by  their  presence  ;   livo 
In  pulses  stirred  to  generosity 
In  deeds  of  daring  rectitude  ;   in  scorn 
Of  miserable  aims  that  end  in  self.' 


THE  GKEAT  APOSTATE  POWER  767 

This  may  date  from  the  time  when  idolatry  jn  the  Roman 
Empire  received  its  final  blow  ;  or  it  may  be  entirely  future. 
On  this  point  opinions  greatly  differ.  See  F.  D.  Maurice, 
On  the  Apocalypse,  sect.  xx. 

It  should  be  noted  that  after  the  great  prophecy  of  21^"^ 
there  is  a  vision  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem  (in  contrast  with 
that  of  Babylon,  ch.  17),  which  from  many  of  its  features 
must  refer  to  the  Church — the  ideal  Church — on  earth.  See 
especially  212"^  '  and  the  nations  shall  walk  amidst  the  light 
thereof,'  R.  V.,  the  whole  world  illuminated  and  blessed  by 
the  Church. 

Among  the  prophetic  visions  of  the  Apocalypse,  there 
is  one  peculiarly  prominent  (17^^),  which  strikingly  har- 
monizes with  other  prophetic  intimations  evidently  refer- 
ring to  the  same  subject,  2  Th  2^"^^  i  Yim  4}'^. 
There  is  unusual  agreement  among  the  greater  number  of 
the  best  expositors  in  explaining  these  combined  prophecies  ; 
although  some  consider  them  to  refer  to  events  still  future. 
They  are  regarded  as  predicting  the  rise  and  temporary 
ascendency  of  a  great  apostate  power  in  the  midst  of  the 
Christian  Church,  which  should  be  distinguished  by  the 
following  characteristics : — 

(i)  Deep-seated  corruption  of  religion,  which  corruption,  by 
fraud  as  well  as  force,  it  spreads  and  maintains  throughout 
the  world,  2  Th  23-8-io  i  Tim  4}-'^  Rev  172-5  iS^-^  192.  (2) 
Gross  immorality  and  licentiousness,  combined  with  hypo- 
critical and  self-righteous  asceticism,  i  Tim  4!^'^.  (3)  Arrogant 
and  blasphemous  pretensions,  usurpation  of  Divine  preroga- 
tives, opposition  against  God,  and  persecution  of  His  people, 
2  Th  2^-5  Rev  176-i'i  186-20  192.  (4)  Great  wealth,  magni- 
ficence, and  luxury.  Rev  17*  iS"^-^-^^-^^.  (5)  Reliance  upon 
the  support  and  aid  of  worldly  powers,  whose  tyranny  it 
sanctions  and  upholds,  Rev  i7i«2.i5.i7  i83-9. 

Such  is  the  picture  drawn  by  the  hand  of  prophecy,  of 
this  rival  and  enemy  of  God,  seated  in  His  temple  ;  and  its 


768  THE   REVELATION  OF  JOHN 

counterpart  is  but  too  clearly  seen  in  the  history  of  a  great 
portion  of  Christendom.  Out  of  the  abundant  proofs 
furnished  by  the  records  of  the  Church  during  the  long,  dark 
night  through  which  she  has  passed,  and  even  by  the 
present  state  of  the  world,  it  is  sufficient  to  mention  a  few 
leading  traits  of  character  which  mark  that  system  of 
iniquity  in  which  the  fulfilment  of  these  predictions  is 
pre-eminently  seen.  Gross  corruptions  of  Christian  doctrine 
and  worship ; — compulsory  celibacy  and  uncommanded 
austerities,  combined  with  meretricious  splendour  and  a 
counterfeit  Jewish  ritual ; — blasphemous  assumptions  of 
Divine  titles  and  honours,  claims  of  infallibility  and  supreme 
authority  over  the  conscience — dispensations  and  absolution 
of  sins,  pretended  prophecies  and  miracles — oppression  and 
persecution  of  the  people  of  God,  carried  on  with  the 
concurrence  and  aid  of  earthly  rulers ; — all  these  have  been 
found  more  or  less  developed  in  those  antichristian  systems 
which  have  so  greatly  prevailed  both  in  Eastern  and 
Western  Europe,  to  the  hindrance  of  the  spread  of  Divine 
truth,  and  the  ruinous  delusion  of  myriads,  who,  being 
blinded  by  error,  perish  in  their  sin. 

The  fearful  errors  of  this  apostasy  are  not,  however,  the 
closing  scenes  of  this  book.  The  *  wicked '  or  *  lawless  one  ' 
'  the  Lord  shall  consume  with  the  spirit  of  His  mouth,' 
2  Th  2^.  She  that  did  corrupt  the  earth  shall  be  judged, 
Rev  19^.  And  this  great  event,  which  will  cause  mourning 
to  some  on  earth,  will  occasion  great  joy  and  thanksgiving 
in  heaven,  Rev  iS^"^^  19^"^  Again,  and  again,  and  again, 
the  cry  is  heard  there,  *  Hallelujah ' ;  and  the  servants  of  God 
on  earth  are  summoned  to  join  in  the  song. 

555.  Peculiarities  in  words  and  phrases. — Of  words  and  phrases 
peculiar  to  this  book  note  as  characteristic  *  the  Lord's  Day  '  (1)  nvpiafc^ 
Tjfjitpa),  i^°;  'the  second  death,'  2^1  20^"  ai^  ;  'dragon' thirteen  times  in 
reference  to  the  devil ;  '  accuser,'  ia^°  ;  '  brimstone,'  9"  ;  the  use  of 
the  Hebrew  words  '  Abaddon,'  9^'  ; 


PECULIARITIES  OF  THE  APOCALYPSE     761? 

No  book  in  the  Bible  has  such  numerous  references  to  angels,  upwards 
of  seventy  occurring  ;  noteworthy  also  is  the  symbolic  use  of  the 
number  seven,  in  upwards  of  thirty  instances. 

It  is  important  to  observe  certain  characteristic  peculiarities  which 
betoken  an  identity  of  authorship  in  the  Gospel  and  epistles  of  John 
and  the  Revelation.     The  following  will  illustrate  : — 

1.  The  application  of  the  title  The  Word  of  God  given  to  o\ir  Lord,  19". 
This  name  '  the  Word '  is  found  in  the  New  Testament  only  in  John's 
writings ;  cf.  Jn  i^  i  Jn  i^ 

2.  The  idea  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  as  a  Lamb  occurs  in  the  Revela- 
tion twenty-five  times,  and  only  elsewhere  in  Jn  1 29-36^ 

3.  The  use  of  the  term  to  conquer  (viKav),  in  the  sense  of  overcoming 
the  evil  of  the  world,  occurs  repeatedly  in  the  letters  to  the  Seven 
Churches,  2,  3,  also  in  la^i  is'*  17^*  2i\     Cf.  i  Jn  a^-i*  4*  s''^- 

4.  The  word  'true'  {a\Tj9iv6s),  in  the  sense  of  real,  genuine,  con- 
trasted with  fictitious,  pretended,  is  found  thirteen  times  in  the  Gospel 
and  Epistles,  and  ten  times  in  the  Revelation  ;  as  3"^  19^^     Cf.  Jn  i^* 

5.  The  unusual  plural  ainara  ('bloods ')  in  Rev  iS^*  (R.  V.)  is  found 
elsewhere  only  in  Jn  i^^. 

6.  The  statement  in  Rev  i'^,  *  and  they  which  pierced  Him,'  is  found 
only  in  Jn  19",  and  is  there  also  connected  with  the  same  translation 
of  Zee  12*0,  which  differs  in  rendering  from  that  of  the  Septuagint. 

7.  A  prominent  idea  of  John  in  the  Gospel,  expressed  by  the  noun 
fxaprvpia,  variously  rendered  witness,  testimony,  record,  and  the  verb 
fiapTvptoj,  witness,  bear  witness,  testify,  bear  record,  in  the  sense  of 
declaration  respecting  Jesus  Christ,  of  public  profession  of  belief,  is 
prominent  also  in  Revelation.     See  i^-^  6»  i2"-i^  19^°  20*  22I8.20. 

8.  Other  points  of  resemblance  between  this  book  and  the  Gospel 
will  be  found  in  Dr.  S.  Davidson's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament, 
vol.  ii,  and  in  Dr.  H.  R.  Reynolds's  Introduction  and  Exposition  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  in  the  *  Pulpit  Commentary.' 

Among  many  works  which  might  be  referred  to  on  the  Epistles  to 
the  Seven  Churches  are  those  of  Archbishop  Trench,  Canon  Tristram, 
Dean  Plumptre,  Dr.  Reynolds  {The  Expositor,  series  i,  vols,  ii  and  iii),  Prof. 
Marcus  Dods,  and  Dr.  Culross  {Thy  First  Love,  Christ's  Message  to  Ephesus)  : 
also  (since  this  note  was  written)  Prof.  W.  M.  Ramsay's  important 
treatise  on  The  Letters  to  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia  and  their  place  in  the  plan 
qf  the  Apocalypse. 

Our  work  is  done.  The  first  chapters  of  Matthew  show 
us  Christ  in  His  weakness ;  of  royal  descent  indeed,  and 
receiving  the  profoundest  homage,  yet.  poor  and  persecuted  ; 

3» 


770  THE   KEVELATION   OF   JOHN 

the  last  of  Revelation  show  Him  with  memorials  of  His 
suffering — for  He  is  a  Lamb  still — but  triumphant,  *  reigning 
for  ever  and  ever.'  In  Genesis  we  see  Paradise  lost,  and 
man  driven  forth  from  the  presence  of  God ;  in  Revelation 
more  than  Paradise  is  regained,  men  are  once  more  in 
fellowship  with  God  (223*-^),  a  fellowship  that  shall  know 
no  end.  Malachi  had  ended  with  '  a  curse,'  the  last  words 
of  John  are  of  blessing  (22^^).  So  characteristic  are  the 
various  portions  of  the  Inspired  Volume  throughout :  so 
complete  the  whole. 


APPENDICES 


I.   SCRIPTURE  CHRONOLOGY 

with  that  of  Contemporary  Nations 

n.  SCRIPTURE  NATURAL  HISTORY 
Fauna,  Flora  and  Minerals 


APPENDIX  T 


The  Old  Testament  History 

The  bases  of  Scripture  Chronology,  as  reckoned  from  the  era  of 
Creation,  Lave  been  discussed  in  §§  195-197.  The  earliest  point 
of  recorded  contact  between  the  Chosen  People  and  the  heathen 
world  is  noted  §  178.  This  was  before  b.  c.  2000  (Abraham  in  Palestine, 
and  Khammurabi  in  Babylonia).  But  it  is  not  possible  to  arrive,  with 
our  present  means  of  information,  at  more  than  an  approximate 
statement  of  the  several  dates.  The  following  may  be  accepted 
(Principal  Owen  C.  Whitehouse)  as  probable,  in  regard  to  the 
patriarchal  history  and  the  abode  of  Isiael  in  Egypt. 

B.C. 

2040  Birth  of  Abraham. 

1940  Birth  of  Isaac  (Gen  ai"^). 

1880  Birth  of  Jacob  (Gen  25-^). 

I7f>0  Migration  of  Jacob  (Israel)  to  Egypt  (Gen  46^). 

1320  The  Exodus  (after  430  years)  :  see  p.  324. 


Israel 

1320  The  Exodus*. 

1280  Entrance  into  Canaan  ;  and  wars  ;  division  of  the  land. 

1255  Death  of  Joshua  (twenty-five  years  after  entering  Canaan, 
Josephus,  Ant.  v.  i.  §  29).  For  the  period  of  the  Judges,  see 
§  198,  p.  325,  and  §  268,  p.  443  ;  Othniel  to  Samuel,  about 
200  years. 

1040  Beginning  0/ the  Regal  Period.     Accession  of  Saul. 

[According  to  Josephus,  Saul  reigned  twenty  years  ;  in  Ac  13'^ 
the  time  assigned  is  *  forty  years ' — probably  a  transcriber's 
error,  as  it  would  follow  that  David,  the  friend  of  Jonathan, 
was  born  in  the  tentli  year  of  Saul's  reign,  2  S:i  5*.]  Wars 
with  neighbouring  tribes.  Saul  and  Jonathan  fall  in  conflict 
with  the  Philistines. 


*  Various   dates  assigned  to  the  Exodus  by  chronologers  :   Rabbins 
1314,  Eusebius  151 2,  Betle  1499,  Ussher  1491,  Ilalcs  1648,  Bengel  1497. 


CHRONOLOGY 


Contemporary  Annals  :   Egypt  and  Babylonia 

Egypty  reckoned  by  dynasties,  successive  or  in  some  instances  con- 
current in  different  parts. 

B.  c.  4400  (Brugsch)  or  3892  (Lepsius).  Menes,  the  founder  of  the 
First  dynasty  (Memphis). 

Pyramids  built  in  the  Sixth  dynasty  (3300-3066  Brugsch).  Fall  of 
the  Memphite  dominion.  Revival  of  the  Empire  under  the  Theban 
dynasties  from  about  2500. 

Invasion  of  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd-Kings  (Fifteenth  to  Eighteenth 
dynasties)  ;  about  2098-1587.  Israel  in  Egypt  in  the  latter  part  of 
this  time  :  see  §  179. 

The  Theban  dynasty  restored  :  Nineteenth  dynasty.  Ramses  I 
c.  1400,  Ramses  II,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression  (Sesostris  of  the 
Greeks),  c.  1350,  Meneptaii  II,  the  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus:  see 
§§  180,  181. 

Babylonia.  Khammurabi,  founder  of  the  First  Empire  (including 
Akkad    to    the    North,    and   Sumer    (Shinar)   to   the   South),  before 

B.C.    2000. 

For  the  Ilittite  Empire  see  §  186. 

Assyria.  Tiglatii-pileser  I,  c.  1 100,  renowned  as  a  hunter.  Conflicts 
with  the  Hittites  {T.  G.  Pinches,  0.  T.  Assyria  and  Babylonia). 

Greece  and  Asia  Minor.     Fall  of  Troy,  1184  (date  generally  assigned). 
CoDRUS,  King  of  Athens,  c.  1068. 

Egypt,  c.  1200-966.  The  Twentieth  and  Twenty-first  dynasties  ; 
one  of  the  kings  of  latter  dynasty  (prob.  Pasebciianen  II)  was  father- 
in-law  to  Solomon. 

Philistia.  A  warlike  tribe  of  'strangers'  or  'immigrants*  (non- 
Semitic,  'uncircumcised  ')  had  at  an  earlier  period  established  them- 
selves in  the  south-western  corner  of  Canaan,  and  eventually  gave 
their  name  to  the  whole  land  *  Palestine.*  They  were  in  possession 
at  the  time  of  the  Exodus,  and  were  judged  too  formidable  for  the 
Israelites  to  encounter,  Ex  13^'^  (see  p.  280).  Their  five  cities  or 
strongholds  were  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askelon,  Ekron  and  Gath.  They 
were  long  the  most  unquiet  and  formidable  neighbours  of  the  Israelites, 
in  Solonaon's  reign  they  were  subject  to  him,  i  Ki  4"^^"^*, 


774 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


1020  David,  king  in  Hebron  :    contests  for  the  kingdom  with  Esh- 
baal  (Ish-bosheth),  son  of  Saul. 

1013  David,  king  in  Jerusalem  :    Nathan  and  Gad  prophets.     The 
ark  brought  to  the  Tabernacle  on  Mount  Zion. 

c.  990  Rebellion  of  Absalom. 

980  Accession  of  Solomon. 

1»77  Building  of  the  Temple  begun. 

969  Dedication  of  the  Temple. 

Alliances  with  other  nations  ;    extension  of  commerce.      In- 
ternal troubles;  Jeroboam's  flight  to  Shishak  :  Prophet  Abij ah. 

938  Death  of  Solomon,  and  Division  of  the  Kingdom. 


The  Divided  Kingdom 
Dates  mostly  as  in  Kamphausen's  *  Chronologie,^ 


[883 


JUDAII 

Reiioboam,  I  Ki  14'^  2  Ch  12''. 
Shemaiah    forbids    attack    on 


Israel,  i  Ki  12'' 


2*  2  Ch  11^-*. 
people    into 

2-24 


Relapse    of    the 
idolatry,  i  Ki  14 

Shishak  (Shashanq)  plun- 
ders Jerusalem,  i  Ki  14^5-28 
2  Ch  122-12. 

Abijaii,  or  Abijam  ;  defeats 
Jeroboam,  2  Ch  13^21. 

Asa,  i  Ki  15S-I"  2  Ch  1322 ; 
puts  away  idolatry  and 
strengthens  the  kingdom, 
I  Ki  15I1-15  2  Ch  142-8  1510-18. 
Victory  over  Zerah  Hhe  Ethio- 
pian,' 2  Ch  i4^~i^.  Subsidi7,cs 
Ben-hadad  I  against  Baashji, 
I  Ki  151*^22  Hanani,  pro- 
testing, is  imprisoned,  2  Ch 
1 6"~i".  Other  i^rophets,  Azariah 
and  Odcd. 


937 


920 


917 


\)U 


914 


891 


800 


890 


b7S 


Israel 
Jeroboam  I  (Shechem),    r  Ki 


,i?6 


Calf-worship 

>28.29 


Dan 


non- 

33.34 


at 
and  Bethel,  i2'^>'-'^\  A 
Levitical  priesthood,  13 
Prophets  :  a  Man  of  God  out 
of  Judah,  13I.  Ahijah  i4''~ii. 
Death  of  the  young  prince 
Abijah,  14I2-18.  Constant  war 
with  Judah,  14'°. 


Nadab,  r  Ki  i4»»-2o  1520-29^ 
slain  by  Baasha.  Jeroboam's 
family  extinct. 

27-34^    (le- 
I,   2  Ch 


Baasiia,    I    Ki    15 
feated    by  Beii-hadad 
i6'-^      Denounced 
I  Ki  1 61-*. 


by    Jehu, 


Elah,  murdered  by  Zimri, 
I  Ki  i6°-8. 

Zimri,  reigned  only  for  a 
week  :  committed  suicide  on 
the  election  of  Omri,  i  Ki 
r69-«o. 

long    civil   war  witli 
Samaria   built,    i    Ki 


Omri, 
Tibni. 
,523-28 

Aiiab 
Jezebel 


«on  of  Omri,  married 
1   Sidonian    princess}, 


CONTEMPORARY    ANNALS  775 


Ammon,  a  Semitic  people,  idolaters ;  occupying  territory  on  tlio  east 
of  Jordan  (see  p.  291)  ;  hostile  to  Israel,  especially  in  the  days  of  Saul 
and  David,  to  whom  two  of  their  kings,  Nahash  and  Hanun,  suc- 
cessively offered  defiance.  David  ci-ushed  their  power,  and  they 
continued  in  abject  servitude  until  the  days  of  Jehoshaphat. 

Phoenicia.  For  the  relations  of  Phoenicia  with  Israel  during  the 
early  days  of  the  kingdom,  see  §  184.  Hiram  of  Tyre  was  among  the 
closest  of  allies  with  David  and  Solomon,  and  by  wise  and  skilful 
commerce  secured  great  prosperity. 

Syria.  Zobah,  in  the  north-east  ('Aram  beyond  the  Kiver'),  was 
governed  in  David's  time  by  the  warlike  King  Hadadezer  (or  Hadarezer), 
who  was  decisively  defeated  by  Joab,  2  Sa  8^  lo^^-^^.  Eezon  of  Zobah 
made  himself  master  of  Damascus  and  greatly  harassed  Israel  in  the 
days  of  David  and  Solomon,  i  Ki  ii'^'. 

Egypt.  Shashanq  I,  966-935,  founder  of  the  22nd  or  '  Bubastite  ' 
dynasty.  On  the  south  wall  of  the  temple  of  Ammon  at  Karnak  is 
a  long  list  of  conquered  cities  and  districts  :  among  them  one  that  was 
formerly  read  Judah-melek,  '  King  of  Judah ' ;  now,  however,  supposed 
to  be  Yehiid-hammelik,  probably  denoting  a  town  in  Dan,  Jos  19*^ 
Many  of  the  other  names  are  those  of  Jewish  towns. 

Zerah  (Usarkon  I),  c.  920,  was  a  later  king  of  the  same  dynasty. 


Syria.  Ben-itadad  I,  son  or  grandson  of  Rezon  of  Damascus,  who 
had  been  an  '  adversary'  to  Israel  in  the  days  of  Solomon,  i  Ki  ii'^^~'^^. 
Hadad  was  a  name  of  the  chief  Syrian  deity,  probably  the  Sun.  Two 
other  kings  named  Ben-hadad  are  mentioned  in  Scripture  (see  below). 


Phocyiicia.  Ethbaal  (Itbobalus),  King  of  Sidon  and  priest  of  Astarte, 
940-908,  father  of  Jezebel,  i  Ki  16'^),  gained  the  throne  also  of  Tyre 
by  assassination. 


Greece.     Homer,  Jl.  c.  950.     Hesiod,  c.  860. 


776 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


JUDAH 

Jkhoshaphat  :  his  piety  and 
prosperity,     i  Ki    15'^*    22*^"*' 


Ch   17I-6  2o3 


His   son 


Jehoram  married  Ahab's 
daughter  Athaliah.  The  two 
kings  join  in  the  expedition 
against  Syria  atRamoth-gilead ; 
Jehoshaphat  reproved  by  Jehu, 
2  Ch  19^"'.  Organizes  a  system 
of  jurisprudence,  19*"^^.  De- 
feats a  great  confederacy  (Moab, 
Ammon,  Edom,  &c.)  in  the 
Valley  of  Blessing,  2  Ch  20 
(see  Ps  82,  115). 

Jahaziel  and  Eliezer,  pro- 
phets. Abandons  naval  alliance 
with  Ahaziah,  i  Ki  22*'. 

Alliance  with  Joram  against 
Moab,  2  Ki  36-27. 


Jehoram.  Revolt  of  Edom, 
a  Ki  820-21 2  Ch  218-10  ;  Jehoram 
falls  into  idolatry  :  attacked  by 
Philistines  and  Arabians,  2  Ch 
21I6 


death,  2 


unhonoured     in     his 

[20. 

Ahaziah  :  his  fatal  alliance 
with  Joram  against  the  Syrians : 
both  kings  slain  at  Jezreel, 
2  Ki  9i«-28. 

Athaliah,  mother  of  Ahaziah , 
usurps  the  throne  for  six  years. 
Slain  by  Jehoiada,  2  Ki  11. 

Jehoash  or  Joash  placed  on 
the  throne  by  Jehoiada  at  the 
age  of  seven,  2  Ki  11  2  Ch  23. 
Restores  the  Temple  but  for- 
sakes Jehovah.  Zechariah, 
son  of  Jehoiada,  protests,  and 
is  slain  in  the  court  of  the 
Temple,  2 Ch242o-22_  Incursion 
of  the  Syrians,  2  Ki  i2^7-'8  2  Ch 
2^23.24 .  Joash  slain  by  his  ser- 
vants. 

Amaziah  :  hires  Israelite 
troops  to  assist  him  against 
Edom,  but  at  a  prophet's  com- 
mand sends  them  back,  2  Ch 
25'*~^o^  Conquers  the  Edomitcs, 


876 


856 


854 
851 


843 

842 
836 
814 

797 

796 

781 


Israel 

and  introduced  Baal-worship 
into  Israel  :  withstood  by 
Elijah.  Ben-hadad  II  besieges 
Samaria,  but  is  twice  defeated 
and  forms  an  alliance  with 
Ahab  ;  denounced  by  aprophet, 
I  Ki  2o^^-2^  Naboth's  vineyard  : 
prophecy  of  Micaiah.  Ahab 
falls  in  the  attempt  to  win 
Ramoth-gilead  from  the  Sy- 
rians, i6-'^-22*o. 


Ahaziah  :  son  of  Ahab.  Re- 
volt of  Moab,  I  Ki  22*^-^'  2  Ki 
i\  Dies  from  the  effects  of  a 
fall.    Elijah  translated,  2  Ki  2. 

Jehoram  (or  Joram),  brother 
of  Ahaziah.  War  with  Moab 
continued,  2  Ki  3  (Tablet  of 
Mesha).  Prophecies  and  mir- 
acles of  Elisha.  Siege  of  Sama- 
ria by  Ben-hadad  and  sudden 
deliverance,  2  Ki  6'^*-72o.  After- 
wards wounded  in  battle  with 
Syrians,  retreats  to  Jezreel,  and 
is  slain  by  Jehu. 


Jehu,  general  in  Joram's 
army,  anointed  king,  2  Kip^-^^ 
Slays  Jezebel,  Ahab's  sons  and 
Baal's  worshippers,  10.  Tri- 
butary to  Shalmaneser. 


Jeiioahaz. 
with   Hazael 


Disastrous  wars 
and   Ben-hadad, 


Jehoash,  or  Joash.  Death  of 
Elisha.  Ben-hadad  III  defeated 
three  times.  Victories  over 
Amaziah  of  Judah,  2  Ch  a^^''''^*. 


Jeroboam  II :  an  irreligious 
man,  but  a  prosperous  king  ; 
reclaims     the     territory     con- 


CONTEMPORAKY  ANNALS  777 


Syria.  Ben-hadad  II,  son  of  Ben-hadad  I,  called  Hadadezer  on  the 
Assyrian  monuments  ;  defeated  by  Shalmaneser  II. 

Assyria.  Shalmaneser  II,  858-823.  In  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign, 
as  appears  from  the  monuments,  he  defeated,  at  Qarqar  in  northern 
Syria,  an  alliance  of  twelve  kings,  among  whom  appear  the  names  of 
Ben-hadad  of  Syria  and  '  A.hab  of  Israel.'  This,  it  has  been  said,  'is 
the  first  date  in  the  history  of  Israel  that  can  be  definitely  fixed  ' 
(B.C.  854).  The  alliance  of  Ahab  with  Syria  must  have  been  im- 
mediately broken,  and  followed  by  the  catastroplie  at  Ramoth-gilead. 

Moab.  Mesha,  '  sheep-master,'  king,  c.  854.  On  the  *  Moabite  stone ' 
see  §  183. 


Greece.     Legislation  of  Lycurgus  in  Sparta,  c.  850. 


Syria.  Ben-hadad  II  murdered  by  IIazael,  avIio  usurps  the  throne 
c.  850,  and  reigns  for  forty-six  years.  He  warred  against  Israel  and 
Judah  with  great  ferocity,  took  Gath,  and  was  prevented  from  entering 
Jerusalem  by  a  large  bribe  from  Joash,  a  Ki  la^"^. 


Assyria.  Tribute  of  *Jehu  son  of  Omri'  (monument),  c.  84a.  See 
§  187,  p.  308.     Shalmaneser  III,  781. 

Egypt.     Close  of  the  Twenty-second  dynasty  (Shashanq  III),  c  811. 

Syria.  Ben-hadad  III,  son  of  Hazael,  lost  his  father's  conquests. 
Damascus  captured  by  the  Assyrian  Eimmon-nirari,  803.  See  §  187, 
p.  308. 


778 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


JUDAH 

but  falls  into  their  idolatry, 
2  Ki  14  2  Ch  25II-I6.  Cliallenges 
Joash  to  battle,  but  is  defeated 
and  afterwards  murdered,  2  Ki 
141"-'  2  Ch  2527. 

UzziAii  (Azariah),  under  the 
influence  of  the  prophet  Zecha- 
riah,  begins  his  reign  well ; 
develops  the  resources  of  the 
country ;  fortifies  Jerusalem 
and  the  outpostsof  tlie  Juda^an 
territory  ;  secures  a  fortified 
post  of  vantage  at  Elath  ;  near 
the  end  of  his  reign,  invading 
the  priests'  office  he  is  stricken 
with  leprosy,  Jotham  becoming 
regent,  2  Ki  15^"^  2  Ch  26. 

Jotham  as  regent. 


Isaiah,  Micah. 


Jotham,  sole  king :  both  as 
associated  with  his  father  and 
alone  he  reigned  well  and 
l>rosperously,  2  Ki  1532-^5  ^  (j\^ 
27^"'-',  but  towards  the  close  of 
his  reign  the  kingdom  was 
much  troubled  by  the  alliance 
between  Israel  and  Syria,  2  Ki 

AiiAz,  an  impious  and  reck- 
less king  prone  to  idolatry, 
harassed  by  the  confederate 
forces  of  Syria  and  Israel ;  seeks 
the  aid  of  Assyria,  but  is  in- 
duced to  desist  by  the  sti'ong 
protest  of  Isaiah.  Jewish 
prisoners  of  war  returned  by 
Pekah  at  the  instance  of  Oded, 
2  Ch  286-1^ 

Hkzekiah,  a  deeply  religious 
and  generally  prosperous  king, 
a   Ki  1 8^-* ;  in    the  fourteenth 


B.C. 


777 


750 
741 


740 

737 
736 
735 


734 


730 


727 
722 


Israel 

quered  by  Syria,  according  to 
the  word  of  Jonah,  2  Ki  14'-^"'^'^, 
extended  the  kingdom  in  many 
directions  including  Damascus 
and  Hamath,  142".  Ministry 
of  Joel(?),  Hosea,  Amos. 


Zachariaii,  last  of  Jehu's 
line  :  assassinated  by  Shallum, 
2  Ki  15811. 

Shallum,  reigns  but  one 
month,  slain  by  Menahem. 

MicNAHEM,  tributary  to  As- 
syria. 

Pekahiah,  slain  by  Pekah. 

Pekah,  slain  by  Hoshea. 


IIosHEA  :  attacked  and  made 
triliutary  by  Shalmaneser  ;  dis- 
continuing tribute  and  secretly 
negotiating  with  Egypt  he  is 
imprisoned  by  the  Assyrian 
monarch.  Samaria  is  besieged, 
and  its  overthrow  completed 
by  Sargon.  End  of  the  Israel- 
ite Monarchy. 


CONTEMPORARY  ANNALS  779 


Greece.     The  First  Olympiad,  776,  from  which  dates  were  reckoned. 


Assyria.      Solar  Eclipse,    June  13,   763,   which  helps  to  determine 
the  dates  in  the  Eponym  Canon. 


Rome.    Traditional  date  of  the  building  of  the  city,  753  (a.u.c). 


Babylon  :  the  era  otNabonassar,  747,  from  which  the  dates  in  Ptolemy's 
Canon  are  reckoned. 


Assyria.     Tiglatii-pileser  III  (Pul),  usurper,  745. 


Syria.     Rezin,  King  of  Damascus,   745-732,  defeated  and  slain  by 
Tiglath-pileser — the  kingdom  entirely  crushed. 


Egypt.  Shabaka,  or  So,  the  Ethiopian,  first  king  of  the  Twenty-fifth 
dynasty,  735,  2  Ivi  17*  ;  Tirhakah  last  king  of  that  dynasty,  2  Ki  19^ 
Is  37^- 


Assyria.  Capture  of  Damascus  by  Tiglath-pileser  III,  732.  Ahaz, 
called  Joahaz  of  Judah,  and  the  tributary  princes  summoned  to  meet 
the  Assyrian  king  at  Damascus.  See  2  Ki  16'^.  Shalmaneser  IV,  727  ; 
Sargon,  usurper,  723-2  ;  Sennacherib,  son  of  Sai-gon,  705, 


780 


THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 


JUDAH 

year  of  liis  reign,  invaded  by 
Sargon  *,  Is  io^*~^^).  Isaiah's 
prophecy  of  deliverance  and  of 
a  spiritual  kingdom  (i^).  Ill- 
ness of  the  king,  and  recovery, 
Avith  promise  of  life  prolonged. 
Campaign  of  Sennacherib  a- 
gainst  Judah,  sudden  destruc- 
tion of  his  army,  2  Ki  iB^''"^^ 
19  Is  36'^~22  37  2  Ch  32''"^^  (Ps 
76).  Embassy  of  Merodach- 
baladan  from  Babylon.  Isaiah 
predicts  the  Captivity,  Isa  39. 


Israel 

The  Ten  Tribes  were  carried 
into  captivity,  and  dispersed 
through  the  regions  subject  to 
Assyria.  Their  place  in  Pales- 
tine was  filled  by  colonists  from 
the  East— a  mixed  people,  from 
whom  sprang  the  Samaritans. 


The  Jud^an  Monarchy  after  the  Fall  of  Samaria 

For  the  latter  part  of  Hezekialis  reign  see  above. 

r.c. 

(5^7  Manasseh  restores  idolatry  and  persecutes  the  worshippers  of 
Jehovah.  Unavailing  protest  of  the  prophets,  2  Ki  20^*-^^  2i'~^^ 
2  Ch  33^"^^.  (Tradition  of  Isaiah's  martyrdom.)  Taken  captive 
by  the  Assyrian  king  Esar-haddon  and  deported  to  Babylonia. 
His  conversion  and  reinstatement  in  his  kingdom,  2Ch33^^^^'' 
(not  mentioned  in  Kings).     Nah urn's  ministry,  c.  660. 


642  Amon  :  liis  impiety,  2  Ki  2i'^~22  2  Ch  33'°"";  shiin  by  his 
servants. 

640  JosiAH  :  his  piety,  measures  against  idolatry,  restoration  of  the 
Temple  ;  discovery  of  the  Book  of  the  Law,  2  Ki  2a  a  Ch  34. 
Huldah,  prophetess.  Great  celebration  of  the  Passover,  2  Ki 
2221-23  2  Ch  35^"'^.  Prophets — Jeremiah,  Zephaniah,  Habak- 
kuk.     The  king  slain  in  battle  at  Megiddo  :  greatly  lamented. 

608  Jeiioahaz  or  Shallum  ;   son  of  Josiah,  king  for  three  months  ; 
deposed  and  imprisoned  by  Phai-aoh-neco;  subsequently  exiled 
to  Egypt,  Avhere  he  died,  a  Ki  23^3  3*  2  Ch  36^-*. 
Jehoiakim  or  Eliakim  ;  eldest  son  of  Josiah,  made  tributary  king 
by  Neco. 


'  Such  appears  the  best  explanation  of  a  Ki  18^^.  There  must  be 
a  transcriber's  error,  either  of  *  twenty-fourth  '  for  'fourteenth,'  or  of 
'Sennacherib'  for  'Sargon.'  Tlio  latter  solution,  which  is  that  of 
most  modern  writers,  is  here  adopted. 


CONTEMPORARY  ANNALS  781 


Babylon.     Merodach-baladan,  722-710.     Sargon  conquers  him  and 
holds  the  kingdom  from  710. 


Babylon  continues  subject  to  Assyria,  with  occasional  revolts.  Esar- 
haddon  completes  the  subjugation  and  holds  I'lis  court  alternately  at 
Babylon  and  Nineveh,  681-668.  His  successors  occupy  the  throne 
until  625,  Avhen  Nabopolassar  becomes  viceroy  and  throws  oflf  the 
Assyrian  yoke,  c.  610. 

Eciypt.  TiRHAKAH  (Twenty-fifth  dynasty),  693,  vanquished  by  Esar- 
haddon,  and,  attempting  to  regain  his  kingdom,  finally  conquered  by 
Asshur-bani-pal,  666.  Pharaoh-neco  (Twenty-sixth  dynasty),  610. 
Pharaoh  defeated  at  Carchemish,  and  finally  repelled  from  the  region 
of  the  Euphrates,  605,  2  Ki  24"^. 

Assyria.  Esar-haddon,  681.  Asshur-bani-pal,  son  of  Esar-haddon, 
'the  great  and  noble  Asnapper,'  Ezr  4'",  669.  Sardanapalus  of  the 
Greeks.     Nineveh  finally  destroyed  by  the  Chaldoeans,  606. 


Babylon.     Nabopolassar  (king,  625-605)  loses  his  western  provinces 
to  Pharaoh-neco  of  Egypt,  609.     Sends  his  son,  Nebucuadrezzar  (or 


782  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  HISTOKY 

B.C. 

606  After  the  battle  of  Carchemisli  the  vassalage  of  Judah  was  trans- 
ferred to  Babylon.  Beginning  of  the  Seventy  Years'  Captivity. 
Daniel  and  his  companions  taken  to  Babylon.  After  three 
years  Jehoiakim  broke  his  oath  of  allegiance  (2  Ki  24^),  and 
troubles  ensued,  in  the  midst  of  which  the  king  fell  in  some 
unknown  way  (see  Jer  zs^^-"^-'). 

598  Jehoiaciiin,  son  of  Jehoiakim,  succeeded  to  his  uneasy  throne,  but 
occupied  it  only  three  months,  Nebuchadrezzar  himself  arriving 
at  Jerusalem,  and  sending  him  captive  to  Babylon,  2  Ki  24^"^^ 
Zedekiah  or  Mattaniah,  son  of  Josiah,  and  uncle  therefore  to 
Jehoiachin;  weak  and  perfidious,  intriguing  with  Egypt  against 
Babylon,  notwithstanding  the  remonstrances  of  Jeremiah; 
Nebuchadrezzar's  captain,  Nebuzaradan,  took  Jerusalem  after 
a  protracted  siege,  slew  many  of  the  chief  men,  and  carried 

587  Zedekiah,  blinded  and  in  chains,  to  Babylon  (fulfilling  two 
predictions,  Jer  32^  Eze  12").  The  Temple  was  burned;  the 
people  were  deported,  only  a  few  poor  persons  left  to  till 
the  land.  Jeremiah's  Lamentations  over  the  fallen  city  and  the 
desolated  land.  Ezekiel  notes  these  transactions  from  his 
home  in  Babylonia.  Obadiah  refers  to  the  cruel  exultation  of 
Edom  over  the  catastrophe. 
Gedaliah  appointed  governor  of  the  'remnant':  slain  by  Ishmael, 
who  schemes  to  carry  them  to  the  Ammonites.  His  plan  is 
frustrated,  but  the  people  seek  refuge  in  E^ypt,  against  the 
warning  protest  of  Jeremiah,  2  Ki  as^-'-^  jor  41-43'^.  They 
forcibly  carry  the  prophet  with  them,  and  he  closes  his  ministry 
at  Tahpanhes  (Daphne),  Jer  43,  44. 

593-573  Prophecies  of  Ezekiel,  dated  from  the  fifth  year  of  Jehoia- 
chin's  captivity  to  the  twenty-fifth.  The  'thirtieth  year,'  Eze  i^, 
is  explained  by  the  Targum  as  the  thirty-first  after  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Law  by  Hilkiah  :  many  expositors  understand  it 
as  the  thirtieth  from  the  accession  of  Nabopolassar  ;  more 
probably  it  means  the  thirtieth  year  of  Ezekiel's  life— the 
priestly  age.  The  year  nearly  corresponds  with  the  date  of 
Jeremiah's  letter  to  the  exiles,  Jer  29. 

603-537  Prophecies  and  Visions  of  Daniel. 

561  Jehoiachin's  captivity  relaxed  by  Evil-merodach. 

536  Decree  of  Cyrus  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  and  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Jews  to  their  own  country,  2  Ch  36-2-23  Eze  i^"*. 
Return  of  the  Jews,     Cyrus  restores  the  vessels  of  the  Temple. 
An  altar  set  up,  Ezr  i^-n  a  s^-^  (Ps  87  107  111-114  116  117  125 
127  128  134). 
Zerubbabel  governor  of  Judaea,  nephew  and  successor  of  Shealtiel 

(Salathiel,  Mt).     See  p.  541  and  i  Ch  3"-i». 
Joshua  (Jeshua)  high-priest. 


535  Foundation  of  the  Second  Temple,  under  the  direction  of  Shesh- 

bazzar  and  Zerubbabel,  Ezr  3^^^  516  (Ps  84  66). 
522  Building  of  the  Temple   opposed  by  the   Samaritans,   Ezr  4^""^ 

(Ps    129). 


CONTEMPOEARY   ANNALS  783 


Nebuchadnezzar),  to  recover  them,  606.  Neco  overthrown  in  the 
decisive  battle  at  Carchemish.  Nebuchadrezzar  soon  afterwards  (605) 
succeeds  his  father. 

Egypt  Pharaoh-hophra,  589  (of  the  Twenty- sixth  dynasty),  the 
Apries  of  the  Greeks,  attempted  to  relieve  Jerusalem  besieged  by 
Nebuchadrezzar,  but  in  vain,  Jer  37.  Hophra  was  deposed  by  his 
own  subjects,  and  finally  murdered. 


Greece.     The  '  Seven  Wise  Men  * ;  end  of  sixth  century.     Legislation 
of  Solon  at  Athens,  594.     Pisistratus  at  Athens,  560. 


Babylon.  Conquests  of  Nebuchadrezzar :  Tyre,  579 ;  Egypt,  569. 
Death  of  Nebuchadrezzar,  561.  Accession  of  Evil-mekodach  ;  slain 
and  succeeded  by  Neriglissar  (Nergal-sharezer),  559  ;  followed  (556) 
by  Laborosnakchod  (murdered  in  the  same  year)  and  Nabu-nahid 
(Nabonidus  or  Labynetus),  an  inert  king,  who  made  Belshazzar  his 
son  viceroy  in  Babylon. 


Media  and  Persia.  Cyrus,  son  of  Cambyses,  King  of  Persia,  and 
nephew  of  Cyaxares,  King  of  the  Medes  (who  is  supposed  by  some  to 
have  been  '  Darius  the  Mede'),  after  a  career  of  conquest  in  Western 
Asia,  invaded  Babylonia  in  538,  defeated  Nabonidus,  and  sent  Gobryas 
to  occupy  Babylon,  which  he  entered  without  resistance.  This  Gobryas 
has  also  been  identified  with  the  mysterious  Darius  ;  see  §§  162,  192. 


Persia.     Death  of  Cyrus   from   a   wound    in   battle,   529 ;  his   son 
Cambyses  succeeds  him. 

Egyi:}t  conquered  by  Cambyses,  525. 


784  THE   OLD   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

B.C. 

622  Accession  of  Smerdis  (?the  Artaxerxes  of  Ezr  4"^-"). 

Building  of  the  Temple  arrested  by  order  of  tlie  Persian  king. 
521  Under  Darius  Hystaspis  the  building  was  resumed,  Haggai  and 
520       Zechariah  incite  the  people  to  the  work,  and  exhort  them  to 

repentance,  Ezr  4^*  5I  Hag  i^-n  Ezr  5^  Hag  1^2-13  gi-e  Zee  i^-^ 

Hag  2  ^  ^23  Zee  1^-21  2-6. 
519  The   building   again   interrupted,    and   resumed,    Ezr  K^-^^  6^-^^ 

(Ps  138)  Zee  78. 
515  Dedication  of  the  Temple,  Ezr  6^*-"^'^  (P.salma  48  Oi  146  150). 


A  blank  in  the  recont. 


478  Esther  made  queen  by  Xerxes. 

473  Haman's  plot  against  the  Jews  •  its  frustration  ;  institution  of  the 

Feast  of  Purim. 
458  Ezra  commissioned  by  Artaxerxea  Longimanus  to  visit  Jerusalem ; 

he  causes  the  people  to  put  away  their   heathen  wives,   Ezr 

7-10. 
446  Nehemiah  commissioned   by   Artaxerxes    to   visit   Jerusalem   as 

governor  (Tirshatha),  and  to  rebuild  the  wall,  Ne  i  a^-s. 
445  Tobiah,  Sanballat,  and  Gashmu  (Geshem)  strive  to  hinder   th^ 

work,  Ne  2->~'^^  (3)  4. 
Nehemiah    relieves    the    Jews    oppressed    by    usury  ;    his    own 

generosity,  Ne  5. 
444  The   wall    completed    by   the    Jews    and    dedicated,    Ne    6^^-^. 

Great  celebration  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  ;   Ezra  publicly 

reads  the  Law,  and  offers  solemn  prayer,  8,  9. 
434  Nehemiah  returns  to  Persia. 
432  Second  commission  of  Nehemiah,  and  measures  of  reformation, 

Ne  7-13.      Malachi  prophesies  :  probably  a   contemporary  of 

Nehemiah,  but  the  date  is  variously  estimated. 

End  of  the  Old  Testament  History 

Detached  Genealogies,  &c.,  were   probably  inserted  after  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Canon.     See  i  Ch  1-9  Ne  la^"-"*. 


CONTEMPORARY   ANNALS  785 


Medo-Persian  Kings  after  Cyrus  : — 
529  Cambyses  (Ahasuerus,  Ezr  4®). 
522  Smerdis,  Magian  impostor  (Artaxerxes,  Ezr  4'^"^^). 
521  Darius,  son  of  Hystaspes. 
485  Xerxes,  son  of  Darius  {Ahasuerus,  'Eat). 
465  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  {Artaxerxes,  Ne). 
424  Darius  II  (Nothus).  \ 

404  Artaxerxes  II  (Mnemon).   [  Not  mentioned  in  Scripture. 
359  Artaxerxes  III  (Ochua).      ) 
^  336  Darius  III  (Codoniannus),  Ne  12^2,  a  later  insertion. 
Codomannus  was  the  Darius  vanquished  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
B.  c.  330  ;  and  with  his  fall  the  Persian  Empire  passed  away  (see  Dan 

239.40  „5.6  35.6.20.22-^^ 

Rome.  The  republic  established,  c.  508.     Decemvirs  appointed,  451, 
Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables. 

Teachers  in  the  Farther  East. 

Death  of  Confucius,  478  (Dr.  Legge). 
Death  of  Buddha,  477  (Max  Miiller). 

Ch-eece  invaded  by  the  Persian  kings. 
490  Battle  of  Marathon  ;  Darius  Hystaspis  defeated  bv  the  Greek.s. 
484  Birth  of  Herodotus. 

480  Invasion    of    Greece    by  Xerxes ;    battles    of    Thermopylae   and 
Salami  s. 


471  Birth  of  Thucydides  (d.  c.  401). 


444  Pericles  supreme  at  Alliens. 
(c.)  Birth  of  Xenophon. 


431  Beginning  of  the  Peloponnesian  war 
Birth  of  Plato  (d.  347). 


3E 


786  JEWISH   HISTORY 


Interval  between  the  Old 

B.C.  Palkstine 

413     Joiada,  high-priest,  son  of  Eliashib,  Ne  la^^*^^-"'*. 
c.  409     Rival  temple  built  on  Mount  Gerizim. 


373     Jonathan,  also  called  Johanan,  high -priest,  No  i2-\ 

341     Jaddua,  high-priest,  Ne  i2"-22. 

332     Alexander  having  destroyed  Tyre  visits  Jerusalem.     Jaddua 

averts  his  anger  (traditional). 
323     Alexander  dies ;  his  kingdom  divided. 

321     Onias  I,  high-priest. 

320     Ptolemy  I  (Soter),  King  of  Egypt,  captures  Jerusalem,  plants 

Jews  in  Alexandria  and  Cyrene. 
314     Antigonus  conquers  Palestine  from  Ptolemy. 

306     The  dominion  of  Alexander  formed  into  four  kincdoras  as 

foretold  by  Daniel. 
302     Palestine  retaken  by  Ptolemy. 

300  Simon  the  Just,  high-priest. 

292  Eleazar,  high-priest. 

285  Version  of  the  LXX  commenced  at  Alexandria  under  ProLEiiY  1 1. 

277  Manassch,  high  priest. 


CONTEMPOEARY  ANNALS 


787 


and  New  Testaments 


B.C.        Persia,  Syria,  and  Egypt 


EuROffi 


404  Artaxerxes  II  (Mnemon),  Persia. 
401  Death  of  Cyrus  the  Younger. 


859  Artaxerxes  III  (Ochus),  Persia. 


338  Arses  (or  Arogus). 

a36  Darius  III,  Codomannus,  Persia. 

334  Alexander,  defeats  Persia  on  the 
Granicus ;  833,  at  Issus  ;  331,  at 
Arbela  ;  the  Persian  Empire  ends. 

323  Ptolemy  I  (Soter),  son  of  Lagos,  gains 
Egypt. 
The  list  of  khigs  below  as  in  Mahaffy  ;  '  Em- 
pire of  the  Ptolemies,'  1895. 

312  Seleucus  (Nicator)  obtains  Syria. 
Era  of  the  Seleucidae  begins. 


301  Battle  of  Ipsus.     Antigonus  defeated 
by  Seleucus,  and  slain, 

Palestine  alternately  subject  to  these  kingdoms. 
Egypt.  B.a         Syria. 


235  Ptolemy      II 
(Philadelphus). 


l80  Antiochus       I 

(Soter). 

3  K   2 


401 

399 
3&7 

384 

382 

356 
341 


Retreat  of  Ten  Thou- 
sand Greeks. 

Death  of  Socrates. 

Rome  burnt  by  the 
Gauls. 

Birth  of  Aristotle  (d. 
322). 

Birth  of  Demosthenes 
(d.  322). 

Birth  of  Alexander  the 

Great. 
Bijth  of  Epicuius  (d. 

270). 


320 


Berosus,        Chaldnean 
historian,  Jl. 


300  Manetho      of     Helio- 
polis,  Jl 


287  Birth     of  Archimedes 
(d.  aia) 


264  First  Punic  War. 


788  INTERVAL   BETWEEN   THE   OLD 

B.O.  Palestine 


250  Onias  II,  high  -  priest,  for  a  time  witliliolds  tribute  from 
Ptolemy  III  (Euergetes).  Ilcllenislic  innovations  begin  to 
spread  amongst  the  upper  classes. 


219     ANTrociius  III  (the  Great)  tries  to  obtain  Palestine. 

217     Shnon  II,  high-priest. 

Ptolemy  IV  (Pliilopator)  defeats  him  at  Raphia,  but  is  pre- 
vented from  entering  the  Holy  of  Holies  ;  persecutes  tlio 
Jews  in  Alexandria  and  alienates  those  in  Judaea. 

205     Antiociius  (the  Great)  obtains  Palestine. 


c.  200     The  sect  of  the  Sadduceos  founded. 
198     Onias  III,  high-priest. 


180     Probable  date  of  Ecclesiasticus. 

175     Joshua   (or  Jason),  brother  of  Onias,  buys  high-priesthood  of 

Antiochus. 
172     Menelaus,  high-priest.      Onias  murdered. 
1G8     Antiochus  takes  Jerusalem,  slays  40,000  persons,  plunders  the 

Temple. 
167     Antiochus  persecutes  the  Jews,  desecrates  the  Temple.    Noble 

revolt  of  Mattathias  and  his  five  sons. 
165     Judas  Maccaboius  purilies  the  Temple  and  institutes  the  Feast 

of  Dedication. 
163     Alcimus,  high-priest.     Menelaus  slain. 

161  Judas  Maccabaeus  slain  in  battle  at  Kleasa  :  succeeded  in  com- 
mand by  Jonatliaii,  youiig(>st  son  of  Mattathias. 

153  Jonathan  becomes  liigh-priest ;  fits',  of  the  line  qJ'  the  Ilasmonccan 
priest-princes. 


143     Simon,  last  of  the  five  sons  of  Mattathias,  becomes  liigh-priest. 


AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 


789 


Syria  and  Egypt 


Egypt. 


247  Ptolemy      III 
(Euergotea). 


222  Ptolemy       IV 
(Philopator). 


205  Ptolemy  V(Epi 
phanes). 


182  Ptolemy 

(Eupator). 
182  Ptolemy 


VI 


VII 


(Philometor). 


146  Ptolemy  VIII 
( Philopator 
Neos). 

145  Ptolemy       IX 
(Physcon,        or 
Euei-getes  II). 


B.C.        Syria. 

260  Antiochus     II 

(Theos). 

246  Seleucus  II 
(Callinicus). 

225  Seleucus  III 
(Ceraunus). 

223  Antiochus  III 
(the  Great). 


187  Seleucus       IV 
(Philopator). 


175  Antiochus    IV 
(Epiphanes). 


164  Antiochus     V 

(Eupator). 
162  Demetrius      I 
(Soter). 


150  Alexander- 
Balas,  usurper. 

146  Demetrius      II 

(Nicator). 

145  Antiochus  VI, 
son  of  Balas, 
aided  by  Try- 
phon  opposes 
Demetrius. 


Europe 


219  Beginning  of  Second 
Punic  War. 

216  Battle  of  Cannae. 


202  Hannibal  defeated  in 
Africa  by  Scipio 
Africanus. 

201  End  of  Second  Punic 
War. 


184  Death  of  Plautus. 


168  Macedonian      War. 
Battle  of  Pydra. 


159  Death  of  Terence. 


149  Third  Punic  War  be- 
gins, lasts  three  years . 

146  Carthage  taken  and 
destroyed  by  Scipio, 
Corinth  by  Mummius. 


790  INTERVAL   BETWEEN   THE   OLD 

B.O.  Palestine 


141     Simon  frees  the  Jews  from  foreign  rule  ;  the  sovereignty  and 
the  priesthood  confirmed  by  the  Jews  to  him  and  his  posterity 

135     Simon  murdered  by  one  Ptolemy.     John  Hyrcanus,  his  second 
son,  succeeds  him. 

180     John  Hyrcanus  throws  off  the  Syrian  yoke.     He  destroys  the 
temple  on  Mount  Gerizim. 


107     Aristobulus  succeeds  his  father  Hyrcanus,  and  assumes  the  title 

of  King  of  the  Jews. 
IOC     Alexander  Jaxnjeus  succeeds  his  brother  Aristobulus. 


79  Jannacus  dies.  Alexandra  his  wife  succeeds,  and  makes  her 
son  Hyrcanus  high-priest,  and  favours  the  Pharisees. 

75     Birth  of  Hillel. 

70  Alexandra  dies.  Hykcanus  II  succeeds,  but  is  forced  to  yield 
the  crown  to  his  younger  brother  Aristobulus. 


65     Hyrcanus  endeavours  to  regain  tha  crown. 


AND   NEW  TESTAMENTS 


791 


Syria  and  Egypt 


B.C.       Egypl. 


117  Cleopatra  III 
and  her  sons : 
Ptolemy  X  (La- 
thyrus,  Soter 
II  ,  Ptolemy  XI 
(Alexander  I). 


81  Ptolemy  XII 
(Alexander  II). 

80  Ptolemy     XIII 
(Auletes). 


B.C.        Syria. 

142  Tryphon  usurps 
throne  of  Syria 
(Babylon). 

137  Antiochus  VII 
(Sidetes),  bro- 
ther of  Deme- 
trius II,  defeats 
Tryphon. 

128  He  is  slain  in 
Parthia.  Re- 
lease of  De- 
metrius II. 

120  Alexander  -  Ze- 
bina. 

125  Antiochus  VIII 
(Grypus). 

113  Antiochus  IX 
(Cyzicenus). 


Europe 


95  Antiochus 
(^Eusebes). 


X 


83  Tigraneg  of  Ar- 
menia. 


69  Tigranes  con- 
quered by  Lu- 
cuUus. 

Antiochus  Hhe 
Asiatic,'  the  last 
King  of  Syria 
set  up  by  the 
Romans. 

64  Pompey  com- 
pletes the  con- 
quest   of  Syria, 


133-121  The  Gracchi. 


111-106  Jugurthine  War. 


106  Birth  of  Pompey  and 

Cicero. 
100  Julius      Caesar     born 

(d.  44% 
95  Birth      of     Lucretius 
(d.  55). 
90-88  The  Social  (Italian) 
War. 
Civil   War   of   Marius 
and  Sulla. 
86  Birth  of  Sallust  (d.  34). 


70  Consulship  of  Pompey 
and  Crassus. 
Birth  of  Vergil  (d.  19). 


792  INTERVAL   BETWEEN   THE   OLD 

B.C.  Palestine 

63     Pompey  supports  Hyrcaniis  ;  takes  Jerusalem  ;  great  slaughter 
of  the  Jews.     Pompey  enters  the  Holy  of  Holies. 


57     Aristobulus  and  his  son  Alexander;  raising  disturbances,  are 
vanquished  by  Gabinius,  the  Roman  Governor  of  Syria. 


54    Crassus  plunders  the  Temple. 


47  Antipater,  appointed  by  Julius  Caesar  Procurator  of  Judaea, 
makes  his  son  Herod  Governor  of  Galilee,  and  Phasael,  of 
Jerusalem. 

43    Antipater  poisoned  ;  Herod  and  Phasael  revenge  his  death. 


40     The  Paithians,   having  taken   Jerusalem,    slay   Phasael,  and 

place  Antigonus  (List  Hasmonsean)  on  throne  of  Jerusalem. 

Herod  flees  to  Rome,  and  is  appointed  King  of  the  Jews. 
37     Herod  retakes  Jerusalem,  and  establishes  himself  as  King  of 

Judaea  ;  reigns  thirty-four  years. 
35     Herod  makes  Arislobulus  III,  brother  of  his  wife  Mariamnc. 

high- priest,  but  afterwards  murders  him. 
34     Hillel  and  Shammai. 


29    Execution  of  Mariamne. 


AND   NEW   TESTAMENTS 


793 


Syria  and  Egypt 


B.C.       Egypt. 


Auletes  banish- 
ed for  awhile. 
(Reign  of  Ber- 
enice for  two 
years.)  Auletes 
returns. 


61  Cleopatra  VI, 
daughter  of  Au- 
letes, and  lier 
brothers  Pto- 
lemy XIV  and 
Ptolemy  XV. 
The  Wisdom  of 
Solomon  (?) 

47  Cleopatra     sole 
Queen  of  Egypt. 


41  Meeting  of  An- 
tony and  Cleo- 
patra at  Tarsus. 


80 


Deaths  of  An- 
tony and  Cleo 
patra. 


B.C. 


Syria. 
and  annexes  it 
to  the  Roman 
Empire  and 
forces  Tigranes 
to  peace. 


Roman  Governors. 
57  Gabinius. 


54  Crassus  ;  over- 
thrown by  the 
Parthians. 


43  C.CassiusLongi- 
nus.  After  tl>is 
Syria  ruled  by 
legati. 


3.C.  Europe 

63  Cicero,  Consul.      Cati- 
line conspiracy. 

60  First      triumvirate, 
PoMPEY,C^SAR,  Cras- 
sus. 

59  Birth   of  Livy   (d.   17 

A.  D.). 

38-51  Caesar's     campaigns 
in  Gaul, 


52  Pompey  sole  consul. 

49  Civil      war      between 
Csesar  and  Pompey. 


48  Battle    of    Pharsalia. 

Murder  of  Pompey  in 

E-ypt. 
46  Reformation     of    the 

Calendar  by  Csesar. 
44  Cfosar  assassinated. 
43  Second  triumvirate,  C. 

OcTAVius,  M.  Antony, 

M.  Lepidus.      Cicero 

put  to  death. 
Birth  of  Ovid  (d.   18 

A.D.). 

42  Battle     of      Philippi. 

Deaths  of  Brutus  and 
Cassius.  The  Roman 
world  subject  to  the 
triumvirate. 


32  War  between  Octavius 
and  Antony. 

31  Battle  of  Actium. 
Establishment  of  the 
Roman  Empire. 


794  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

B.C.  Palestine 


25     Ilerod  rebuil  Is  Samaria,  and  calls  it  Sobasto. 

22     Horod  begins  to  build  Caosarea.     Trachonitls,  Auranitis,  and 

Batanaea  are  added  to  his  dominions. 
Simon  appointed  high-priest. 
17     Horod  after  two   years'  preparation    begins   to   rebuild    and 

enlarge  the  Temple. 


6     Aristobulus  and  Alexander,  the  sons  of  Mariamne,  strangled. 
6     Simon  deposed,  and  Mattathias  made  high-priest,  who  is  also 

deposed  in  favour  of  Joazar,  son  of  Simon. 
4     Birth  of  Jesus  Christ  (the  common  era  of  a.  d.  commences 

four  years  later). 

The  New  Testament  History 

A.D. 

4  Birth  of  Jesus  Christ. 


8  The  child  Jesus  in  the  Temple, 


26  Beginning  of  John  the  Baptist's  ministry. 

27-30  Our  Lord's  ministry,  chiefly  in  Galilee  ;  selection  and  mission 
of  the  Apostles. 

29  Christ  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  22nd  Tisri  (Oct.),  and  at  the 

Feast  of  Dedication,  25th  Chisleu  (Dec). 

30  Crucifixion,  Resurrection,  and  Ascension  of  Christ. 

Pentecost  :  Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
33  4  Martyrdom    of    Stephen.      Great    persecution    by    the    Jews. 

Conversion  of  Paul. 
85  Paul's  first  visit  to  Jeru.salem. 

[^For  the  different  views  qf  chronologers  on   the   dates  i?i  Acts, 

especially  as  connected  with   the   life    of  Paul,  see  Parallel  Table, 

Introduction  to  Acts,  §§  473,  474.     The  dates  in  the  present  table 

are  chiefly  from  Prof.  W.  M.  Kamsay.] 

Between  40  and  50  (?)  Epistle  of  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord, 

to  Christians  of  the  Dispersion. 


CONTEMPORARY   ANNALS 


795 


Syria  and  Egypt 


B.C.        Egyp*. 
27  Made  a  Roman 
province. 


B.C.       Syria. 

27  Syria  made  an 
imperial  pro- 
vince. 


23  M.  Vipsanius 
Agrippa  legatits. 

20  Augustus  vi.sits 
Syria  and  meets 
Herod. 


9-8  C.    Sentius   Sa- 
turnus  legaius. 
7  Census  of  Pales 
tine. 


B.C.  Europe 

27  Octavius  made  Em- 
peror for  ten  years, 
and  receives  the  title 
Augustus. 

25  The  Gate  of  Janut 
shut. 


18  Imperial  dignity  con- 
firmed, 8  B.C.,  3  and 
12  ▲.  D. 


A.D 

4 


Contemporary  Annals 


Death  of  Herod  the  Great.  Abchklaus  obtains  Judnea.  Samaria, 
and  Idumaea  ;  Herod  Antipas^  Galilee  ;  Herod  Philip,  the  KE. 
trans-Jordanic  districts. 

6  Archelaus  banished. 

7  CoPONius,  Procurator  of  Judaea  ;  Ananus,  high  priest. 

8  Cyrenius  completes  the  '  enrolment,'  Lu  2. 

9  Marcus  Ambivius,  procurator. 

13  Annius  Rufus,  procurator. 

14  Death  of  the  Emperor  Augustus  ;  accession  of  Tiberius. 

15  Valerius  Gratus,  procurator. 
17  Caiaphas,  high-priest. 

26  Pontius  Pilatk,  procurator. 


83  Deposition  and  banishment  of  Pontius  Pilate.     Death  of  Herod 
Philip. 

37  Death  of  Tiberius  :  his  successor  Caius  Caligula  ;    Marcellus, 

procurator ;  Jonathan,  high-priest  ;  Herod  Agrippa  obtains  the 
tetrarchy  of  Philip. 

38  Birth  of  Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian. 

3y  Herud  Antipas  deposed  ;  the  tetrarchy  of  Galilee  conferred  upon 
H.  Agrippa. 


796  THE   NEW   TESTAMENT   HISTORY 

A.D. 

40  Rest  of  the  Church,  in  consequence  of  Jewish  opposition  to  the 
profanation  of  the  Temple  by  the  emperor. 
Conversion  of  the  Ethiopian  eunuch.      Evangelization  of  Samaria 
(the  deacon  Philip). 

43  Conversion  of  Cornelius  through  Peter's  ministry.     Preaching  to 

Gentiles   at  Antioch   by  fugitives   from  Jerusalem  ;    Barnabas 
brings  Paul  to  that  city  ;  disciples  first  called  Christians. 

44  Martyrdom  of  James  the  son  of  Zebedee.     Imprisonment  of  Peter: 

his  miraculous  deliverance  and  departure  from  Jerusalem. 

46  Paul  and  Barnabas  visit  Jerusalem  with  alms  for  the  brethren. 

47  First  missionarij  journey  of  Paul  (with  Barnabas)  in  Cyprus  and  Asia 

Minor. 
49  Council  at  Jerusalem  on  the   admission  of  Gentiles  into  the 
Church. 

61  Second  missionai-y  journey  of  Paul  (with  Silas).     Introduction  of  the 

gospel  into  Europe  (Macedonia).     Visit  to  Galatia. 
51,  52  Paul  at  Athens  and  Corinth. 
Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians. 

53  Paul  visits  Jerusalem,  and  returns  to  Antioch. 

54  Third  missionary  journey  :  Galatia,  Phrygia,  to  Ephesus,  where  the 

Apostle  spends  the  greater  part  of  three  years. 
57  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  from  Ephesus. 

Paul  in  Macedonia.     Second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

57  or  58  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

58  Paul  in  Achaia  (Corinth).     Epistle  to  the  Romans. 

Paul  at  Jerusalem.     Arrest  in  the  Temple. 
57-59  Paul  in  C^sarea. 

59,  60  Paul  sails  for  Eome  :  shipwreck ;  reaches  Rome. 
62,  63  Epistles  to  the  churches  in  Proconsular  Asia  ('Ephesians'); 

to  the  Colossians  and  Philemon  :  Philippians. 

62  End  of  history  in  the  Acts.     Paul  tried  and  acquitted  ;  leaves  Rome. 

63  (?)  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  from  'Babylon,'  perhaps  Rome. 
63-66  Paul  travels   in  Macedonia,  Asia  Minor,  Crete,  and   perhaps 

Spain. 

64  First  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

Epistle  to  Titus. 

Persecution  of  Christians  in  Rome. 

66  Paul  winters  at  Nicopolis  ;  sent  to  Rome- 

67  Second  trial  of  the  Apostle  at  Rome. 

c.  66  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (anonymous). 
67  or  08  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

Second  Epistle  of  Peter.     Epistle  of  Jude  (?). 

Paul  (and  Peter?)  martyred  at  Rome. 

Probable  date  of  tlie  Apocalypse  of  John. 
70  Christians  retire  to  Pella. 


c.  90  Epistles  of  John. 

95  Persecution  of  Christians,  Jew.s,  and  '  philosophers  '  by  Domitian. 
Date  (according  to  Sf»nie)  of  the  Apocalypse.  2'he  Ajwstle  John  is 
Viought  to  have  survived  ujitil  nearly  the  close  of  the  century. 


CONTEMPORAKY   ANNALS  797 


A.D. 

4U  Command  to  erect  a  colossal   statue  of  Caligula  in  the  Holy  of 

Holies  at  Jerusalem. 
41  Caligula  assassinated  :  Claudius  his  successor  ;   H.  Agrippa  adds 

Judaea  to  his  tetrarchies  ;  the  kingdom  of  Judaja. 


44  Dcatli  of  H.  Agrippa  at  Cajsarea. 

Cuspius  Fadus,  procurator. 
46  Great  famine  in  Judaea. 

Tiberius  Alexander,  procurator. 
48  Ventidius  Cumanus,  procurator,  with  Felix 


51  Felix,  sole  procurator. 

52  Jews  banished  fiom  Home  by  Claudius  (with  '  Chaldajans,  sooth- 

saj^ers  {niathematici)  and  astrologers,'  Tacitus). 

54  Death  of  Claudius  :  Nero  his  successor. 


59  PoRCius  Festus,  procurator. 

61  Joseph,  son  of  Simon,  high-pricsL 


62  Ai.binus,  procurator. 


64  Oessius  Florus,  procurator. 

Completion  of  '  Herod's  '  temple. 

Burning  of  Rome  :  blame  laid  on  tlie  Chrislians. 
66  Jewish  war  begins.     Vespasian  the  Roman  general.     Galilee  and 
Peraea  subjugated. 


68  Death  of  Nero.     Galea  proclaimed  his  successor. 

69  Otiio,  ViTELLius,   Vespasian  successively  raised  to  the  imperial 

throne.     Titus  commands  his  father's  army  in  Judtea. 

70  Siege  and  capture  of  Jerusalem. 
79  Vespasian  succeeded  by  Titus. 
81  Titus  succeeded  by  Domitian. 


96  Death    of  Domitian   (Nerva,  his   successor,   d.   98,  followed   by 
Tkajan). 


APPENDIX  II 

NATURAL  HISTORY 
L   Animals  of  Scripture 

r.   QUADRUPEDS 

Ape.     Heb.  Qoph  (or   monkey)  ;    from  S.  India   or  Ceylon,   i  Ki  lo^^ 

2  Ch  g'\ 
Ass.     Heb.  Chdmor  (reddish\    Gen   12^^  45^^^     'Jlhon  (^she-ass),  Num 

2221-33.     'j^yir  (colt),  Is  3o«-2*.     Pere  (wild  ass),  Ts  104I1. 
Badg-er.      Heb.   Tachash.      Certainly    not    the    badger  :    probably   the 

porpoise  or  seal.     R.  V.  reads  for  '  badgers'  skins '  (outer  covering 

of  the  ark)  *  sealskins'  (marg.  or  porpoise -skins),  Ex  25^,  Sec. 
Bat.     Heb.  'Aiallcph,  Dt  14^8  Is  a^o. 

Bear.     Heb.  Dohh.     The  Syrian  bear  of  naturalists,  2  Sa  17*  Pr  28^* 
Behemoth.     Plural  of  Heb.  word  for  beast  or  cattle  ;  the  hippopotamus 

(denoting  bigness),  Job  40^^"-*. 
Boar.     Heb.  Chazir,  the  wild  boar,  devastator  of  vineyards,  Ps  80^'. 
Bull.     Several  words  for  the  male  of  the  herd.    Heb.  'Abhir  (mi<^hly), 

Ps  6830 ;   Baqar,    Ex    29^    &c.       'Eghel    (bull-calf),    Jer   31^8   Par 

(bullock),  passim.      Shor,  generic,  an  animal  of  the  ox  species,  very 

frequent. 
Camel.     Heb.  Gdmdl,  passim. 
Cattle.     Heb.  BShSmah  (see  Behemoth),  also  rendered  beast,  a  collective 

word,  passim  ;  Baqar,   Eccl  z'  Joel  i^*.      But  a  frequent  wt^rd  is 

MiquSh,   literally  possession  or   substance,  cattle    in   the  East 

being  the  most  valualde  property.  Gen  ^'^^,  &c. 
Chamois.     Heb.   Zcmer,  Dt  14^      Probably  a  species  of  wild  sheep, 

'  leaper.' 
Coney.     Heb.  Shdphdn,  '  the  hider.'     Hyrax  Syriaciis,  a  small  quadruped 

of  the  rabbit  kind  ;    dweller  in  rocky  cavities,  Dt  14'^  Ps  104*'* 

Pr  3o'^«. 
Deer,  Fallow.     Properly  the  roebuck,  Dt  14*  i  Ki  4'^'  (R.  V.).     Heb. 

Yachmiir. 
Hog.     Heb.  Kelehh.      Not  domesticated  as  in  Europe,  but  unclean, 

wild  and  fierce  in  towns  and  villages  of  the  East,  the  teiror  of  the 

streets.     Occasionally  set  to  guard  the  Hock,  Job  30^,  but  in  that 

character  i  ej^arded  as  vile  and  loathsome. 
Dromedary.     Three   Hebrew   words   are   so   rendered  :    Beker,    Is  60^ 

Jor  a"^'   (R.  V.    '  young   camel ')  ;  liekesh,    1  Ki    4'*»   (,R.  V.    *  swift 

steed  ')  ;    Rammak,  Est  8'°  (lit.  '  ofifspring  of  mares'). 


I.     ANIMALS   OP   SCEIPTURE  799 

Perret.      A    lizard,    probably    Ihe    gecko    (R.  V.),     Lev    ii'**.      Heb. 

^Andquh,  '  groa  nor.' 
Pox.     Or  jackal  (^R.  V.  maig.),  Ps  63»o"  Ct  a^^,  &c.     Heb.  Shu'al. 
Goat.     Heb.  'Ez,  the  usual  word,  Gen  15^,  &c.    'Aitudh,  '  he-goat,'  Ps  66^^ 

Is  34'.     Sa'ir  (hairy),  Lev  16  throughout,  2  Ch  29^8  Eze  43^^^       Wild 

goat,  Yd'el,  i  Sa  24',  perhaps  the  ibex.     'Aqqo,  Dt  14^ 
Greyhound.      Some    render    the  Hub.   Zarzir   (loin  girt)   or  war-horse 

(R.  V.  marg.). 
Hare.     Heb.  'AryieVieth,  Lev  11^  Dt  14'^.     It  does  not  really  'chew  the 

cud,'  but  has   a  habit  of  moving  the  jaw  as  if  doing  so.     *  For 

popular  guidance  this  description  was  better  than  a  more  scientific 

one,' — Dr.  P.  Schaff. 
Hart.     Hob.  'Ayyal,  Ps  431,  &c.    Young  hart,  fawn.    'Opher,  Ct  2^-^^  S^*. 
Horse.     Heb.   Sus,  passim.      Siisah,  fern,   mare,   or  perhaps  collective, 

a  team  0/  horses,  Ct  i^. 
Hyena.     Not  in  English  version,  but  according  to  Gesenius  the  right 

rendering  of  tsabhua' ,  '  speckled   bird,'  Jer  12^.     Zeboim,  1  Sa  13'*, 

*  the  valley  of  hyenas.' 
Leopard.     Heb.  NdmSr,  '  spotted,'  Is  11^  Jer  13-'. 
Ziion.     The  number  and  variety  of  names  expressively  show  the 

attention  aroused  in  a  pastoral  community  by  this  terror  of  their 

flocks  and  herds.     Heb.  Laish,  SMchdl,  'Art  (tcarer),  Kephir  (young 

lion\  Labhi  (lion  or  lioness).     All  these  words  occur  in  Job  4^^'-^^ 
Mole.     Heb.  Chdpharperah,  'digger  of  holes,'  Is  2-^.     {Gesen,  rat)  prob. 

of  burrowing  and  gnawing  animals  generally.    Tinshemeth,  Lev  11^, 

the  chameleon. 
Mouse.     Hob.  'Akbdr,  'burrower,'  esp.  field-mouse,  Lev  ii'^^,  &c. 
Mule.     Heb.  Pered,  Pirdah,  generally.     In  Est  8^°  Rekhesh,  '  swift  steed,* 

as  I  Ki  4^8  (A.  V.  '  dromedary  ')  Mic  i^'.     In  Gen  36-*  the  word  is 

difi"erent,  and  probably  means  '  hot  springs '  (so  R.  V.). 
Pygarg-.      A  Greek  word  (LXX\  '  white-haunched,'  some  species  of 

antelope,  Dt  14^     Heb.  Dtshon. 
Hoebuck.     Roe,    the    gazelle.     Heb.    Tsebhi,    f.   Tsebhiyyah,  in   general, 

Pr  5^^     Yadlah,  '  doe '  (R.  V.)  or  chamois. 
Satyrs.      Hob.   Se'inm,   '  haii-y  ones,'   Is  13'^^,  perhaps   he-goats  ;    or 

generally  for  wild  denizens  of  the  wilderness.     Twice  rendered 

'devils,'  Lev  if  2  Ch  ii^^  v*  he-goats  '  R.  V.)  as  objects  of  worship. 
Sheep.      Several  words  so  rendered,  as  natural  among*  a  pastoral 

people.     Heb.   Seh,   '  one  of  a  flock.'     Tson,  '  flock.'     Kebhes  (fern. 

Kibhsah)  or  Kesebh,  'he-lamb.'      RdkheJ,  'ewe.'     'Ayil,  'ram.'     Gr. 

vpu^aTov,  sheep,     ayivus  or  apviov,  '  lamb.'     Ttoifivt],  '  flock.' 
Swine.     Heb.  Chdztr,  Gr.  xo'T^os,  Lev  ii'^,  &c. 
Unicorn.     Heb.  R6em.     Properly  buffalo  or  (asR.  V.)wild  ox,  Nam 

23^2,  &c. 
Weasel.     Heb.  Choled,  'glider,*  Lev  ii'^^ 
Whale.     Heb.    Tannin,  any  sea-monster.       So    R.  V.  Gen  i-^  Job  7^^^ 

In  Eze  32^  '  dragon.' 
Wolf.     Heb.  ZeP.bh,  '  tawny' ;  Gr.  \vkos.    The  terror  of  flocks  in  Pales- 
tine ;  a  frequent  emblem  of  cruelty  and  greed. 


800  NATURAL   HISTORY 


2.   BIRDS. 

Bittern.  Heb.  Qippod',  but  more  probably  porcupine,  as  R.  V.,  Is  14'' 
34iiZep2i*. 

Cormorant.  Rather  pelican,  Is  34I1  Zap  2^*.  Heb.  Qa'ath.  In  Lev  1 1  ^^ 
Dt  14^"^  the  cormorant  is  intended.  See  R.  V,  Heb.  Shalakh, 
'  diver.' 

Crane.  In  two  passages  '  crane  '  and  '  swallow '  should  be  transposed 
(as  R.  v.),  Is  381*  Jer  8'.     Heb.  Sus  and  'Anur. 

Cuckoo.  Rather  sea-mew  (R.  V.),  Lev  n^"  Dt  14".  Heb.  Shachaph, 
'  slender.' 

Dove.  Heb.  Yonah.  Gr.  irfpiarfpa.  Frequent  in  Old  Testament.  In 
New  Testament  Mt  s^^  ^^^j  parallels  ;  Mt  lo^^  21 12,  &c.  See 
Turtledove. 

Eagle.  Heb.  Nesher.  Gr.  aeT6s,  Dt  19*  Is  40^^,  fee,  Rev  ^7  12^*  and  var. 
read.  8'^;  for  angel  see  R.  V.  The  gier-eagle,  Lev  ii^^  d^  j^n^ 
Heb,  liacham,  is  a  species  of  vulture  ;  and  in  Mt  24-8  Lu  17^^^  the 
preferable  translation  seems  to  be  '  vultures,'  as  R.  V.  marg. 

Hawk.  Heb.  JV^gfs (swift-flier),  Lev  n^ODt  14"  Job  3926.  Night-hawk, 
Tachmas,  Lev  11^^  Dt  14^^     See  Swan. 

Heron.     Heb.  'Anaphah,  Lev  ii^'*  Dt  14*^     Possibly  the  ibis. 

Kite.     Heb.  Ayyah,  Lev  ii^*  Dt  14^'. 

Lapwing-.  Heb.  Dukhiphath,  Lev  ii^^  Dt  14^*.  Probably  the  hoopoe 
(R.V.). 

Osprey.  Heb.  'Ozniyyah,  a  species  of  eagle,  Lev  11*'  Dt  14",  a  fish- 
feeding  bird. 

Ossifragre.  'Bone-breaker,'  Heb.  Peres,  Lev  11"  Dt  14^'.  The  gier- 
eagle. 

Ostrich.  See  Owl.  In  addition  to  the  passages  there  cited,  Lam  4' 
has  the  Heb.  YS'enim,  pi.  for  ostriches,  and  Job  ^g^^-^^  gives  a  vivid 
description  of  the  ostrich's  habits.  The  word  rendered  in  A.  V. 
'peacocks'  (Heb.  ESndnim)  should  undoubtedly  be  ostriches,  and 
'  ostrich  '  at  the  end  of  the  verse  is  a  mistake.     See  R.  V. 

Owl.  Heb.  Tanshuph  (twilight  bird).  'Great  owl,'  Lev  11^'^  Dt  14^^ 
Is  34".  '  Little  owl,'  Kos,  Ps  102"  Lev  ii^'^  Dt  14I6.  But  as  this 
word  means  cup,  it  possibly  here  denotes  pelican,  from  its  pouch. 
Ltlith,  *screecli-owl,'  Is  34**,  properly  night-monster  (so  R.  V.). 
Ya'dnah  (crier),  always  preceded  by  Bath-,  '  daugliter  of,'  means 
the  ostrich,  Lev  ii*^  Dt  14^^  Job  so^"-'  Is  1321  34I3  43-0  j^r  50^^  Mic  i^ 
See  R.  V. 

Partridgfe.     Heb.  Qorl  (caller),  i  Sa  2620  Jer  17". 

Peacock.  Not  a  native  of  Palestine.  See  Ostrich.  Peacocks  were 
imported  by  Solomon,  i  Ki  lo'-^.     Heb.  pi.  Tukiyyim. 

Pelican.     See  Cormorant. 

Quail.  Ex  16^^  Num  n^ws  pg  105*0,  Mentioned  only  in  the  narrative 
of  the  Exodus.     Heb.  SSlav. 

Baven.     Heb.  *Orebh  (croaker),  also  Crow,  Gen  8'^  Ps  147^  Pr  30''^,  &c. 

Sparrow.  Heb.  Tsippor  (chirper).  Any  small  bird,  especially  the 
sparrow,  Ps  84^.     Also  translated  bird  (fowl),  as  Lev  14*"'  Ps  8^. 

Stork.  Heb.  Chdsidah  (the  pious,  from  the  affectionate  care  of  her 
offspring),  Ps  104^''  Zee  5^  On  Job  39^^  see  Ostrich,  and  R.  V. 
('  kindly  '  or  *  sLork-liko  '). 


I.     ANIMALS   OF   SCRIPTURE  801 

Swallow.     Heb.  DSror  (free  or  swift-flying),  Ps  84'  Pr  26'^.     See  Crane. 

Swan.  Heb.  Tanshemeih,  Lev  ii^^  p^  j^ie  (A.  V.).  But  R.  V.  has 
'  horned  owl.'     Other  interpreters  propose  Lizard  or  Pelican. 

Turtledove.  Heb,  Tor,  from  the  bird's  note,  Gen  15^  Lev  5'^'^^ 
Ps  74^^  Ct  q}"^.     New  Testament  rpvywv,  Lu  2^*. 

Vulture.  In  Job  28''  for  vulture,  Heb.  'Ayyah,  read  falcon  (R.  V.),  else- 
where kite.  So  for  Dayyah  (Da'ah),  darter,  Lev  11"  Dt  14^^  Is  34^^. 
See  Eagle. 

3.   REPTILES 

Adder.  Heb.  'Akhshubh,Fs  140^  Pethen  or  asp,  Ps  58*91^'.  Tsiph'oni 
(basilisk),  Pr  23'^''.     Shephiphon,  the  horned  snake,  Gen  49^'^. 

Asp.     See  foregoing,  Dt  32^^  .Job  2oi*-^^  Is  ii*. 

Chameleon.  Koach,  Lev  11'"  (R.  V.  '  land-crocodile')  ;  a  large  kind  of 
lizard.     See  Mole. 

Cockatrice.  Heb.  Tsepha,  Tsiphoni,  basilisk.  Is  n*  14^^^  59^  Jer  8". 
See  R.  V.  marg.  Adder. 

Dragon.  Heb.  Tannin,  any  sea-monster  or  large  land  reptile, 
Ps  74^^  148'^  Is  27^  Ez  29^.  In  Ex  7^-12  translated  '  serpent.'  So 
Ps  91^^  in  R.  v.,  and  plur.  jackal  in  Job  30^^  Ps  44^^,  with  other 
passages  describing  desolation.  In  New  Testament  (Apoc.)  dpoKwv, 
symbolical  of  the  forces  of  evil. 

Ferret.  Heb.  'Anaqah,  a  kind  of  lizard  ;  perhaps  the  gecko,  Lev  ii'°. 
The  name  signifies  '  moaning,'  '  crying,'  as  Ps  12^  102"^^  Mai  2^^ 

Prog.     Heb.  Tsephardea,  Gk.  ^drpaxos,  Ex  82-i3  Rev  16". 

Iieviathan.  A  Hebrew  word  untranslated.  Job  41  the  crocodile,  Ps 
104^^  a  sea-monster  ;  Is  27^  symbol  of  Babylonian  power,  comp. 
Ps  74".  In  Job  3^  for  *  their  mourning,'  read  Meviathan,'  refer- 
ring probably  to  some  form  of  incantation  (R.  V,). 

Ziizard.     Heb,  Leta'ah,  Lev  ii^*^,  precise  species  unknown, 
pent. 
term. 

Serpent  (Piery).  Heb.  Saraph  (the  same  word  as  seraph,  '  burning 
one '),  with  or  without  Nachash,  Num  21^-8  Dt  8'^  In  Is  14^^  30® 
called  also  a.  flying  serpent,  from  its  habit  of  darting  from  tree  to 
tree. 

Snail.  Heb.  Chomet,  Lev  11^^,  rather  sand-lizard,  as  R.V.  Shabhlul, 
Ps  588. 

Tortoise.  Heb.  Tsahh  (slow-mover),  classed  with  lizards,  Lev  ii^^, 
otherwise  unknown. 

Viper.  Heb.  'Eph'eh,  any  poisonous  serpent,  Job  ao^^  Is  30*  59',  Gr. 
«X'Sva,  lit.  Ac  28^  ;  fig.  Mt  3"^  12^*  23^^. 

4.    INSECTS   {Invertehrata  generally). 

Ant.     Heb.  Nhnalah,  Pr  6^  3026. 

Bee.     Heb.  Bebhorah,  Dt  i"  Judg  14^  Ps  118^'^  Is  7^8. 

Beetle.     Heb.  Chargol   (leaper).  Lev  ii^^.     Perhaps   some   species  of 

locust. 
Caterpillar.     See  Locust. 
Plea.     Heb.  Parosh,  i  Sa  24^*  2620. 

3^ 


802  NATURAL   HISTORY 

Ply.  Heb.  ZSbhubh  (whence  Baal-zebub,  ^  lord  of  the  fly '),  Eccl  lo^ 
Is  78.     'Arobh,  Ex  8"^i-29  Ps  78^  io5»i. 

Gnat.  Gr.  Kujucuxp,  Mt  23''*,  in  the  proverbial  expression  '  to  strain 
out  the  gnat  and  swallow  the  camel.'     See  R.  V. 

Hornet.     Heb.  Tsir'ah,  Ex  23"^  Dt  7^0  Jos  24^2^ 

Horseleech.     Heb.  'Aluqah,  Pr.  30^^  (or  'vampire,'  R.  V.  marg.). 

Lice.     Heb.  Kinnbn,  Ex  B^s-is  pg  ^q^^i  (or  '  sand-flies,'  R  V.% 

Locust.  The  number  of  words  for  this  destroyer  of  vegetation  and 
crops  is  very  expressive.  Four  occur  in  Joel  i*  :  Heb.  Gazam, 
'  palmer- worm,'  also  Am  4^  ;  'Arbeh  (prolific),  also  Ex  io*~^^,  &c., 
'locust';  Yeleq,  *  canker-worm,'  also  Ps  105'*;  Chasil  (browser), 
'  caterpillar,'  also  Ps  78*^  Other  words  are  Chdgdbh  (hopper), 
Num  13^^  2  Ch  7^^  ;  Gebh  or  Gobh  (cutter),  Is  33*  Am  7^ ;  Tseldtsal 
(chirper),  Dt  28*'^.     This  last  word  is  also  used  for  cymbals. 

Moth.     Heb.  'Ash,  Job  4^^  Ps  39^^  Is  51'.     New  Testament  Gr.   ctjs, 

Mt  6'9-2^  Lu  12^3. 

Palmer-worm.     See  Locust. 

Scorpion.     Heb.  'Aqrabh,  Gr.  aKopnios,  Dt  8^^  Lu  ii^^  Rev  9^-^  (used  for 

a  stinging  scourge,  i  Ki  12'^). 
Spider.     Heb.  'Akkabhish,  Job  8^*  Is  59^     SSmdmith,  Pr  30^8,  is  rather 

a  small  kind  of  lizard.     See  R.  V. 
Worm.     Heb.  Rimma?i,  Ex  le'^*  Job  2420.     Tola,  Dt  28^9  Ps  22«  Is  662*. 

Sas,   Is  51^,      See  Moth.      Zochel  (crawling  things),  Mic  ^^'',  Gr. 

aKuX-q^,  Mk  9***  (from  Is  loc.  cit.). 


IL   Plants  of  Scripture 

TREES  AND  FLOWERS. 

Almond  is  the  name  of  two  trees  mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  the  one, 
Luz,  translated  'hazel'  (A.  V.)  Gen  30^'^,  is  the  wild  almond,  and 
the  other,  Shaqed,  the  cultivated  almond,  Num  17*  Gen  43",  from 
its  early  blossoms,  a  symbol  of  any  sudden  interposition,  Jer  i^^, 
and,  from  their  whiteness,  of  old  age,  Eccl  12^ 

Almugf,  or  Algum  (Heb.).  Sandal-wood  best  answers  the  description 
in  I  Ki  io^i-i2^  The  latter  name,  2  Ch  2^  and  9^°",  is  probably  an 
error  of  transcribers. 

Aloes,  properly  lign-aloes,  Num  24^  ;  to  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  flowering  aloe.  The  wood  is  highly  odoi'iferous  :  see 
Ps  45»  Pr  7!'^  Ct  4^*  Jn  19*^.     Heb.  'Ahalim  ;  Gr.  dKor). 

Anise,  or  dill,  occurs  only  in  Mt  23^^  {dvrjdov).  It  is  an  herb  of  small 
value.  Its  seeds  are  aromatic  and  carminative,  yielding  a  vola- 
tile oil. 

Apple.  Often  thought  to  be  the  quince,  which  is  in  the  East  more 
highly  scented,  and  much  sweeter  than  in  Europe  ;  or  it  may  be 
the  apricot,  as  Dr.  Tristram  thinks  :  Pr  25^^  Joel  i^-  Ct  2^-^  7**. 
Heb.  Tappuach. 

Ash,  Is  44^*  (A.  v.),  should  properly  be  fir-tree,  as  R.  V.     Heb.  'Oren. 

Balm.  Gen  37^^  Jer  8'^'^,  &c.,  a  medicinal  gum,  a  production  of  Gilead, 
probably  the  opobalsamum      Heb.  Tsori. 


11.     PLANTS   OF   SCRIPTUKE  803 

Barley.     Ex  9'^,  &c.,  the  well-known  grain.    Heb.  Seorah  (the  hairy 

plant). 
Bay-tree  only  in  Ps  37^^  ;  tlie  Laurus  nohilis,  an  evergreen  with  an 
agreeable  spicy  odour.     But  R.V.  has  'a  tree  in  its  native  soil.' 
Heb.  Ezrach. 
Bean.     2  Sa  17'^**  Eze  4^.     Heb.  Bol. 

Box-tree,  the  same  as  that  of  Europe,  though  in  the  East  it  grows  wild 
and  large,  Is  41^^  6o^^     Specially  adapted  to  mountainous  districts, 
and  a  calcareous  limestone  soil,  like  Lebanon.     Heb.  Teashshur. 
Briers.     The   thorny  plants   of  Palestine   are   very   numerous,    and 
Rabbinical  writers  say  that  as  many  as  twenty-two  words  are 
used  in  Scripture  to  express  this  species.    The  particular  plants 
indicated  by  these  words  are  generally  not  known,  but  they  are 
nearly  all  thorny  and  useless. 
Brier,  Barqanim,  Judg  S'^-^^,  some  thorny,  prickly  plant,  but  some- 
times rendered   '  threshing  instrument,'  as  Rosenm.      Chedeq, 
Pr  15^^  Mic  7*,  '  a  brier,'  a  species  of  nightshade,  Solanum  spino- 
sum  (Royle,  Tristram).     Sirpad,  Is  55^^.     Sillon,  Ez  28^*.    Shamir 
(often).     Sarabhim,  Ez  2«  (the  last  form  not  identified). 
Bramble,  Judg  g^'*-^^,  &c.     Heb.  ^Atdd,  by  some  supposed  to  be  the 
*  thorn  '  with  which  Christ  was  crowned  {Spina  Christi),  properly 
thorn,  which  see.     Also  Choach,  thorn  or  thistle,  which  see. 
Bush  (Heb.   Seneh),  Ex  3^^  Dt  33^*^.     The  Greek  word  jSaros  means 

bramble  :  and  the  Rubies  sandus  is  common  in  Palestine. 
Nettle,  Pr  24^^  Job  30'^  Zep  2^.     Charul  Royle  thinks  wild  mustard. 
It  is  destructive  to  other  vegetation  ;  common  to  the  East ;  in 
English,  charlock.     The  nettle  is  probably  the  plant  mentioned 
in  Is  34^^  Ho  9^  Pr  24^^  {Qimmosh),  where  it  is  so  translated. 
TJiistles,  Gen  3^",  rpi^oXos  in  LXX  and  New  Testament,  Mt  7^**  Heb  6^  ; 
a  common  prickly  plant,  spreading  over  the   ground.      Heb. 
Dardar. 
Thorns,  a  general  name.     Heb.  'Atad,  Ps  58^,  also  bramble  ;  see  above 
Choach,  also  thistle.  Job  41'^  Pr  26^  Is  34^^,  and  once  in  pi.  hooks  or 
chains,  2  Ch  33^^  (R.  V.).      Chedeq,  also  brier;   na'atzCitz,  a  thorn 
hedge,  Is  55^^     Mesubfiah,  Mic  7*.     Sir,  Eccl  7^.     Tsen,  Job  5^. 
Qots  (collective,  often).     Qimmashon,  Pr  24^^     Shayith,  Is  5^,  &c. 
dKauOa  generally  in  the  LXX  ;  also  in  Mt  7I6  i^^-^'^  2729  Jn  192-5. 
The  number  and  variety  of  these  words  illustrate  the  abundance  of 
plants  of  this  class  in  Palestine.     The  common  bramble  and  the 
holy  bramble  {Rubus  sanctus)  abound  :  and  thistles  cover  large 
tracts  of  ground,  and  grow  to  a  prodigious  size  ;  among  others, 
travellers  mention  the  white  Syrian  thistle,  with  the  Egyptian 
or  purple  variety,  and  the  musk- scented  thistle  {Carduus  mollis). 
Calamus  or  sweet  cane.  Ex  30^^  Ct  4^*  Eze  27^^  Is  43^*  Jer  6^^.     This 
plant  is  found  in  Asia  and  Egypt,  though  the  most  fragrant  are 
said  in  Jer  to  come  from  a  far  country.      It  was  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  anointing  oil  of  the  Sanctuary.     Heb.  Qaneh. 
Camphire  (different  from  camphor),  probably  the  henna  (Gr.  Kv-npos) 
of  the  East :  a  fragrant  shrub,  with  flowers  like  those  of  the  lilac. 
The  leaves  form  a  powder  used  for  dyeing  the  nails  and  eyebrows, 
Ct  i"  4I'.     Heb.  Kopher. 
Caper-berry  (Eccl  la^  R.  V.),   a  shrub  growing  on  walls  and  rocks. 

3  S*  2 


804  NATURAL   HISTORY 

The  flower-buds,  preserved  in  vinegar,  are  a  stimulating  condi- 
ment.    Heb.  'Abhiyonah. 

Carob-tree,  a  leguminous  shrub  found  in  the  countries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean,  yielding  large  pods  with  sweetish  seeds,  palatable 
and  useful  as  food  for  cattle  and  swine  :  the  'husks'  of  Lu  15'* 
(Gr.  Kiparia). 

Cassia,  Ex  30^^*  Eze  27^*  ;  an  inferior  kind  of  cinnamon.  The  bark 
yields  an  essential  oil,  less  aromatic  than  cinnamon,  but  in  larger 
quantities,  and  of  a  more  pungent  taste.     Heb.  Qiddah,  QStsiolh. 

Cedar,  the  name  generally  of  coniferous  trees,  especially  of  the  noblest 
of  the  tribe,  the  cedar  of  Lebanon.  The  cedar  of  the  Pentateuch 
(Lev  14*-*')  was  probably  a  juniper,  which  tree  is  common  in  the 
desert  of  Sinai.     Heb.  'Erez. 

Chestnut-tree,  Gen  30^^  Eze  31^,  probably  the  plane,  Platanus  orientalis, 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  trees.  Those  of  Assyria  were 
especially  fine,  see  Eze  31.     Heb.  'Armon. 

Cinnamon,  Ex  30^'  Pr  7^"^  Ct  4^*  Rev  18^^,  the  bark  of  the  Laurus  kinna- 
momum.  The  plant  is  found  in  India  and  China  ;  but  the  best 
kind  is  from  Mulabar  and  Ceylon.     Heb.  Qinnamon. 

Cockle,  Job  31*"  (R.  V.  '  noisome  weeds '),  perhaps  the  darnel  or  '  tares 
of  the  parable,  Mt  13*^.     The  plural  is  translated  'wild  grapes,' 
Is  5^^.     The  fruit  is  narcotic  and  poisonous.     Heb.  Bashah. 

Coriander,  an  umbelliferous  plant,  yielding  a  fruit  (called  seed),  the 
size  of  a  pepper-corn,  globular,  greyish,  and  aromatic.  It  is 
common  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  Essex,  Ex  16^^ 
Num  11^.     Heb.  Oad. 

Cucumber,  Num  11^  Is  i^  ;  rightly  translated.  Extensively  cultivated 
in  the  East.     Heb.  Qishshuim. 

Dove's-dung-,  2  Ki  6^5,  perhaps  the  chick-pea,  a  vetch  common  in  the 
East.  The  same  name  is  still  applied  in  Arabic  to  the  dung  of 
pigeons,  and  to  these  peas  (Bochart,  Taylor).  Some  suppose  that 
the  root  of  a  wild-flower,  the  star  of  Bethlehem,  is  the  article  here 
mentioned.     Heb.  Dibhyonim  (Qeri). 

Ebony,  Eze  27'*^,  wood  greatly  prized  for  its  colour  and  hardness.  It 
is  the  heart-wood  of  a  date-tree,  which  grows  in  great  abundance 
in  the  East,  and  especially  in  Ceylon.     Heb.  Hobhnim. 

Pigf-tree,  properly  translated  :  a  native  of  the  East ;  with  broad  shady 
leaves  (i  Ki  4^^).  The  fig  sprouts  at  the  vernal  equinox,  and 
yields  three  crops  of  fruit,  the  first  ripening  about  the  end  of  June, 
having  a  fine  flavour,  and  generally  eaten  green  (Jer  24^).  The 
others  are  often  preserved  in  masses  or  cakes,  i  Sa  25^^,  &c.  Heb. 
Teenah.     Pag,  green-fig,  cf.  2^'  ;  Gr.  ovkov,  ovktj,  freq.  in  N.T. 

Pir-tree  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture,  2  Sa  6^  Ct  i^'^,  &c.,  and 
probably  includes  various  coniferous  trees.  Some  regard  the 
cypress  and  juniper  as  the  true  representatives  of  berosh  ;  others 
the  cedar,  and  others  the  common  pine.  All  are  found  in. 
Palestine  ;  and  as  cedar  and  fir  constantly  occur  together  in  Scrip- 
ture, they  probably  include  the  whole  genus.     Heb.  Berosh. 

Pitches,  i.  e.  vetches,  occurs  only  in  Is  28'^^-'^''.  and  is  probably  a  species 
of  Nigella  (black  cummin,  R.  V.  marg.).  The  seeds  are  black,  and 
are  used  in  the  East,  like  carraway  seeds,  for  the  purpose  of 
imparting  to  food  an  aromatic,  acrid  taste.     Heb.  Qetzach, 


II.     PLANTS   OF  SCRIPTURE  805 

Flag  (translated  meadow,  in  Gen  41'^^)  Job  8",  probably  any  green 

herbaceous  plants  of  luxuriant  growth.     Heb.  'Achu. 
Flax  {Pishtah,  once  translated  *  tow,'  Is  43^^,  more  properly  *  a  wick ') :  the 
common  plant  so  called,  used  to  make  linen,  cord,  and  torches  ; 
extensively  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Syria.     Gr.  \iuou,  Mt  12-^ 
Shesh,  translated  tine  linen  and  silk,  was  probably  the  heinp  plant, 
in  Arabic    hasheesh,  yielding    an    intoxicating    drink    (whence 
assassin),  now  known  as  the  bang  of  the  East.      The  plant  is 
cultivated  in  Persia,  Europe,  and  India. 
Three  other  words  are  translated  linen  in  the  English  version,  Badh, 
Bids,  and  Sadin,  the  first  in  the  Pentateuch,  &c.,  and  is  probably 
the  linen  made  from  flax  ;  the  second  only  in  Clironicles  and  the 
Prophets,  and  is  probably  cottoji  cloth,  a  product  not  mentioned 
till  alter  the  Captivity  :  it  is  generally  translated  'fine  linen  '  ; 
the  third  only  in  Pr  31-*  Is  3^^  '  linen  raiment.'     The  Bvaaos  of 
the  New  Testament  was  probably  linen.     In  the  LXX,  ^vaaos 
represents  both  words,  Badh  and  Buts  ;  for  Sadin,  aivSwv  is  used 
(see  Mt  27^*^  and  parallels).     The  word  cotton  does  not  occur  in 
Scripture,  but  the  Hebrew  Karpas,  in  Est  i^,  is  translated  green 
(A.  V.)  and  cotton  (K.  V.).     The  cotton  plant  seems  not  to  have 
been  known  in  Palestine  before  the  Captivity. 
Galbanum,  Ex  30'*  only,  a  very  powerful  and  not  very  fragrant  gum, 
exuded  by  a  shrub  belonging  to  the  family  of  Umbelliferae.     It 
was  used  in  preparing  incense.     Heb.  Chelbenah. 
Oarlick,  Num  11*^  only.     This  plant  is  now  known  by  the  name  of 
eschalot,  or  shalot,  and  is  common  in  Europe  {Allium  Escalonium, 
i.  e.  of  Ascalon).     Herodotus  states  that  it  was  supplied  in  large 
quantities  to  the  labourers  engaged  in  the  erection  of  the  Pyramids. 
Heb.  Shum. 
Gopher  is  mentioned  only  in  Gen  6^''.     Probably  a  tree  of  the  pine 
tribe,  perhaps  cypress,  which  is  very  abundant  in  Assyria.     Heb. 
Gopher. 
Gourd,  Jon  4^"^",  Heb.  Qiqayon,  is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  the 
Pabna   Christi,   or  castor-oil  plant.      It  is  of  very  rapid  growth, 
with  broad  palmate  leaves,  and  giving,  especially  when  young,  an 
ample  shade.     The  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  tree. 
Gourd,  wild,  2  Ki  4^^.     Heb.  pi.  Paqqic'oth.     The  wild  cucumber,  whose 
leaves  are  like  those  of  the  vine,  but  of  a  poisonous  quality  and 
bitter  taste. 
nemlock,  Ho  10*.     Heb.  Rosh.     Translated  *  gall '  in  Dt  ag^^  Ps  6921 
Lam  3^^,  &c.     Probably  a  general  name  for  any  bitter  herb  (Heb. 
La'anah,  Am  6^2  (^  y'^  'wormwood'). 
Eyssop,  Ex  12^2  Jn  19-^,  &c.,  either  marjoram,  a  small  shrub,  its  leaves 
covered  with  soft  woolly  down,  adapted  to  retain  fluid  ;   or  the 
thorny  caper,  which  grows  wild  in   Syria,  and  is  possessed  of 
detergent  properties.     Heb.  'Ezohh,  Gr.  vaaojnos. 
Juniper,  i  Ki  19^-'^  Ps  120*  ;   probably  the  Spanish  broom.     The  wood 
of  this  tree  burns  with  a  remarkably  light  flame,  giving  out  great 
heat :  hence  '  coals  of  juniper '  in  Ps  120  (and  R.  V.  marg.  Job  30*, 
*  to  warm  them ').     Heb.  Rothem. 
l^eeks,  Num  11^.     The  word  so  translated  is  rendered  '  grass,*  i  Ki  18^  ; 
'  herb,'  Job  8^^  .  and  '  hay,'  Pr  2725.     it  properly  means  anything 


806  NATURAL   HISTORY 

green.  But  it  is  translated  '  leeks '  in  these  passages  by  most  of 
the  versions  ;  and  the  plant  has  been  known  (and  indeed  wor- 
shipped) in  Egypt  from  very  early  times.     Heb.  Chatsir. 

Lentiles,  a  kind  of  pulse,  from  a  small  annual,  and  used  for  making 
soups  and  pottage.  It  is  of  the  colour  of  chocolate  (reddish- 
brown),  and  is  compared  by  Pliny  to  the  colour  of  the  reddish 
sand  around  the  pyramids.  Wilkinson  {Ancient  Egypt)  has  given 
a  picture  of  lentile-pottage  making,  taken  from  an  ancient  slab. 
Gen  25^*  2  Sa  17'^^.     Heb.  ^Aclashim. 

Iiily.  This  word  is  probably  applicable  to  several  plants  common  in 
Palestine.  In  most  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  word  is  used, 
there  is  reference  to  the  lotus,  or  water-lily  of  the  Nile.  This 
species  was  eaten  as  food  :  the  roots,  stalks,  and  seeds  are  all  very 
grateful,  both  fresh  and  dried.  Hence  the  allusion  to  feeding 
among  lilies.  The  '  lily  of  the  valley,'  i.  e.  of  the  water-courses, 
belongs  also  to  this  species,  Ct  z^-^'^  4^,  &c.  The  flower  was  worn 
on  festive  occasions,  and  formed  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the 
Temple,  i  Ki  7^^.  Heb.  Shushdn. 
The  lily  of  the  New  Testament  (Kpivov)  is  the  scarlet  martagon  lily 
(Lil.  chalcedonicum),  a  stately  turban-like  flower.  It  flowers  in  April 
and  May,  when  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount  was  probably  delivered, 
and  is  indigenous  throughout  Galilee.  It  is  called  in  the  New 
Testament  the  '  lily  of  the  field,'  Mt  628. 

Mallows,  only  in  Job  30*,  R.  V.  'salt-wort,'  Atriplex  hcdimus  ;  is  still 
used  by  the  poor  as  a  common  dish.     Heb.  Malluach. 

Mandrakes,  Gen  30^*-^^  Ct  7^',  Atropa  manclragora,  a  plant  like  lettuce 
in  size  and  shape,  but  of  dark  green  leaves.  The  fruit  is  of  the 
size  of  a  small  apple,  and  ripens  in  wheat-harvest  (May).  It  is 
noted  for  its  exhilarating  and  genial  virtues.     Heb.  Dudaim. 

Melon,  Num  n^.  The  gourd  tribe,  to  which  cucumbers  and  melons 
belong,  are  great  favourites  in  the  East,  and  abound  in  Egypt  and 
India.  There  are  different  kinds— the  Egyptian  {Cuciimis  chate), 
the  common  water-melon,  &c.,  all  of  which  are  probably  included 
in  the  Scripture  name.     Heb.  'Abhattichim. 

Millet,  Eze  4^,  the  Panicum  miliaceum  of  botanists,  a  small  grain  some- 
times cultivated  in  England  for  feeding  poultry,  and  grown 
throughout  the  East.  It  is  used  for  food  in  Persia  and  in  India. 
Heb.  Dochan. 

Mulberry,  in  the  New  Testament,  sj/camrne-tree,  Lu  17^  (very  different 
from  the  sycamore,  which  is  a  kind  of  fig),  is  the  mulberry  of 
Europe,  very  common  in  Palestine.  The  word  translated  '  mul- 
berry *  in  2  Sa  523.24  J  Qj^  1414-15  probably  means  balsam-tree.  The 
rustling  of  its  leaves  answers  the  desci'iption  given  in  these 
passages.  The  same  word  occurs  in  Ps  84^,  and  is  there  regarded 
(A.  V.)  as  a  proper  name  {Baca),  but  most  of  the  versions  (as  R.  V.) 
translate  it  '  weeping.'     Valley  of  Baca  =  *  vale  of  tears.' 

Mustard  {aivain),  is  either  a  species  of  the  plant  known  in  England 
under  this  name,  which  has  one  of  the  smallest  seeds,  and  is  itself 
among  the  tallest  of  herbaceous  plants,  or  the  Salvadora  Persica, 
a  shrub  or  tree,  whose  seeds  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
mustard  (Royle,  Irby). 

Myrrli  is  the  representative  of  two  words  in  Hebrew,  of  which  the 


II.     PLANTS   OF   SCRIPTUKE  807 

first  (Mor,  afxvpva)  is   properly  translated,  Ex  30-^  Ps  45*  *<=•  Jn 
19^'.     It   is   a   gum   exuded    by  the   Balsamodendron   myrrha,  and 
other  plants.     It  is  highly  aromatic  and  medicinal,  and  moderately 
stimulating.     The  Greeks  used  it  to  drug  their  wine.     The  shrub 
is  found  in  Arabia  and  Africa. 
Bklolach,  Gen  2}'^  Num  ii"^,  is  probably  a  gum,  still  known  as  bdellium. 
The  gum  exudes  from  more  than  one  tree,  and  is  found  in  both 
India  and  Africa. 
Lot  is  properly  labdanum.     It  is  a  gum  exuded  by  the  cistus,  and  is 
now  used  chiefly  in  fumigation,  Gen  37^®  43^^.     Other  similar 
gums  mentioned  in  Scripture  are — 
Balm  {Tsvii),  Gen  37-''  Jer  8^'^.     It  is  probably  the  balm  or  balsam  of 
Gilead  (the  Hebrew  of  which  word,  however,  £e'sem,  is  generally 
translated  spice,  or  siceet  odours).     This  tree  is  common  in  Arabia 
and  Africa.     The  gum  is  obtained  in  small  quantities,  and  is 
highly  aromatic  and  medicinal. 
Frankincense  (Lebhonah),  is  a  gum  taken  from  a  species  of  storax,  and 
is  highly  fragrant.     It  was  employed  chiefly  for  fumigation,  and 
was  largely  used  in  the  service  of  the  Temple.     It  was  regarded 
as  an  emblem  of  prayer.  Lev  2^  Ps  145^-'-  Kev  8^*. 
Spicery  {NSkh'oth),  Gen  37^^  43^^,  is  a  kind  of  gum,  perhaps  taken  from 

the  tragacanth  tree. 
Stacte  {Ncltdph),  occurs  only  in  Ex  30'*,  and  is  another  gum,  not  now 
certainly  known.     Celsius  thinks  it  an  inferior  kind  of  myrrh. 
Myrtle  grows  wild  in  Palestine,  and  reaches  the  height  of  twenty  feet. 
Its  leaves  are  dark  and  glossy,  and  its  white  flowers  highly  aro- 
matic.    Its  branches  were  used  at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  Ne8^' 
Is  4ii'^-i^     Heb.  Hddhas. 
Nard,  Mk  14'.     Heb.  Nerd,  Gk.  vapdos,  translated  spikenard,  the  Indian 
plant  Nardostachys  jatamansi,  yielding  a  delicious  and  costly  per- 
fume.    The  root  and  the  leaves  that  grow  out  of  it  have  the 
appearance  of  spikes,  hence  the  name  (sfac^j/s  — spike).    Ct  112^13.14 
Mk  14'  Jn  12'. 
Nut  is  the  translation  of  two  Hebrew  words  :  Boinim,  Gen  43^^,  pistachio- 
nuts,  well   known  in  Syria  and  India,   but  not  in  Egypt,  and 
'Eghoz,  the  walnut-tree,  Ct  6^^,  which  is  called  in  Pers.  and  Arab. 
'  gouz.' 
Oak,  Gen  35*  Is  2^'  6^^  44'*  Eze  276  Ho  4^^  Am  2^  Zee  ii^.     In  other 
passages  where  the  word  '  oak '  is  found,  the  word  ought  to  be 
terebinth,  or  turpentine-tree  (see  teil).     The  oak  is  not  common  in 
Palestine,  nor  is  the  English  oak  {Quercus  robur)  found  there.     Oaks 
of  Bashan  are  still  of  large  size  ;   but  they  are  chiefly  either  the 
evergreen  oak  (Q.  ilex),  the  prickly-cupped  oak  (Q.  valonia),  or  the 
Kermes  oak.     Heb.  'Allon. 
Olive,  an  evergreen,  common  from  Italy  to  Cabul.     The  unripe  fruit 
is  preserved  in  a  solution  of  salt,  and  is  used  for  dessert ;  when 
ripe,  it  is  bruised  in  mills,  and  yields  an  oil  of  peculiar  purity  and 
value.     Both   the   oil  and  the  tree  were  used  in  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles.     In  Judaea  it  was  a  symbol  of  prosperity,  Ps  52^, 
and  in  all  ages  it  has  been  an  emblem  of  peace. 
The  wild  olive  (Ko  n^^-'^*)  was  probably  a  wild  species  of  the  Olea 
Europtea.     It  was  a  common  mode  of  grafting  in  Italy,  to  insert 


808  NATURAL   HISTORY 

a  branch  of  the  wild  olive  on  the  stock  of  the  cultivated  plant 
(Columella).     Heb.  Zayith,  Gr.  kkaia. 

Onion,  a  plant  well  known  in  this  country  and  in  the  East.  In  hot 
climates  it  loses  its  acrid  taste,  and  is  highly  agreeable  and 
nutritious,  Num  ii^     Heb.  Betzel. 

Palm,  or  date-tree,  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  eastern  trees,  Ex  15'^'''. 
It  flourished  especially  in  the  valley  of  Jordan  (hence  Jericho,  the 
City  of  Palm-trees)  and  in  the  deserts  of  Syria  {Tamar  =  Palmyra). 
It  was  considered  characteristic  of  Judaea,  being  first  met  with 
there  by  nations  travelling  southward  from  Europe.  Heb.  Tdmdr, 
Gr.  (poivi^,  whence  Phwnicia. 

Pomegranate  ('  grained-apple '),  a  tree  of  great  value  in  hot  climates. 
Its  fruit  is  globular,  and  as  large  as  a  good-sized  apple.  The 
interior  contains  a  quantity  of  purple  or  rosy  seeds,  with  a  sweet 
juice,  of  a  slightly  acid  taste,  i  Sa  14'''.  The  tree  is  not  unlike  the 
common  hawthorn,  but  larger.  It  is  cultivated  in  North  Africa 
and  throughout  Asia.  Hag  2^^  Dt  8*  Ct  8^  Joel  i^^.  Heb.  Rimmon. 
Carved  pomegranates  were  placed  on  the  capitals  of  the  columns  of 
the  Temple,  Ex  2833-34. 

Poplar,  Ho  4^^^  ig  either  the  white  poplar  or  the  storax-tree.  Gen  303"^, 
LXX,  and  E.V.  marg.  The  latter  yields  the  fragrant  resin  of 
frankincense.  Either  ti-ee  answers  the  description  given  in 
Genesis  and  Hosea.     Heb.  Libhneh. 

Beed,  a  tall,  grassy  plant,  consisting  of  a  long,  hollow-jointed  stem, 
with  sharp-cutting  leaves.  The  plant  grows  on  the  banks  of  rivers 
and  in  moist  places,  i  Ki  14^^  Job  40^^  Is  19®-'^  36^  Ez  40^  Mt  n'', 
and  was  used  for  measuring,  fishing,  walking,  &c. 
A  small  kind  was  used  for  writing,  3  Jn  13.  This  reed  is  very 
abundant  in  the  marshes  between  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates. 
Heb.  Qaneh,  Gk.  ttdXa/jLos. 

Bose,  Ct  2^  Is  35^  Though  the  rose  was  known  in  Syria,  the  dog- 
rose  being  common  on  the  mountains,  and  the  damask  rose  taking 
its  name  from  Damascus,  it  is  not  mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  the 
word  so  translated  being  (as  its  name  implies)  a  bulbous-rooted 
plant.  It  is  probably  the  sweet  narcissus,  abundant  in  the  plain 
of  Sharon,  in  fact  the  characteristic  wild  flower  of  the  district. 
Heb.  Chdvatzeleth. 

Bue,  only  in  Lu  ii*^^  jg  the  common  garden-plant  so  called.  Its  leaves 
emit  a  strong  and  bitter  odour,  and  were  formerly  used  medicinally. 
Gr.  irrjyavov. 

Bush,  Ex  23  Is  9^*  19^**,  translated  also  *  hook,'  Job  41*  ('  rope  of  rushes,' 
R.  V.  marg.),  and  'bulrush,'  Is  58^  (A.  V.),  the  Egyptian  papyrus. 
Is  18^^  (R.  v.),  which  belongs  to  the  tribe,  not  of  rushes,  but  of 
sedges.  It  grows  eight  or  ten  feet  high.  The  stem  is  triangular, 
and  without  leaves,  but  is  adorned  with  a  large,  flocculent,  bushy 
top.  The  plant  was  used  for  making  boats,  sails,  mats,  and  ropes; 
the  stem  itself  yielding  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt.  The  plant 
is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Nile,  near  Babylon,  and  in  India. 
Heb.  Gomg,  Agmon. 

Saffron,  Ct  4".  The  stigmas  and  style  of  the  yellow  crocus  formed 
this  fragrant  perfume,  which  was  used  to  flavour  both  meat  and 
wine,  and  as  a  powerful  stimulative  medicine.     It  is  very  common 


II.     PLANTS  OF   SCRIPTURE  809 

throughout  Asia,  and  derives  its  English  name  from  the  Arabic 
*■  zafran'     Heb.  ZarAom. 

SMttah-tree,  the  acacia,  or  Egyptian  thorn,  Ex  25',  &c.  The  stem  is 
straight  and  thorny,  the  bark  is  a  greyish-black,  the  wood  very 
light  and  durable,  and  therefore  well  adapted  for  a  movable 
structure  like  the  Tabernacle.  All  this  species  bear  flowers,  and 
are  remarkable  for  their  fragrance  and  beauty.    Heb.  plur.  Shittim. 

Sycomore,  i  Ki  lo'^^  Ps  78*''',  &c.,  erroneously  translated  by  the  LXX 
Gv/tdfjiiuos  (see  Mulberry).  In  its  leaves  it  resembles  the  mulberry, 
but  is  really  a  fig-tree,  bearing  a  coarse,  inferior  fruit  {Ficus 
sycomorus).  It  is  lofty  and  shady  (Lu  19*),  with  wood  of  no  great 
value  (i  Ki  10-'''  2  Ch  i^-^).  The  mummy-cases  of  Egypt  were 
generally  made  of  it.  Heb.  Shiqmah.  This  tree  must  be  distin- 
guished from  the  English  sycamore,  which  is  a  kind  of  maple. 

Tares  (C^C^via),  Mt  13-^,  the  Lolium  temnUntum,  a  kind  of  darnel,  or 
grass,  resembling  wheat  until  the  seeds  appear.  It  impoverishes 
the  soil,  and  bears  a  seed  of  deleterious  properties. 

Teil-tree,  Is  6^^,  an  old  English  name  for  the  'lime-tree,'  which  is  not 
found  in  Palestine.  The  R.  V.  rightly  has  'terebinth'  in  the 
above  passage.  So  has  R.  V.  for  A.  V.  '  elm '  in  Ho  4^^,  and  for  '  oak' 
in  Gen  35*  marg.  and  in  other  passages.  See  Oak.  It  is  also 
known  as  the  turpentine-tree,  from  the  fragrant  substance  exud- 
ing from  its  bark.     Heb.  Elah. 

Thyiue-wood,  Rev  i8'2,  was  in  great  demand  among  the  Romans,  who 
called  it  thya,  or  citron-wood.  It  grows  only  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Mount  Atlas,  in  Africa,  and  yields  the  *  sandarach '  rosin 
of  commerce.     It  is  highly  balsamic  and  odoriferous.     Gr.  Bmvov. 

Vine,  Gen  g^^,  &c.,  a  well-known  tree,  and  highly  esteemed  through- 
out the  East.  The  vine  of  Eshcol  was  especially  celebrated, 
Num  132^-2*,  The  vine  was  grown  on  terraces  on  the  hills  of 
Palestine,  Is  5^  Mic  i^,  or  elsewhere  on  the  ground,  Eze  17®-^. 
Sometimes  it  formed  an  arbour,  i  Ki  4^^  Ho  2^^,  propped  up  and 
trained.  Often  metaphorically  used,  as  in  Jn  15.  A  noble  vine 
=  men  of  generous  disposition,  Jer  2."^.  A  strange,  or  wild  vine 
=  men  ignoble  and  degenerate,  Dt  32^2^  ^<,.  Heb.  Geplien  (also 
Soreq,  yielding  rich  red  or  purple  grapes,  Is  5^^  Jer  2*  Gen  49^^ 
also  denoting  the  valley  that  produced  them,  Judg  16*),  Gr. 
d/xncKos. 

Willow,  Ps  137^  Is  44*,  was  well  known  in  Judsea,  and  one  species,  the 
weeping  willow,  is  the  Salix  Bahylonica.  Heb.  'Erehh.  Tsaphisdphah, 
Ez  17%  is  probably  the  Egyptian  willow  {Salix  J^gyptiaca). 

Wormwood,  *  root  of  bitterness,'  Dt  29^^  Rev  B^^-'^,  an  emblem  of 
trouble.  There  are  various  species  of  this  tribe  {Artemisia),  of 
which  the  English  plant  {A.  ahsinthium)  is  a  specimen.  Several 
kinds  ai'e  found  in  Judaea,  all  exceedingly  bitter.  The  wormwood 
of  commerce  consists  of  the  tops  of  the  plants,  flowers,  and  young 
seeds  intermixed.     Heb.  La'dnah,  Gr.  d\piv9Lov. 


810  NATURAL   HISTORY 


IIL   Minerals  of  Scripture 

1.    EARTHS  AND  OTHER  MINERAL  SUBSTANCES. 

Blttinieii,  or  asphalt,  translated  slime,  is  an  earth-resin,  abounding  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  Dead  Sea  and  elsewhere.  It  was  used 
as  cement,  Gen  ii^,  as  it  still  is  in  some  parts  of  the  East.  Pliny 
states  that  the  Egyptians  used  it  for  making  the  papyrus  boats  of 
the  Nile  water-tight  (see  Ex  2^),     Heb.  Chemar,  Gr.  da^aAroy. 

Brimstone,  or  sxalphur,  a  mineral  found  in  a  natural  state  ;  also 
obtained  by  art  from  pyrites  and  various  rock  formations.  It  is 
found  in  Palestine  in  both  states,  Gen  iq^^-ss  pg  nGEzesS^^  Is  30^' 
34^  Rev  14^0.     Heb.  Gophrith,  Gr.  OfTov. 

Clay,  an  unctuous  earth,  used  in  making  earthenware,  Is  29^^  45^ 
Jer  iS**",  and,  when  mixed  with  sand,  for  building.  Job  4^^.  Heb. 
Chomer,  Tit  (mire),  Melet  (mortar). 

Earth  has  three  representatives  in  Hebrew:  'Erets  =  the  earth,  habitable 
and  uninhabited ;  'Adatnah,  properly,  red  earth,  cultivable  land, 
and  sometimes  the  whole  earth  ;  'Aphar,  dry  earth,  or  dust.  There 
are  also  words  for  very  fine  dust  (Dt  28^*  Nah  i^),  and  a  dust- 
particle,  or  atom  (Is  40^^).  Clods  of  earth  have  three  names, 
Job  7^  31''  Joel  i^^. 

Nitre  (or  carbonate  of  soda),  Nether,  a  mineral  alkali  (as  Bortth,  translated 
soap,  is  a  vegetable  alkali),  found  in  a  natural  state  in  Egypt, 
Jer  2"^"^  (R.  V.  '  lye  *)  and  Pr  25^0  only.  Vinegar  (any  acid)  makes 
it  emit  a  disagreeable  odour,  and  destroys  its  qualities  ;  hence 
the  last  passage. 

Salt  abounds  in  Palestine.  The  Dead  Sea  is  strongly  impregnated 
with  it.  The  Salt-valley  of  2  Sa  8^^  i  Ch  18^2  pg  go,  is  a  large 
plain  south-west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  salt-pits  of  Zep  2^  were 
probably  such  as  are  still  dug  in  the  borders  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
into  which  the  water  runs,  and  where  a  thick  crust  of  salt  is  soon 
deposited.  Often  figuratively  used,  as  *a  covenant  of  salt,'  2  Ch  13^ 
Ps  107^*  (because  nothing  can  grow  in  a  soil  covered  with  salt, 
Jer  17'  Judg  9^')  Col  4*  (apposite,  pure  discourse)  Mt  5^'  Mk  9*". 
I  Heb.  Melach,  Gr.  dXs. 

Sand  abounds  in  Palestine,  and  is  often  used  as  a  comparison,  to 
express  abundance,  extensiveness,  weight,  &c.  Heb.  Chol^  Gr. 
dfifios. 

a.   STONES  AND  ROCKS. 

Alabaster  (from  the  Arabic,  the  xchitish  stone)  of  the  moderns,  is 
a  variety  of  gypsum  :  among  the  ancients,  the  word  was  applied 
to  a  kind  of  onyx,  a  hard  stalagmitic  deposit  from  water  impreg- 
nated with  carbonate  of  lime,  Mt  26^  Mk  14^  Lu  7".  It  was  much 
used  for  perfumery-boxes  (Pliny),  as  it  still  is  in  Egypt.  Gr. 
dXa^aarpov. 

Chalk-stone,  Is  27^,  lime-stone,  the  chief  material  of  the  hills  of 
Syria  and  Palestine.  It  is  hard  and  whitish  ;  sometimes  yellow 
or  grey.     Heb.  Qir, 


III.     MINERALS   OF   SCRIPTURE  811 

Crystal,  Eze  i^z,  literally  ice  (Heb.),  Job  zS^"^  (ZSkhukhith),  a  trans- 
parent, glass-like  stone,  of  the  Hint  family.  Qerach,  Gabhish,  Job  28^^ 
(E.  v.),  Gr.  KpvffTaWos,  Rev  4"  22^. 

Flint,  Dt  815  32"  Ps  1148  Is  50"^  Job  28^  The  rocks  of  Sinai,  to  which 
in  Dt  8  the  word  is  applied,  are  granite,  porphyry,  and  green- 
stone, and  such  rocks  are  no  doubt  intended.  Heb.  Challamish, 
and  in  Eze  3^  tsur  (rock). 

Iiinie,  Is  33^2  ^^i  2^.    Heb.  Sid,  translated  plaster,  Dt  272-*. 

Marble  is  limestone  of  a  close  texture.  The  name  in  Hebrew  means 
'  whiteness '  (generally  applied  to  linen),  i  Ch  29^  Est  i^  Ct  s^"^. 
Ileb.  Shesh. 

Rock.  High  precipitous  rocks,  fit  for  refuge,  are  called  Sela\  Judg  15^^^ 
I  Sa  14*  Ps  1 8-^,  &c.  Tsur  is  the  generic  name,  also  very  frequent. 
Gr.  TTfTpa,  Mt  72*-25  Mk  15*8  i  Cor  10*,  &c. 

Stone  (Heb.  'Ebhen),  is  generic.  ('  Gravel '  is  Chatsdts,  from  a  root  signi- 
fying 'to  break  up.')     Gr.  \i6os,  ntrpot  Jn  i^^. 


3.   PRECIOUS  STONES. 

Agate,  a  semi-transparent,  variegated  mineral,  crystalline  in  struc- 
ture, so  called  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily  (Pliny),  Ex  28^^  39^^- 
Heb.  Shebhu.  The  word  in  Is  54^^^  Ez  27'^  is  Kadkod.  A  similar 
Arabic  word  means  vivid  redness,  and  the  stone  here  meant  is 
probably  the  oriental  ruby  ;  so  R.  V. 

Amethyst,  a  kind  of  blue,  transparent  quartz,  sometimes  purple  or 
greyish.  Heb.  'Achlamah,  from  a  word  signifying  dream  ;  Gr. 
dniOvaroSj  from  a  word  for  drunkenness.  (The  Hebrews  supposed 
the  amethyst  to  have  the  power  of  procuring  dreams,  the  Greeks 
of  preventing  intoxication.)     Ex  28^^  39^^. 

Beryl.  Heb.  Tarshish,  Gr.  ^rjpvWos.  Tarshish  stone,  or  chrysolifh, 
properly  a  gem  of  yellow  gold  lustre,  sometimes  verging  to  yellow 
green.  Ex  28^0  39^3  q^  ^u  £^q  jie  &c.  Rev  21-0.     See  Onyx. 

Carbuncle  (Heb.  Bareqath  or  Bareqeth,  flashing  as  lightning)  ;  the  word 
so  translated  is  rather  the  oriental  emerald  (crpapaySos),  a  beauti- 
ful green,  of  different  shades,  Ex  28^"^  Eze  28^2^  g^  lxX  Jos. 
In  Is  54^2  the  literal  meaning  is  'sparkling  stone.'  'Carbuncle' 
is  derived,  etymologically,  from  carbo,  a  glowing  coal.  See 
Emerald. 

Diamond  (i)  Heb.  Yahdlom.  A  hard  gem  (literally  'hammered'). 
Possibly  the  onyx,  a  kind  of  chalcedony,  of  various  tints.  When 
red,  called  sardonyx  (see  Sardius)  ;  reddish  grey,  chalcedonyx ; 
tawny,  memphitonyx.  The  onyx  was  semi-transparent  (like  the 
human  nail,  hence  its  name),  and  was  much  used  for  cameos  and 
seals.  Ex  a8i8  Eze  28^^ 
(a)  Heb.  Shamir,  Jer  17^  (also  Eze  3^  Zee  7^^^  translated  adamant) ,  a.nd 
probably  means  emery,  an  aluminous  mineral,  very  hard,  used  for 
polishing  glass. 
The  diamond  was  unknown  to  the  Jews. 

Emerald,  or  rather  the  carbuncle,  under  which  name  several  brilliant 
red  stones  were  included,  especially  the  ruby,  garnet,  &c.,  Ex  aS^^ 
Eze  a8^'.    Heb.  Nophekh, 


812  NATURAL   HISTORY 

Jasper,  an  opaque  gem,  of  various  tints,  green,  red,  and  yellow, 
Ex  282"^  Eze  28"  Rev  4^  2i^-i8.i9_     jjeb.  Ydshepheh,  Gr.  'iaams. 

Iiigure  (A.  V.  Ex  28^  39^^^.  a  word  no  longer  used),  R.V.  hyacinth  or 
jacinth,  a  transparent  gem,  orange-yellow-red,  found  in  Ceylon  and 
India,  Rev  21^°  g^'^.     Heb.  Leshem,  Gr.  vaKivOos. 

Onyx,  probably  the  beryl  or  chrysoprase,  Gen  2^'^  Rev  21"^^  (i.  e.  a  leek- 
green  stone),  generally  transparent,  and  of  a  pale  green  colour, 
Ex  25'^  Eze  28^=*.     Heb.  Shoham. 

Sapphire,  a  transparent  gem,  generally  sky-blue,  and  very  hard  ; 
hence  the  floor  of  the  throne  of  God  in  heaven  is  compared  to  it, 
Ex  24^"  Eze  i'^^  Rev  21^^.  Heb.  Sappir.  The  sapphire  of  the  Greeks 
{(TcnTipfipoi)  was  our  lapis  lazuli;  the  same  colour  as  the  Scripture 
sapphire,  but  much  softer. 

Sardius  (Heb.  'Odem,  red  stone),  properly  carnelian  (a  came),  a  flesh- 
coloured  gem,  of  the  chalcedony  family.  It  was  found  largely  at 
Sardis,  in  Lydia,  Ex  28^^  Eze  281-^  Rev  4=^  2120. 

Topaz,  a  yellow  gem,  with  red,  grey,  or  green  tinge,  found  in  South 
Arabia.  Hence  the  topaz  of  Gush  ;  an  island  in  the  Red  Sea  being 
called  Topaz  island  (Pliny).  Job  28!'-'  Ex  28^^  Eze  2812  Rev  2120. 
Heb.  Pitdah. 
The  descriptions  in  Revelation,  it  will  be  noticed,  are  closely  con- 
nected with  those  in  Exodus  and  in  Ezekiel. 

4.   METALS. 

Amber,  Eze  i**"  8',  properly,  a  metal  composed  of  copper  and  gold. 
Heb.  Chashmal.  Electron,  which  is  used  by  the  LXX  to  translate 
it,  meant  also  amber.  The  corresponding  Greek  word  (xaA-«o\i- 
(3avov)  is  found  in  Rev  i^^,  *  burnished  brass.' 

Antimony,  or  stibium,  does  not  directly  occur  in  the  Bible  ;  but  its 
vise  is  implied  in  the  words  translatedpam^  (viz.  the  eyes),  literally, 
with  antimony,  2  Ki  g^'^  Jer  4^''  Eze  23*".  The  verb  is  kachal,  to 
colour  with  al-kohol,  a  fine  black  powder  made  from  the  metal. 
See  Is  54"  (R.  V.  marg.). 

Brass.  This  compound  metal— copper  and  zinc — was  unknown  in 
Scripture  times.  Where  we  read  brass,  we  are  generally  to  under- 
stand either  copper  or  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin  (nine  parts  of 
the  former  to  one  of  the  latter),  i.  e.  bronze.  The  word  *  brazen ' 
is  used  in  the  same  sense.  This  mixed  metal  was  susceptible  of 
a  high  polish,  and  was  used  for  mirrors.  Ex  38^  Job  37^^  Is  3^^, 
where  looking-sr/asses  is  out  of  place  :  see  R.  V.  *  Steel '  (Jos  20^* 
2  Sa  22'^^  Ps  18=^*  Jer  15^2)  should  be  'brass,'  as  R.  V.,  with  the 
same  meaning.     Heb.  Nechosheth,  Gr.  xctA.«os. 

Gold  (Heb.  Segor,  Kelhem,  what  is  concealed,  treasure  ;  Charuts,  what  is 
lustrous ;  Paz,  pure  gold  ;  and  Zahahh,  gold  itself,  its  mineral  name), 
Gr.  xp«^<^<5s.  In  Job  22'^*  *  gold '  (A.  V.),  '  treasure '  R.  V.,  Betzer,  is 
literally  ore,  'something  broken  ofl".'  The  Jews  obtained  their 
gold  chiefly  fromSheba  and  Ophir,  both  in  Arabia,  i  Ki  92^  Ps  45^. 
At  present,  no  gold  is  found  there,  but  ancient  writers  affirm  that 
it  was  formerly  found  in  considerable  quantities.  *  Uphaz,'  pro- 
bably =  Ophir,  Dn  lo^  and  *  Parvaim,'  2  Ch  3«,  may  mean 
'eastern  regions'  (Ges.).     Beaten,  or  perhaps  alloyed  (Ges.)  gold 


III.     MINERALS   OF   SCRIPTURE  813 

is  mentioned,  i  Ki  lo^"-^''.  Gold  and  silver  were  sometimes 
purified  by  fire,  Pr  17^,  lead,  antimony,  salt,  tin,  and  bran  being 
used  in  the  process.  Golden  ornaments  were  early  used  ;  and 
beaten  gold  was  used  for  overlaying  parts  of  the  Temple  structure, 
furniture,  and  decorations.  The  first  mention  of  gold  money  is 
in  David's  age,  i  Ch  21 2'^,  weight,  not  coinage  :  see  §  213. 

Iron  was  largely  found  in  Syria,  even  in  the  earliest  times,  Dt  8^. 
Instruments  and  tools  were  made  of  it,  Num  35^"  Dt  27'.  Steel  is 
called  in  Jer  15^^  '  northern  iron.'  The  tribe  celebrated  in  ancient 
times  for  making  it  were  called  Chalybes,  and  resided  near  the 
Black  Sea.  Another  name  for  steel  {Peladah,  from  the  Arabic)  is 
translated  'torches,'  Nah  2*,  more  probably  iron  scythes.  Ileb. 
Bar2tl. 

Iiead  is  first  mentioned  Ex  15^".  Before  quicksilver  was  known  it 
was  used  to  purify  silver.  Hence  several  expressions,  Jer  6"^^ 
Eze  22^^.  Heb.  'Ophereth.  In  Am  7'^  a  weight  of  lead,  or  plummet, 
is  mentioned.     The  word  is  the  Arabic  for  lead  (Heb.  'Anakh). 

Silver,  Heb.  Keseph,  literallj^,  as  in  Greek  {ap-yvpiov),  white  metal,  is 
found  native,  and  combined  with  svilphur  and  acids.  It  often  lies 
in  veins.  Job  28^  and  was  purified  by  lead  and  heat  (see  Lead). 
Lead  and  silver  combined  is  called  silver  dross  ;  the  separated 
silver,  purified  silver,  Ps  12".  It  was  brought  (among  other  places) 
from  Spain,  Eze  27^'-  Jer  lo^  In  very  early  times  we  find  it  in 
use,  Gen  23^'''-^^.  Many  utensils  were  made  of  it,  Gen  44^  Ex  12^" 
Num  7^^  lo"'^.  The  earliest  mention  of  it  as  money  is  in  Gen  20^^, 
weight,  not  coinage,  §  213  :  see  also  Gen  23^^  Jer  32^. 

Tin  is  first  mentioned  Num  '^i'^'^.  Later,  the  Tyrians  imported  it  from 
Tarshish,  Eze  27^^  :  a  levelling  instrument  of  tin  is  mentioned, 
Zee  4^°.  This  word  is  also  used  for  the  refuse  of  lead  and  silver 
(see  Lead)  in  Is  i^s.     Heb.  Bedxl. 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


The  Heads  of  Sections  and  the  Titles  of  Scripture  Books  are  given  in  the  List  of 
Contents  at  the  beginning. 


A.  D.,  basis  of  clironological 
reckoning,  329. 

AaroQ  and  his  descendants,  425. 

Abel's  offering,  407. 

Abishag,  593. 

Abraham,  call  of,  298,  408. 

Absalom,  rebellion  of,  452 ; 
Psalms  referring  10,454. 

Acrostics,  Hebrew,  562. 

Acts,  Chronology  of  the,  677. 

Adoption,  355. 

Ahasuerus  (Xerxes),  546. 

Ahm.es,  the  Egyptian  king  who 
expelled  the  Hyksos,  41 1. 

Alexander  the  Great  and  the 
Jews,  599. 

Alexander,  Abp.,  on  the  Im- 
precatory Psalms,  571. 

*  Alexandrian '    type    of    New 

Testament  text,  78. 

Alford,  Dean  H.  A.,  Editor  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  63. 

Allegorical  use  of  the  Song  of 
Songs,  595. 

Allegory,  defined,  220 ;  illus- 
trated, 223 ;  interpretation  of, 
224. 

Alogi,  the,  658. 

Alterations  by  copyists,  72. 

*  Ammonian  Sections,'  47. 
Ammonites,  war  of  David  with 

the,  115,  451. 
Amos,    his    recognition    of    the 

books  of  Moses,  487. 
Analogy,  a  key  to  the  meaning 

of  words,  189. 


Ancient  Books,  transmission  of 

to  modern  times,  24. 
*  Angels  of  the  Churches,*  the, 

760  n. 
Animated    Nature,    facts    of, 

illustrating  Scripture,  333. 
Antigonus,  the  Maccabaean,  507. 
Antilegomena,  the,  39. 
Antiochus  IH  (^the  Great),  601. 
Antiochus  IV(Epiphanes),  602 ; 

his  cruel  persecutions,  603. 
Antipater,  the  Idumaean,  606. 
Apocalypse,    language   of    the, 

758  ;      parallels     with     John's 

Gospel,  769. 
Apocalyptic   writings,    Jewish, 

760. 
Apocrypha     (Old     Testament), 

the,  10  ;  books  of,  612  ;   alleged 

quotations  from  the,    in   New 

Testament,  21. 
Apollos,  suggested  by  Luther  as 

author  of  '  Hebrews,'  733. 
Apostles,     the,     their     Divine 

mission,  86,  87. 
Apostolic  books,  early  recogni- 
tion of,  39. 
Aquila,   his    Greek    Version    of 

Old  Testament,  31. 
Arabah,  the,  289. 
Arabic  language,  the,  14  ;    Ver- 
sions   of    the    Scriptures,    35  ; 

local  names,  glossary  of,  297. 
Aram,  different  regions  so  named, 

278. 
Aramaic  dialect,  13 ;  expressions 


816 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


in  New  Testament,  206,  44  ;  in 
Old  Testament,  462 ;  becomes 
prevalent,  612  ;  Gospel  of 
Matthew,    presumed    original, 

645- 
Araunah  or  Oman,  452. 
Archaisms      in     the     Hebrew 

Pentateuch, 391  ;  intheEnglish 

Bible  (with  Table),  167-170. 
Archelaus,  6ro. 
Aristobulus,    first     Maccabaean 

priest-king,  606. 
Ark,  removal  of,  to  Zion,  451. 
Armenian  Version  of  the  Old 

Testament,    34  ;     of    the    New 

Testament,  54. 
Arnold,  Dr.   T.,  of  Rugby,   on 

Ethical  Progress,   134  ;   on  the 

larger  sense  of  Prophecy,  238 
Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  540, 

541- 
Article,   Greek,    usage   of  the, 

210-215, 
Articles  of  the  English  Church 

(VI),  10,  116. 
Asa,  king,  471. 
Asia  Minor,  279  ;  Proconsular, 

710,  760. 
*  Asnapper,*  or  Asshur-bani-pal, 

of  Assyria,  314. 
Ass,  the,  in  the  East,  334. 
Assyria,  kings  of,  mentioned  in 

Old  Testament,  307  ;  and  Israel, 

469. 
Astruc,    Jean,    on    the    Divine 

Names  in  the  Pentateuch,  396. 
Atonement,  how  expressed,  202; 

how  taught,  219. 
Atonement,  Day  of,  428,  433. 
Augustine,    on    Old    and    New 

Testaments,  226. 
Authority  of  Revelation,    144  ; 

of  the  Scriptures,  asserted,  85. 
Authorized    Version    of    the 

Bible,  the  English,  157. 
*Azazel,'  428. 

Baal-gad  or  Baalbek,  277. 

Babel,  408. 

Babylon,  the  first  Empire,  299  ; 
the  second,  314  ;  captivity  of 
the  Jews  in,  528 ;  number  of  the 


exiles,  529  ;  empire  overthrown 
by  Cyrus,  538. 

Babylon,  mystic,  the,  742,  767. 

Bacon  on  the  '  germinant  accom- 
plishment of  prophecy,'  765. 

Barnabas,  suggested  author  of 
'  l[e))re\vs,'  733. 

Baahan,  290. 

'Beast,'  Number  of  the,  763. 

Beer-sheba,  286. 

Belshazzar,  265,  316,  533. 

Bengel,  J.  A.,  Critical  Edition 
of  New  Testament,  60. 

Berachah,  Valley  of,  victory  :n 
the,  473. 

Bethlehem,  286. 

*  Bible,'  meaning  and  origin  of 
the  word,  4. 

Bible,  The,  reasons  for  studying 
it,  3;  spirit  in  which  it  should 
be  studied,  3,  178  ;  the  absolute 
and  final  authority  on  religion, 
131  ;  the  most  translatable  of 
books,  147  ;  difficulties  in,  259, 
269. 

Bickersteth,  Rev.  E.,  classifica- 
tion of  the  Psalms  by,  579. 

Binnie,  Prof.,  on  Hebrew  Poetry, 
562. 

Bishops*  Bible,  the,  156. 

Blood,  various  meanings  of,  187. 

Books,  extra -biblical,  quoted, 
461,  750. 

Botany  of  Scripture,  332. 

Burgon,  Dean  (and  Prebendary 
Miller),  plea  for  the  Traditional 
Text,  63;  on  Inspiration,  119, 
123;  on  the  last  twelve  verses 
of  Mark,  642. 

Burnt-offerings,  428. 

Butler,  Bishop,  on  moral  and 
positive  laws,  367 ;  on  Micab 
65,  508. 

Byron,  Lord,  quoted,  538. 

CsBsar,  Julius,  and  the  Jews,  607. 
Cain  in  the  land  of  Nod,  407. 
Calendar,  the  Jewish,  352,  353. 
Calf,  the  Golden,  worship  of, 

414. 
Campbell,  Thomas,  on  Hebrew 
I        Poetry,  561. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


817 


•  Canaan,*  meaning  of  the  name, 

279  ;  successive  inhabitants  of, 
291  ;  the  home  of  Israel,  440. 
Canaanites,  Destruction  of  the, 

439- 

Candour  of  Scripture,  103. 

Canon  of  Scripture,  how  deter- 
mined, 16  ;  its  gradual  growth, 
17,  37  ;  subsequent  to  the  exist- 
ence of  sacred  literature,  18  ; 
its  formation  attributed  to  Ezra, 
542. 

Canonical  and  uncanonical 
books  contrasted,  37. 

Canonicity,  New  Testament, 
tested  by  apostolicity,  36. 

Canons  of  Criticism,  77  ;  im- 
plicit, 401. 

Canticles :  see  Song  of  Songs. 

Captivity,  of  Israel,  the  first, 
469 ;  of  Judah,  Babylonian  list 
of  kings  during,  528  ;  duration 
of,  how  reckoned,  529. 

Carchemish,  battle  at  (Babylon 
victorious  over  Egypt),  302,  474, 

529. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  on  Job,  562. 

Carpenter,  Bishop  Boyd,  In- 
terpretation of  the  Apocalypse, 
764. 

Catalogues,  early,  of  New  Testa- 
ment Books,  40. 

'Catholic  Epistles,'  the  Seven, 

737. 
Cave,  Prof.,  on  the  supernatural 

origin  of  the  Law,  401. 
Census,    the,    under    Cyrenius, 

266. 

*  Chaldee '  of  the  Old  Testament 

an  incorrect  designation  of 
language,  14. 

Chapter  and  Verse  division, 
174. 

Character  above  System,  143. 

Charteris,  Prof.,  'Canonicity,' 
40,  635,  683. 

Chase,  Dr.  F.  K.,  Hulsean 
Lectures  on  the  Acts,  671  ;  on 
Peter's  connexion  with  Rome, 
742. 

Children  instructed  in  mechani- 
cal arts,  355. 


*  Chokhmah,*  the,  58a. 

Christ,  mission  of,  asserted  to 
be  Divine,  85  ;  character  of,  as 
showing  the  Divine  origin  of 
Scripture,  104. 

Christendom,  apostasy  in,  768. 

Christianity  a  revealed  re- 
ligion,  127. 

Christians,  character  of,  as  an 
evidence  of  Scripture  truth,  106. 

Chronicles,  compared  with 
Kings,  458,  461  ;  genealogies 
in,  462. 

Chronological  arrangement  of 
Scripture  important,  135. 

Chronology,  Antediluvian,  320 ; 
after  Israel's  settlement  in 
Canaan  (different  computa- 
tions), 324 ;  before  Abraham 
(different  computations),  322  ; 
Captivity  to  the  Advent,  327  ; 
of  the  Judges,  443  ;  the  kingly 
history,  Israel  and  Judah,  326  ; 
peculiarities  of  reckoning,  327  ; 
Israel  in  Egypt  (two  different 
reckonings),  324;  lessons  from, 
330  ;  New  Testament,  329  ;  Us- 
sher's,  173  ;  Tables  of,  772-797. 

Church,  how  far  an  authority 
on  the  Can  on,  36;  the  Christian, 
described  in  the  language  of 
the  old  economy,  243,  743. 

Cities  and  Towns  in  the  East, 

339- 
Codex,  the  term  explained,  45  n. 
Coele-Syria,  277. 
Cognate  languages,  use  of,  in 

interpreting    Scripture   words, 

204. 
ColossaB,  city  of,  713. 
'  Common    Dialect  *    (Greek), 

the,  43. 
Comparison  of  Scripture  with 

Scripture,  195. 
Complutensian  Polyglot,  the, 

31. 

Conjectural  criticism,  sus- 
picious, 400;  readings,  how  far 
admissible,  81. 

Conscience,  testimony  of,  to 
Scripture,  no. 

Consistency  in  doctrine,  360. 


3G 


818 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


Constantine,  Emperor,  orders 
the  preparation  of  New  Testa- 
ment MSS.,  46.    t 

Contextual  interpretation, 
187,  188. 

Contradictions,  apparent,  in 
Bible  statements  and  precepts, 
266. 

Conybeare  and  Howson  on  the 
authenticity  of  the  Pastoral 
Epistles,  721. 

Coptic  Version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 34  ;  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 54. 

Copyists  of  the  Old  Testament, 
their  general  fidelity,  25,  27. 

Copyists*  mistakes,  sources  of, 
68  ;  intentional  alterations,  72 
seq.  ;  accidental,  75,  76, 

Corban,  430. 

Corinth,  the  city,  691  ;  the 
church  in,  692. 

Cornill,  Prof.,  on  the  consolida- 
tion of  Judaism  in  Babylonia, 
532. 

Covenant,  the  national,  renewed 
by  Ezra,  544. 

Covenants,  Divine,  successive, 
408. 

Coverdale,  Miles,  translator  of 
the  Bible,  155. 

Creation,  two  accounts  of,  in 
Genesis,  406. 

Crete,  character  of  the  people, 
726  ;  Gospel  in,  725. 

Criticism,  Biblical,  twofold,  66. 

Crucifixion,  357. 

•Curetonian  Syriac'  of  New 
Testament,  53. 

Cursive  MSS.,  46  ;  their  cha- 
racteristics, 51 

Cyrenius :  see  Quirinius,  and 
Census. 

Cyrus  the  Great,  in  sacred  and 
secular  history,  538  ;  his  own 
account  of  the  conquest  of 
Babylon,  317;  acknowledges  the 
sovereignty  of  Jehovah,  539. 

Damascus,  278. 
Daniel,    in    Babylon,    316 ;    liis 
personal  history,  532  ;    Apoca- 


lyptic visions  of,  534  ;  parallels 
with  New  Testament,  537. 
Darius  Codomannus,  545. 

*  Darius  the  Mede,'  265,  316. 
Darius  Hystaspis,  540. 
David,  the   reign   of,   450,   464  ; 

his  kingdom  in  prophecy,  239  ; 
his  sin  and  penitence,  451  ;  his 
family  troubles,  452  ;  last  words 
of,  452  ;  as  Prophet,  455. 

Davidic  line,  the,  471. 

Davidson,  Dr.  A.  B.,  on  the 
question  of  2  Isaiah,  502  ;  on 
the  Book  of  Job,  565,  566. 

Davidson,  Dr.  S.,  on  the  unity 
of  Acts,  669 ;  on  Apocalyptic 
interpretation,  762. 

*  Dead  Sea,*  the  (not  a  Scripture 

name),  289. 

Dedication,  Feast  of,  432,  604. 

Deductions  from  .Scripture, 
authority  of,  362. 

Delitzsch,  Franz,  quoted,  569, 
578,  589,  &c. 

Deluge,  the,  interwoven  accounts 
of,  407. 

De  Quincey,  T.,  theory  respect- 
ing the  Essenes.  618. 

*  Deutero-canonical  *  Books,  39. 
Deuteronomy,  may  have  been 

reduced  to  writing  in  Canaan, 
393  ;  discovered  in  the  Temple 
by  Ililkiah,  24,  392  ;  evidences 
of  its  early  origin,  393  ;  speci- 
ally quoted  by  Christ,  xb.  ; 
variations  in  from  the  earlier 
books,  420 ;  references  to  in 
New  Testament,  ib. 

Deutsch,  Emmanuel,  on  the 
Talmud,  621. 

Development,  gradual,  of  truth 
in  Scripture,  383. 

De'Wette,  on  the  Pilgrim  Psalms, 
575  ;  his  German  Bible,  150. 

Dialogues,  covert,  in  Scripture, 
192. 

Diatessaron,  Tatian's,  of  the 
Gospels,  53. 

Diathek§  ('Testament'),  double 
men  mug  of,  6. 

Difficult  and  easy  readings, 
which  to  be  preferred,  80. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


819 


DiflBculties  in  Bible  allusions, 
262 ;  an  aid  to  Faith,  271  ; 
not  all  to  be  removed,  275  ;  in 
chronology  and  history,  262 ; 
in  Inspiration-theories,  122  ;  in 
the  Revelation,  268  ;  (some  are 
only  in  interpretation,  ib.)  ; 
doctrinal,  considered,  272 ;  to 
be  expected  in  Scripture,  259 ; 
how  to  meet  them,  270. 

Dillmann,  *  The  Book  of  Enoch,* 
750. 

Discrepancies,  apparent,  in 
Scripture,  262  ;  illustrated,  with 
explanations,  263-265. 

Disputed  passages  bearing  on 
our  Lord's  Deity,  83. 

Diversity  with  Unity  in  Scrip- 
ture, 138. 

Divine  and  human  elements 
in  Scripture,  121. 

Divine  Names  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, 396,  398. 

Doctrinal  Truth,  how  to  be  as- 
certained, 359. 

Doctrine  at  the  root  of  morality, 

365. 
Documents    employed    in    the 
composition  of  the  Pentateuch, 

394- 
Douay  Bible,  the,  156. 
*  Double     sense*     or    twofold 

application   of  Prophecy,   237, 

257- 
Doubts  of  Christians,  their  source 

and  cure,  114, 
Douglas,  Principal  G.  E.  M., 

on  the  Unity  of  Isaiah,  503. 
Dress  of  the  Jews,  338  ;  Scripture 

illustrations  from,  339. 
Drink-offerings,  430. 
Driver,  Prof.  S.  E,.,  quoted,  299, 

503,  &c. 
Drummond,  Prof.  James,  on 

the  authorship  of  the   Fourth 

Gospel,  658,  663. 
Dutch  translation  of  the  Bible, 

151. 

Eadie,  Dr.  J.,  on  the   English 

Bible,  153. 
Ebionites,  Jewish,  320. 


Ecclesiastes,  Book  of,  and  Solo- 
mon, 5QO. 

Ecclesiasticus  ('  Wisdom  of  the 
Son  of  Sirach '),  Book  of,  21, 
613  ;  Hebrew  fragment  of,  613. 

Egypt  and  Babylon,  302  :  see 
Carchemish. 

Egypt,  connexions  of,  with 
Israel,  301  ;  invasions  of  Judah 
by,  472  ;  Dynasties  of,  300,  301, 
302  ;  the  Shepherd-kings  of 
(Hyksos),  299 ;  after  Old  Testa- 
ment times,  413. 

Egyptian  customs  recognized 
in  the  Pentateuch,  492. 

Egyptian  party  in  Jerusalem, 

530- 

Elders,  the  Seventy  (or  Seventy- 
two),  623. 

Election,  how  taught  in  Scrip- 
ture, 361. 

Eliot,  George,  quoted,  766. 

Elliott,  '  Horae  Apocalypticae,' 
763. 

Ellicott,  Bishop,  on  Inspiration, 
123. 

Elzevirs,  the,  printers,  originate 
the  phrase  Textus  Receptus,  59. 

Emperors,  Roman,  during  the 
New  Testament  history,  678. 

Empires,  the  four,  in  Daniel's 
prophecies,  535. 

English  Versions  of  Scripture, 
early,  153. 

♦Enoch,'  Book  of,  750. 

*Ephesians,*  Epistle  to,  to  whom 
addressed,  710. 

Ephesus,  city  of,  Paul's  two 
visits  to,  711. 

Epistles,  the,  scope  and  purpose 
of,  193,  195,  679  ;  rules  for 
studying,  ib.  ;  errors  against 
which  they  were  directed,  681. 

Epistles  of  Paul,  early  testi- 
mony to  the,  39. 

Eras,  chronological,  328. 

Esdraelon,valleyof(Jezreel),283. 

Essentials  of  Revelation,  738. 

Esther,  the  Book  of,  545  ;  dates 
of  its  recorded  events,  546. 

'Eternal*  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  Dr.  Denney  on,  736. 


3Q 


820 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 


Ethical  Progress  in  Revelation, 

134  ;   Systems,  compared  with 

Scripture,  104. 
Ethiopic  Version  of  the  Old 

Testament,  34. 
Ethnography    confirming    the 

statements  of  the  Pentateuch, 

405. 

Etymology,  light  thrown  by,  on 
the  meaning  of  words,  202. 

Europe,  introduction  of  the 
Gospel  to,  718, 

*  Eusebian  Canons,'  47. 

Eusebius,  testimony  of,  to  New 
Testament  canonical  books.  41 ; 
on  the  genuineness  of  Mark 
j59-2o^  641  ;  quoted,  731,  749. 

•Euthalian'  marks  and  divi- 
sions, 47. 

Evangelical  Prophet,  the,  504 ; 
title  applicable  to  Jeremiah, 
520. 

Evidence,  hindrances  to  its  re- 
ception, 113  ;  of  Scripture  uni- 
versally accessible,  112;  to 
revelation,  classified,  90. 

Ewald,  H.,  quoted,  499,  535,575, 
739,  751,  &c. 

Example,  a  guide  to  conduct, 
369;  teaching  by,  139  ;  cautions 
in  applying,  ib. ;  examples 
interpreting  rules,  371  ;  pur- 
pose of  examples,  372. 

Exodus,  the,  300. 

Exodus,  Book  of,  its  title  and 
divisions,  411. 

Experimental  evidence,  1 10, 
III. 

Ezekiel,  place  of  his  ministry, 
523  ;  central  point  of  his  pre- 
dictions, ib.  ;  outline  (Haver- 
nick),  523  ;  ideal  of  the  holy 
kingdom  and  temple,  525. 

Ezra,  the  first  to  frame  a  Canon, 
22  ;  his  life  and  character,  539  ; 
his  Biblical  labours,  542  ;  tradi- 
tions respecting  him,  ib. 

Faber,    Dr.    F.    W.,    on    the 

English  Bible,  152. 
Fairbaim,  Principal  A.  M.,  on 
Inspiration  and  Revelation,  126. 


Faith,  the  principle  of  obedience, 
103  ;  various  uses  of  the  word, 
187,  188. 

Farrar,  Dean,  on  the  language 
of  2  Corinthians,  697  ;  quoted, 
484,  592,  736,  742. 

Fasts  of  the  Jews,  433. 

Fathers,  the  Christian,  on  In- 
spiration, 118, 

Feast  of  Dedication,  the,  604. 

Festivals,  the  Hebrew,  419, 
430;  threefold  meaning  of,  431. 

Figurative  Language  of  Scrip- 
ture, 215  ;  figures  classified,  220. 

*  First  chapter  in  Ecclesiastical 

History,'  the,  694. 

First  Prophecy,  the,  407. 

Flesh,  meaning  of,  187. 

Food  in  the  East,  340  ;  illustrat- 
ing Scripture,  341. 

*  Foretelling '       and       'Forth- 

telling,'  96,  235. 

Fourth  Gospel,  the  :  see  John's 
Gospel. 

'Fragmentary*  hypothesis  re- 
garding the  Pentateuch,  397. 

French  Version  of  the  Bible, 
150. 

*FromDantoBeer-sheba,'  280. 

Funeral  customs,  356. 

Furniture,  household,  in  the 
East,  337. 

Futurist  interpretation  of  the 
Apocalypse,  764. 

Galatia,  the  district  so  called, 
698 ;  characteristics  of  the 
people,  701. 

Galatians,  Epistle  to,  and  Acts 
compared,  674. 

GalilsBans,  the,  624. 

Gaussen,  'Theopneustia,'  iign, 

Gedaliah,  governor  of  the  rem- 
nant in  Jerusalem,  530. 

Gemara,  the,  619. 

Genealogies,  Scripture,  463. 

Genesis,  its  title  and  divisions, 
406 ;  references  to  in  New 
Testament,  410. 

Geneva  Bible,  the,  156. 

Gennesaret,  Lake  of,  288. 

Genuineness   and  authority  of 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


821 


the  New  Testament  established, 
88. 

Geography,  Scripture,  impor- 
tance of  studying  instructive, 
276  ;  facts  of,  296. 

Georgian  Version  of  the  Bible, 

34- 
Gerizim,  Mt.,  Samaritan  temple 

on,  17,  29. 
German  Versions  of  the  Bible, 

148. 
Geruth-Chimhani,  530  n. 
Gesenius,    Lexicon    of,    quoted, 

429,  575,  576,  &c. 
Gilead,  291. 
Ginsburg,   Dr.,  editor    of    the 

Massora,  620  ;    on  the  date  of 

Ecclesiastes,  539. 
Glossaries    of   New   Testament 

words,  207. 
Gnosticism, incipient,  682  ;  early 

Gnostics  quote  John'3   Gospel, 

657- 
Gobryas,  general  of  Cyrus,  316. 
Goliath,  452. 
Gospel,  meaning   of  the   word, 

627  ;    only  one  gospel,  ib.  ;    its 

method  of  healing,  112. 
Gospels,   the  Four,   628  ;    early 

testimony  to  the,  38. 
Gothic  Version  of  the  Bible,  34 ; 

of  the  Four  Gospels,  55. 
Grace,  meanings  of,  i88. 
Graeco-Egyptian  kings,  599. 
Graeco-Syrian  kinj:^s,  60 r. 
Grammatical  interpretation, 

180. 
«  Great  Bible,'  the,  155. 
Greek  classic  writers,  aid  from 

in     interpretation,     205  ;     the 

*  common    dialect,'    43 ;     New 

Testament  Greek,  42. 
Gregory  Nazianzen,  the  New 

Testament   Canon   in   metrical 

form,  41. 
Griesbach,  J.  J.,  Critical  Edition 

of  New  Testament,  61. 
Guest-cham.bers   at  the   Pass- 
over, 356. 

Habakkuk,  prediction  of,  re- 
garding the  Chaldaean  invasion, 


514 ;  his  sublime  Ode,  515, 
576. 

Habitations,  Eastern,  336. 

Haggai  and  Zechariah,  their 
special  mission,  547. 

Hagiographa,  the,  of  Old  Testa- 
ment, 17,  460. 

Half-shekel,  the  Temple  tribute, 

343. 

Ham,  the  lands  occupied  by  his 
posterity,  277. 

Hamath,  the  entrance  of,  281. 

Harmonies  of  revelation  as  evi- 
dence, 108. 

Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  con- 
struction of  a,  629. 

Hamack,  Prof.,  on  the  date  of 
the  Apocalypse,  759, 

HasmonaBans,  the,  603,  608 
(Table). 

Heathen  nations,  prophecies 
respecting,  479 ;  religions,  illus- 
trations of  Scripture,  319  ; 
princes,  the  ministers  of  God's 
will,  542  ;  powers,  in  alliance 
with  Israel,  469. 

Hebraisms,  181. 

Hebrew  language,  the,  13 ;  suc- 
cessive stages  of,  15  ;  a  conso- 
nantal language,  26. 

Hebrew  rites  and  heathen  reli- 
gions, 416. 

Hebrews,  Epistle  to  the,  and 
Leviticus,  416. 

Hebron,  286. 

Hellenistic  Greek,  42. 

Helvetic  Confession,  the,  on 
Inspiration,  119. 

Hengstenberg,  quoted,  535,  575, 
&c. 

Hermon,  Mount,  277 ;  its  names, 
ib.,  n. 

Herod  '  the  Great,'  607,  609  ; 
dominions  of,  293  ;  death  of, 
610. 

Herodian  family,  genealogical 
table  of  the.  611. 

Herodians,  the,  025. 

Herodotus,  538. 

*Hexapla,*  the,  of  Origen,  31. 

*Hexateuch,'  the,  387,  437. 

*  Hezekiah,  the  men  of,'  584. 


822 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


•Higher  criticism,*  the,  defined, 
66. 

Highlands  of  Palestine,  the, 
283,  286. 

Hilkiah,  his  discovery  of  the 
Book  of  the  Law,  23,  392. 

Himyaritic  or  '  Ethiopia'  lan- 
guage, 15. 

Hinnom,  valley  of,  285. 

Historical  Old  Testament  writ- 
ings, 434,  435;  interpretation 
of  the  Apocalypse,  763  ;  facts 
illustrative  of  Scripture,  318. 

History,  Bible,  characteristics 
of,  435  ;  divisions  of,  436 ;  Old 
Testament,  later  additions  to 
(Old  Testament),  545  ;  its  in- 
spiration, 436  ;  and  prophecy, 
236  ;  between  the  Testaments, 
597- 

Hittite  empire,  the,  305,  406. 

Hobart,  Dr.,  on  'the  medical 
language  of  St.  Luke,'  669. 

Holiness,  the  key-word  of  Levi- 
ticus, 415. 

Holtzmann,  H.,  on  the  *  primi- 
tive Mark,'  613. 

Homceoteleuton,  70. 

Hooker,  Richard,  on  the  Psalms, 

567- 

Hosea,  his  family  history,  489  ; 
and  the  Law,  490. 

Human  and  Divine  elements 
in  Scripture,  121, 

Hyksos  (shepherd-kings)  in 
Egypt,  409. 

Hymtn,  Passover,  of  Christ  and 
His  disciples,  580. 

Hyrcanus  I,  Maccabaean  high- 
priest,  606. 


Ideal  interpretation  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, 764. 

Importance  of  truths,  relative, 
362 ;  rules  for  ascertaining, 
363 ;  principles  and  cautions, 
364. 

Inns  and  Lodgings,  356. 

Inspiration,01d  Testamentstate- 
ments  respecting,  117. 

« Inspiration  of  selection,*  36. 


Interpretation  of  Scripture, 

rules  of,  180-199. 

Interpreter,  qualifications  of  a 
Scripture,  178. 

♦Intrinsic*  and  'Transcrip- 
tional* probabilities  in  regard 
to  New  Testament  text,  79. 

IrensBUS,  on  John's  Gospel,  656  ; 
quoted,  628,  637,  640,  644,  656, 
668,  758. 

Irony,  Scriptural,  191. 

Isaac  and  Esau,  409. 

Isaiah,  scope  of  his  prophecies, 
194  ;  his  personal  history,  493  ; 
duration  of  his  ministry,  494  ; 
contemporary  events,  495 ; 
'Ten  Burdens'  in  his  book, 
496;  his  'Apocalypse,'  497; 
Assyrian  invasions  of  Judah, 
498  ;  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
predicted,  ib.  ;  Second  part  of, 
ib.  ;  the  alleged  work  of  a  later 
prophet,  499  ;  the  question 
discussed,  499-503. 

Is^mael  murders  Gedaliah,  530. 

*  Isles  of  the  Sea,'  the,  278. 

Israel,  the  northern  kingdom, 
successive  capitals  of,  292  ;  and 
Judah,  in  conflict,  473. 

Itala  Version  (Latin),  32. 

Italian  Versions  of  the  Bible, 
151- 

Italics,  use  of,  in  English  Ver- 
sions, 170. 


Jacob,  family  records  of,  409. 

James,  *  brother  of  the  Lord,* 
General  Epistle  of,  738  ;  per- 
sonality of  the  writer,  ib.  ;  doc- 
trine compared  with  Paul's,  740. 

Jamnia,  the  Council  of,  on  the 
Canon,  19. 

Jannaeus,  Alexander,  606. 

Japheth,  lands  occupied  by  his 
posterity,  277. 

Jeconiah,  his  '  childlessness,' 
531- 

Jeffreys,  Mrs.,  on  the  language 
of  2  Isaiah,  502. 

Jehoiakim,  his  fate,  475,  529. 

Jehoshaphat,    king,   472 ;    un- 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


823 


toward    alliance    with     Ahab, 

474- 

Jeremiah,  his  personal  history, 
515  ;  arrangement  of  his  dis- 
courses, 517-519;  his  letter  to 
the  Babylonian  exiles,  519  ;  his 
prophetic  contemporaries,  517  ; 
and  Zechariah,  550  ;  an  evange- 
lical prophet,  550. 

Jeroboam,  his  character  and 
reign,  468. 

Jerome,  his  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament,  32  ;  of  the  New 
Testament,  54 ;  quoted,  641, 
644,  &c. 

Jerusalem.,  284  ;  fortress  of,  450  ; 
captured  and  destroyed,  475  ; 
walls  of,  rebuilt,  543  ;  the 
heavenly,  767. 

Jewish  Dispensation  and  the 
Church,  241,  255. 

Jewish  institutions,  218;  figura- 
tive, 545  ;  their  predicted  final 
restoration,  243. 

Jews  in  Babylonia  and  Persia, 

545. 
Job,  Book  of,  its  date,  563  ;    its 

object  and  lessons,  565. 
Joel,  imagery  of,  492. 
John  the  Apostle,  in  the  Gospels, 

654;  his  relationship  to  Jesus, 

655  ;  in  the  Apostolic  history, 

656  ;  Gospel  of,  its  genuineness 
argued,  657  ;  early  witnesses  to, 
656;  its  chief  modern  advocates, 
663  ;  details  peculiar  to,  662  ; 
disputed  passages  in,  660  ;  and 
the  Synoptics,  659  ;  relation  of 
to  the  Apocalypse,  660. 

Jonah,  Book  of,   arguments  for 

the     historicity     of,    483  ;     its 

allegorical  use  and  chief  lessons, 

484. 
Jonathan  Maccabaeus,  605. 
Jones,  Jeremiah,  on  the  New 

Testament  Canon,  41  n. 
Jordan  Valley,  the,  288. 
Joseph  in  Egypt,  409  ;  only  once 

mentioned  in  New  Testament, 

ib. 
Josephus,  language  of,  206;  on 

the  Old  Testament  Canon,  19 ; 


quoted,  593,  598,  605,  607,  609, 

677,  &c. 
Joshua,  his   name  and  history, 

438  ;  division  of  Canaan  by,  291. 
Joshua,  or  Jeshua,  high-priest, 

548. 
Journeys    of   the    children    of 

Israel,  413,  414,  418. 
Jowett,  Prof.  B.,  on  '  the  Man 

of  Sin,' 691. 
Jubilee,  the  Year  of,  433. 
Judasa,  reverses  of,  292. 
Judah,  kingdom  of,  471. 
Judas  Maccabaeus,  605,  606. 
Judas  of  Galilee,  624. 
Judas,  or  Jude,  personality  of, 

748  ;  anecdote  of  his  grandsons, 

749- 
Judges,  chronology  of  the,  325, 

443- 
Justin  Martyr,  quoted,  639,  646. 

Kabbala,  the,  621. 

Kadesh,  417. 

Keith,  Dr.,  on  the  fulfilment  of 
prophecies  against  Philistia, 
513  ;  interpretation  of  the  Apo- 
calypse, 763. 

Kethibh  and  Qeri,  27. 

Khammurabi  (Amraphel)  of 
Babylon  I'Sliinar;,  299,  406  ; 
Laws  of,  388  ;  invasion  by,  409. 

Kimchi,  D.,  on  the  Massorites, 
619. 

Kingdom,  Israelite,  disruption 
of,  467. 

*  Kingdom  of  Heaven,*  the,  in 
Matthew. 

Kingdom,  the  coming, prepara- 
tion for,  441. 

BJings,  the  Books  of,  compared 
with  Chronicles,  458,  461. 

Kings  of  Israel,  their  depravity, 
468  ;  their  fate,  469. 

Kiijath-jearim,  451. 

Kirkpatrick,  Prof.  A.  P.,  on 
Old  Testament  Literature,  508, 

573,  575- 
Kuenen,  A.,  388. 

Lachmann,  Carl,  Critical  Edi- 
tion  of  New  Testament,  61. 


824 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


•  Lady,*  the  elect,  755. 

liamentations  of  Jeremiah,  520. 

Laodicea,  epistle  to,  715. 

Lardner,  N.,  quoted,  683,  686, 
732,  759. 

Lasserre,  Henri,  translation  of 
the  Gospels  by,  151. 

Ijatin  modern  translations  of 
the  Bible,  147. 

Latin  versions  of  Old  Testament, 
ancient,  32, 

Law,  a  general  name  for  Old 
Testament  recognized  in  the 
Books  of  Samuel,  17  ;  and  Gospel 
essentially  one,  137  ;  Book  of 
the,  discovered  by  Plilkiah  in  the 
Temple,  23  ;  publicly  read  by 
Ezra,  544 ;  in  the  Prophets, 
390  ;  its  religious  institutions, 
421. 

'Lawyers,'  the,  in  New  Testa- 
ment, 622. 

Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon, 277. 

Lesky,  E.  H.,  on  conjectural 
criticism,  400, 

Leetionaries,  New  Testament, 
52. 

Legends,  supposed,  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, 397. 

Leontopolis,  Jewish  temple  at, 
605. 

Levites,  the,  425  ;  their  courses 
and  maintenance,  426;  their 
costume,  ib. 

Levitioal  Law,  prophetic  —typi- 
cal, 242. 

Lewin,  T.,  attempted  reproduc- 
tion of  letter  from  Corinthians 
to  Paul.  693  n. 

Lewis,  Mrs.,  on  Syriac  New 
Testament  MS.,  641- 

Liddon,  Canon,  on  literary  fic- 
tions, 401  ;  on  '  Inspiration  of 
Selection,'  500,  673. 

Lightfoot,  Bishop  J.B.,  quoted, 
618,  663,  701,  710,  714,  759,  760. 

Lion,  habits  of  the,  illustrating 
Scripture,  335. 

Iiiterature,  references  to  more 
ancient,  in  Scripture,  18  ; 
Jewish,  in  Babylon,  532, 

XiOcke,  J.,  on  Bible  reading,  601. 


Logia,  a  source  of  the  Gospels, 
632 ;  fragments  of,  as  discovered 
by  Messrs.  Grenfell  and  Hunt, 

45. 
Loisy,    Abb6,    on    the    Fourth 

Gospel,  657. 
Lowth,     Bishop,    on     Hebrew 

Poetry,  558. 
Luke,  his  personal  history,  640  ; 

connexion     with     Paul,    651  ; 

prologue   to    his    Gospel,    634  ; 

authorship   of  the   Acts,   668  ; 

thought  by  some  to  have  written 

*  Hebrews,'  733. 
Luther,  576,  733  ;   his  German 

Bible,  149. 


Maccabaean    line,  genealogical 

table  of  the,  608. 
Maocabaean  Psalms,  supposed, 

577. 
Maocabaean  uprising,  603. 
Maccabees,  Books  of,  618. 
Maclaren,  Dr.  A.,  on  David  and 

the  Psalms,  573. 

*  Malachi,'  Book  of,  553. 
Manasseh  of  Judah  and  Esar- 

haddon,  313. 

*  Man  of  Sin,'  the,  690. 
Manuscripts  of  New  Testament 

books,  44  ;  indications  of  date 
in,  47  ;  enumeration  of,  50,  51. 

Marcion  and  Luke,  650 ;  and 
John's  Gospel,  658, 

Margin  of  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments in  A. V.  and  R.V.,  80, 172. 

Marginal  readings,  a  cause  of 
mistake,  71. 

Mariamne,  wife  of  Herod,  607  ; 
executed,  610. 

Mark,  Gospel  of,  its  author,  636  ; 
connexion  with  the  Apostle 
Peter,  637  ;  with  Barnabas  and 
Paul,  638  ;  the  earliest  Gospel, 
632  ;  the  last  twelve  verses,  ques- 
tion of  the  genuineness,  640. 

Mashal,  meaning  of  the  Hebrew, 

584- 
Massora,  the,  619. 
Massoretes  and  their  work,  27, 

28,  77. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


825 


Mattaniah,  his  name  changed 
to  Zedekiah,  529. 

Mattathias,  his  dying  charges, 
604. 

Matthaei,  Critical  Edition  of  New 
Testament,  61. 

Matthew,  his  personality,  origin 
of  his  Gospel,  644. 

Mayor,  Dr.  J.  B.,  on  James  the 
Lord's  brother,  739. 

Meal-offerings,  430. 

Meaning  of  Scripture  unveiled 
by  tlie  Holy  Spirit,  179. 

Measures,  of  capacity,  346 ;  of 
length,  344. 

Mede,  Joseph,  interpreter  of 
the  Apocalypse,  763. 

Megiddo,  battle  of  (Josiah  slain;, 
302. 

*  Megilloth,'  the,  20. 

Melchizedek,  the  tyjiical  priest- 
king,  409. 

Meneptah  II,  the  Pharaoh  of 
the  Exodus,  300,  411. 

Merom,  the  waters  of,  288. 

Mesopotamia,  278. 

Messianic  hope,  the,  98,  237  ; 
kingdom  as  foretold,  240  ;  pro- 
mises,'456;  psalms,  571,582. 

Methods  of  insult,  355. 

Micah,  his  personal  history,  507  ; 
his  Meh.sianic  predictions,  508. 

Mill,  Dr.  John,  Critical  Edition 
of  New  Testament,  60. 

•Millennium,*  the,  766. 

Milligan,  Prof.,  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse, 759- 

Milton,  quoted,  572,  760. 

Ministry,  the  Christian,  as  de- 
scribed in  I  Timothy,  723, 

Miracles  as  Evidence,  twofold, 
92  ;  rejection  of,  implies  a 
greater,  94  ;  meaning  of,  95. 

Miracles  recorded  in  the  several 
Gospels,  665. 

Mishna,  the,  619  ;  Piof.  W.  H. 
Bennett  on,  623. 

Mistakes,  alleged,  in  the  Acts, 

673- 
Mitzraim  and  Mitzrim,  397. 
Moab,relations  of  Israel  with. 302. 
Moabite  Stone,  the,  291,  303. 


MofFatt,  James, '  The  Historical 
New  Testament,'  743. 

Moller,  "W.,  on  Pentateuchal 
criticisms,  397. 

Monarchy  in  Israel,  beginning 
of.  447. 

Money,  reckoning  of,  347. 

'  Monotheism  *  and  '  Monolatry,' 
407. 

Moral  difficulties  in  specula- 
tive criticism,  400. 

Morality  of  the  Bible,  as  Evi- 
dence, 100. 

Moriah,  Mount,  285. 

Moses  and  the  Pentateuch,  389. 

Motive   regulated  by  Scripture, 

TOI. 

Mount  Ephraim,  283. 

Mourning,  methods  of,  356. 

•Muratorian  Fragment,'  the, 
41. 

Mystery,  11,  189. 

Mythical  explanations  of  Mir- 
acles (Strauss),  93  n. 

Name  of  God  revealed,  412. 

ITeander,  classification  of  the 
Parables  by,  229. 

Nebuchadnezzar  (or  -rezzar^, 
son  of  Nabopolassar,  314  ;  his 
prowess  and  public  works,  315, 

515- 

Nehemiah,  liis  history  and 
character,  543 ;  said  to  have 
formed  a  sacred  Library,  23  ; 
reforms  instituted  by,  544 ; 
example,  of,  545. 

Nestle,  Prof.  E.,  Edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament  with  selected 
various  readings,  65 ;  on  the 
abundance  of  New  Testament 
MSS.,48. 

*  Neutral  *  type  of  New  Testa- 
ment text.  79. 

New  Tes:;ament,  Critical  Edi- 
tions of  the,  60  :  see  Walton, 
Mill,Bengel,  Griesbach,  Scholz, 
Lachmann,  Matthiei,  Tre- 
gelles,  Tischendorf,  Alford, 
Westcott,  Weiss ;  MSS.,  families 
of,  78  ;  comparative  study  of 
the,  683  ;  threefold  division  of, 


826 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


46  ;  relation  of,  to  the  purposes 
of  the  Old,  383  ;  the  primary- 
source  of  doctrine,  360. 

New  Year's  Day,  the  Hebrew, 
431- 

Newman,  J.  H.,  his  character 
of  David,  573. 

Nineveh,  in  the  times  of  Nahum, 
510;  fall  of,  314. 

Obadiah,  points  of  resemblance 
to  other  prophets,  526 ;  doom 
of  Edom,  527. 

Obedience,  the  true  basis  of, 
374. 

Objections  to  miracle  exploded, 
92 ;  to  Scripture,  general  an- 
swers to,  272-275. 

Obscure  passages,  260  ;  espe- 
cially in  poetry,  261. 

Offerings  sent  from  Babylonia 
by  the  exiles  to  the  Temple, 
532. 

Old  Testament  Books,  three 
stages  in  their  formation,  19  ; 
Canon,  recognized  in  the  New, 
20,  21 ;  classification  of  its  books, 
386  ;  MSS.,  the  earliest  extant, 
24 ;  quotations  of,  in  the  New, 
249  [see  Part  II  under  the  dif- 
ferent Old  Testament  Books]  ; 
the,  attested  by  the  New,  87  ; 
its  true  place,  385  ;  on  salvation, 
382  ;  uses  of  the,  ib.  ;  when  first 
printed,  24. 

Onesimus,  717. 

Oppression,  the  great,  of  Israel 
in  Egypt,  300. 

Oral  tradition  as  a  source  of  the 
Gospels,  632. 

Orelli,  Prof.,  on  Pentateuchal 
reconstruction,  399. 

Origen,  on  the  author  of  'He- 
brews,' 731  ;  the  'Hexapla,'  31. 

Origin  of  arts  and  crafts,  407. 

Original  Scriptures,  advantage 
of  studying  the,  201. 

Oman  or  Araunah,  452. 

*Our  daily  bread,'  meaning  of, 
in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  203. 

Ovid,  reference  to  Synagogues  by, 
702. 


Palestine,  its  various  names, 
279  ;  its  boundaries,  280  ;  its 
main  divisions,  282 ;  climate 
of,  294  ;  rains  in,  ib.  ;  winds 
of,  295  ;  wells  in,  ib. ;  between 
great  empires,  301  ;  as  a  Eoman 
province,  292. 

*  Palestinian'  Syriac  of  New 
Testament,  54. 

Paley,  quoted,  671,  674;  'Horse 
Paulinse,*  its  argument,  109. 

Palimpsests,  46. 

Palmer,  Archdeacon,  '  The  Re- 
visers' Greek  Text,'  65. 

Papias,  testimony  to  Mark  and 
Matthew,  637,  645. 

Papyrus,  fragments  of  early 
MSS.,  45. 

Parable,  defined,  221  ;  interpre- 
tation of,  228,  230-233. 

Parables,  our  Lord's  classified, 
229  ;  in  the  several  Gospels,  664. 

Parallelism,  Hebrew,  558 ;  a 
guide  to  meaning,  190;  in 
word  and  sense,  197. 

Parentheses,  191. 

Particles,  force  of,  192. 

Passover,  institution  of  the,  41a, 

431- 

Pastoral  Epistles,  the,  721. 

Paul  the  Apostle,  his  Divine 
commission,  87  ;  conversion  of, 
different  accounts  of  the,  673  ; 
journey  after  his  first  Roman 
imprisonment,  725  ;  Epistles  of, 
classified,  685. 

Peace-offerings,  430. 

Pentateuch,  the,  authenticity 
of,  492  ;  not  possible  to  regard 
it  as  a  forgery,  493  ;  its  names, 
387  ;  confirmations  of,  from 
history  and  archaeology,  404  ; 
critical  theories  respecting,  395, 
397  ;  its  proposed  reconstruc- 
tion examined,  398  ;  docu- 
ments imbedded  in,  18  ;  edi- 
torial revision  of,  395  ;  threefold 
element  in,  ib.  ;  its  essential 
unity,  394  ;  its  Mosaic  origin, 
388,  389  ;  assumed  in  the  New 
Testament,  390  ;  shown  by  its 
contents,  392. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


827 


Pentecost,  the  Feast  of,  432. 

*  Perfection,'  meaning  of,  189. 
Perowne,  Bishop  J.  S.,  375, 391. 
Persian  rule  over  Judaea,  597  ; 

kings,  succession  of,  ib. 
Personal  pronoun,  use  of,    in 

New  Testament,  209. 
Peshitta  or  Syriac  version,  Old 

Testament,  33 ;  New  Testament, 

52. 

Peter,  Simon,  his  personality, 
741  ;  connexion  with  our  Lord, 
ib.  ;  later  life  and  martyrdom, 
t5.  ;  not  the  founder  of  the 
Church  in  Rome,  703  ;  First 
Epistle  of,  where  written,  742  ; 
Second  Epistle  of,  746 ;  question 
of  its  authenticity,  its  destina- 
tion, and  purpose,  745 ;  the 
writer's  last  words,  748. 

Petrie,  Prof.  Flinders,  Egyp- 
tian researches,  299,  &c. 

Pharaoh-Hophra,  474,  475. 

Pharaoh -Ne CO,  474. 

Philemon,  family  of,  717. 

Philippi,  718;  character  of  the 
Church  in,  719. 

Philistines,  wars  of  David  with 
the,  451. 

Philo,  language  of,  206. 

Philosophies,  ancient,  illustra- 
tive of  Scripture,  319. 

Philoxenian  version  (Syriac) 
of  the  New  Testament,  53. 

Phoenicia,  278 ;  relations  of 
Israel  with,  303. 

Pinches,  Dr.  T.  G.,  'The  Old 
Testament  and  Historical  Re- 
cords,' 265. 

*  Pious  frauds,'  401. 
Pithom  (Heroopolis),  411. 
Plagnes  of  Egypt,  the  ten,  112. 

*  Plain,'  different  words  so  trans- 

lated (A.  v.),  290. 
Plumptre,  Prof.,  on  the  Scribes, 

621  ;  on  the  date  of  the  Epistle 

of  James,  739. 
Poetry,     early     religious,      18  ; 

characteristics  of  Hebrew,  558. 
Pompey  the  Great,  his  capture 

of  Jerusalem,  607. 
Poole,  R.  Stuart,  on  references 


to  Egypt  in  Genesis  and  Exodus, 
493- 

Portuguese  version  of  the 
Bible,  152. 

Practical  doctrines  under  the 
old  covenant,  133. 

Practical  purposes  in  doctrine, 
361. 

Praeterist  view  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, 762. 

Precedents,  Scripture,  how  far 
applicable,  374. 

Precepts,  how  to  be  interpreted, 
366  ;  moral  and  positive,  367  ; 
illustrated  in  the  law  of  the 
Sabbath,  ib. ;  differences  be- 
tween the  two,  368  ;  applica- 
tion of  both,  369. 

Prediction,  its  relation  to  pro- 
phecy, 235,  237. 

Presents  to  a  superior,  355. 

Priesthood,  the,  425. 

Priest-kings,  Maccabaean,  606. 

Principles  rather  than  rules  the 
method  of  Scripture,  366. 

Priscilla,  suggested  as  a  possible 
writer  of  '  Hebrews,'  733. 

Prison-Epistles  of  Paul,  the, 
710. 

Private  letters  of  Apostles, 
757. 

Procurators  of  Judaea,  610,  678. 

Progressiveness  of  revelation, 
132,  769. 

Promise,  Divine,  characteristics 
t'f^  375  ;  how  to  apply,  ib. 

Promises,  collections  of,  their 
value,  378  ;  differ  from  invita- 
tions, 377  ;  motives  to  exertion 
and  prayer,  378 ;  absolute  or 
conditional,  376 ;  universal  or 
peculiar,  permanent  or  tem- 
porary, 375. 

Proper  names,  peculiar  usages 
of,  184. 

Prophecy,  96, 233, 481 ;  prophetic 
succession,  the,  234  ;  in  Israel 
and  Judah,  479  ;  in  New  Testa- 
ment, 765  ;  its  progressive  de- 
velopment, 480  ;  foreshadows 
a  spiritual  kingdom,  ib.  ;  inter- 
pretation of  the  Law,  481. 


828 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


Prophetic  spirit,  revival  of,  in 
Samuel,  454. 

Prophets,  the,  in  two  main 
periods,  482,  511  ;  tabular  view 
of  their  chronological  order, 
478  ;  of  their  contents,  556,  557. 

Proselytes,  625. 

Proverbs,  Book  of,  584  ;  religion 
of  the,  585  ;  illustrated  by 
Scripture  examples,  587. 

Psalms,  authorship  of,  570 ; 
classified,  578  ;  chronologically 
arranged,  579  ;  referring  to 
David's  history,  458  ;  to  later 
periods  of  the  kingdom,  476  ; 
post-exilic,  576  ;  alleged  Macca- 
baean,  577  ;  in  the  Septuagint, 
574  ;  titles  of  the,  174,  572. 

*  Psalms  of  Solom.on,'  so  called, 
618. 

Ptolemies,  list  of,  599. 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  the 
LXX,  600,  6x2, 

Ptolemy  Philopator,  attempt 
against  the  Jews,  600. 

Purim,  festival  of.  431,  547. 

Pusey,  Dr.  E.  B.,  on  Daniel, 
537. 

Qarqar,  battle  of,  307. 

Qeri  and  Kethibh,  27. 

Qoheleth,  589. 

Quirinius,  Publius  Sulpitius, 

610. 
Quotations,  loose,  56,  72. 
Quotations  (New  Testament), 

in  early  Christian  writers,  55  ; 

collected  and  indexed  by  Dean 

Burgon,  57. 
Quotations  (Old  Testament), 

in    the    New,    classified,    250 ; 

mostly    from    the    LXX,    ib.  ; 

often  from  the  Hebrew  original, 

252  ;    variations    in,    252-255  ; 

books  omitted,   20  ;  bearing  of 

quotations  upon  doctrine,  255. 

[Principal    Quotations    at    the 

close    of  the   Introductions   to 

Old  Testament  books.] 

Railway  to  Jerusalem,  locality 
of  the,  45 in. 


Rainy,  Principal,  on  the  pro- 
cess of  Revelations,  146. 
Ramsay,  Prof.  W.  M.,  on  the 

Apostolic  history,  671  ;  on 
'  Galatia,'698  ;  quoted,  638,  650, 
700,  713   &c. 

Ramses  II  Sesostrisi,  411  ;  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Oppression, 
300. 

Rationalistic  explanations  of 
Miracles  (Paulus),  92  n. 

Rsceived  Text  (New  Testa- 
ment),   origin   of   the    phrase, 

59. 

Red  Sea,  passage  of  the,  413. 

Reformers,  the,  on  Inspiration, 
119. 

Religion  the  theme  of  Revela- 
tion. 128. 

Religion  of  Israel,  early,  389  ; 
after  Old  Testament  times,  611. 

Renan,  E.,  quoted,  615,  645, 
653. 

Return  of  the  Jews  from  Baby- 
lon, 540  ;  a  fulfilment  of  pro- 
phecy, 541. 

Revealed  and  Natural  Religion, 
their  difference  and  harmony, 
124. 

Revelation,  meaning  of,  125; 
method  of,  in  the  Law,  421 ; 
its  various  aspects,  423 ;  written, 
126. 

Revelation,  Book  of:  see  Apo- 
calypse. 

Revised  English  Bible,  the 
158  ;  changes  from  tlie  Author- 
ized Edition,  159-166. 

Reynolds,  Dr.  H.  R.,  Summary 
of  John's  Gospel,  661  ;  quoted, 
618,  661,  663,  721. 

Rheims  New  Testament,  the, 
156. 

*  River,*  various  words  so  trans- 
lated in  Old  Testament,  282. 

River  of  Egypt,  the,  281. 

Robertson,  Dr.  J.,  on  the 
alleged  lateness  of  the  Psalms, 
573. 

Robinson,  Dean  J.  Armitage, 
on  the  Gospels,  quoted,  417, 
629,  647,  71a,  &c. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


829 


Rome,  intervention  of,  in  Judaea, 
607  ;  the  Gospel  in,  703  ;  con- 
stitution of  the  Koman  Church, 
704 ;  Church  of,  and  Peter, 
742. 

Rushbrooke's  '  Synopticon,' 
631. 

Ruth,  ancestress  of  the  Messiah, 
445 ;  lessons  of  her  history, 
446. 


Sabbath,  the,  430. 

Sabbatic  Year,  the,  433. 

Sabaco  or  So,  King  of  Egypt, 
469. 

Sacrifice,  Institution  of,  407. 

Sacrifices,  the  Levitical,  425 ; 
their  various  kinds,  427-430. 

Salmon,  Prof.  G.,  '  Introduc- 
tion to  the  New  Testament.' 
quoted,  658,  738,  759,  &c. 

Salome,  mother  of  the  sons  of 
Zebedee,  655. 

Salt  Sea,  the ;  its  names  in 
Scripture,  289. 

Salutations,  355. 

Salvation,  as  taught  in  the  Old 
Testament,  382 ;  different  mean- 
ings, 187. 

Samaritan  Bible,  17 ;  Penta- 
teuch, 29  ;  worship,  598. 

Samaritans,  origin  of  the,  470  ; 
and  the  Mosaic  Covenant,  626, 

Samuel  the  Prophet,  his  life 
and  calling,  448. 

Sanctuary,  the  Jewish,  423. 

Sanday,  Prof.  W.,  quoted,  573, 
657»  663. 

Sanhedrin,  the,  613. 

Saul,  designated  as  king,  448 ; 
his  relations  with  David,  449  ; 
close  of  his  reign,  450, 

Scholz,  J.  M.  A.,  Critical  Edi- 
tion of  New  Testament,  61. 

Schrader,  E.,  *  Inscriptions,'  tr. 
Whitehouse,  307,  &c. 

Schiirer,  Prof.  E.,  'Jewish  His- 
tory in  New  Testament  Times,' 
618. 

Science  and  the  Bible,  130. 

•Scillitan  Martyrs,*  the,  54. 


Scope,  the,  of  a  passage  useful 

in  fixing  sense,  192. 
Scribes,  the,  621. 

*  Scriptures,'  meaning  and  usage 

of  the  word,  6. 
Scrivener,  Dr.,  Greek  Testament 

with  various  readings,  64. 
Sealing,  as  a  symbol,  357. 
Seasons,  as  a  note  of  time  in 

Scripture,  354. 
•Second    Canon »    (Old    Testa- 
ment), the,  23. 
Selah,  576. 
Seleucus  Philopator  and  the 

Jews,  601. 
Semi-Hebraisms,  183. 
Sennacherib,    311  ;    expedition 

of,     against     Jerusalem,     312; 

destruction      of      his       army, 

313. 
Septuagint,the,  30, 612  ;  printed 

editions  of,  31  ;  the  Bible  of  the 

Apostles,  20. 

*  Servant  of  Jehovah,*  in  the 

second  part  of  Isaiah,  504. 
Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  the, 

760. 
Shalmaneser  IV  and   Sargon, 

kings    of    Assyria   (capture   of 

Samaria),  309. 
Sheba  and  Seba,  278. 
Sheep,  the  Syrian,  335. 
Shem,  the  lands  occupied  by  his 

posterity,  277. 
Sheshbazzar    and    Zenibbabel, 

541. 

Shtllammith,  593. 

Simon  the  CananaBan  (Zelotes), 
621. 

Simon  the  Just,  600. 

Sin,  Scripture  view  respecting, 
102. 

*Sinaitic,*  Syriac  MS.  of  the 
Gospels,  53. 

Sin-offerings,  428. 

Skeat,  Prof.,  on  the  word  *  Gos- 
pel,' 627. 

Slavonic  version  of  the   Bible, 

34. 
Smerdis  the  usurper,  547. 
Smith,  J.,  of  Jordanhill,  on  'The 

Voyage   and  Shipwreck  of  St. 


830 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


Paul,'   671  ;    character    of    his 
reic;n,  465  ;  his  wisdom,  ih. 

Smith,  Prof.  G.  A.,  286. 

Smith,  Dean  Payne,  502. 

Smith,  Prof.  W.  Robertson, 

387. 
Solomon,    his    accession,    459 ; 

extent  of  his  dominions,  460  ; 

character  of  his  reign,  465  ;  liis 

wisdom,  ib. 
Son  of  Man,  a  title  of  Christ, 

659. 

Song  of  Songs,  the,  592  ;  various 
interpretations  of,  595. 

Songs  of  Degrees,  193. 

Spanish  versions  of  the  Bible, 
152. 

Spiritual,  the,  through  tlie 
natural,   215. 

Stanley,  Dean  A.  P.,  503,  507, 
&c. 

Stephens,  E,.,  divides  the  New 
Testament  into  verses,  174  ; 
his  printed  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  59. 

•Substance,*  meaning  of,  188. 

Summaries  of  Chapters  'in 
A.  v.,  173. 

Supper,  the  Last,  and  the  Pass- 
over Feast,  263. 

Swete,  Prof.  H.  B.,  31,  637. 

Symbols  of  spiritual  truths,  221  ; 
symbolic  language,  loss  of, 
222. 

Symmachus,  his  Greek  version 
of  Old  Testament,  31. 

Synagogue,  the  Great,  tradi- 
tions respecting,  542,  601. 

Synagogues,  established,  424, 
611,  622. 

Synchronisms  between  Hebrew 
and  secular  history,  405,  409. 

Synoptic  Problem,  the  (in 
Gospels),  629. 

Syria  and  Hamath,  304  ;  in  New 
Testament  times,  305. 

Syriac  versions  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 33  ;  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 52. 

•  Syrian  *  type  of  New  Testament 
text,  78. 

System,  absence  of  formal,   in 


the  method  of  Revelation,  138 ; 
yet  present  in  reality,  358. 

Tabeel,  the   son   of,  Pretender, 

471. 
Tabernacle,  the,  414,  423. 
Tabernacles,    Feast    of,   cele- 
brated by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah, 

544  ;    special  observances,   356, 

432. 
Tacitus,  historian,  677. 
Tahpanhes,  or  Daphne,  a  Jewish 

settlement,  530. 
Talmuds,  the,  619. 
Targums,  the,  28. 
Tarshish,  279. 
Tatian,  his  '  Diatessaron,'  53. 
Taxation  in  Palestine,  342. 
Tel    el-Amama    Tablets,    the, 

306,  388. 
Temple,  rebuilt  by  Zerubbabel, 

restored  and  dedicated  by  the 

Maccabaeans,    604  ;    rebuilt    by 

Herod,  609. 
Temple  of  Solomon,  the,  424, 

465- 
Temporal   blessings,    promise 

of,  how  to  be  understood,  376. 
Ten  Commandments,  the,  413. 
« Tendency-writing,*  Tiibingen 

theory  respecting,  672. 
Tennyson  and  Ecclesiastes,  591. 
Tenses,  Greek,  force  of,  209. 
Ten  Tribes,  dispersion  of  the, 

470. 
*  Testament,*   meaning    of   the 

word,  5. 
Testimonies,      early,     to     the 

Epistles  (Tables),  684. 
Text,  existing,  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment substantially  correct,  76 ; 

as    determined   by   MSS.,    78 ; 

printed  editions  of,  59. 
Textual  Criticism  defined,  66 ; 

science  of,  77  ;  its  sources,  ib. 
Thank-offerings,  430. 
Theocracy,  the,  423,  459. 
Theodotion,  his  Greek  Version 

of  Old  Testament,  31. 
Theology,  the  whole  meaning  of 

Scripture,  201  ;   schools   of,  in 

Babylonia,  531. 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


831 


Theophilus    of    Antioch,    on 

John's  Gospel,  686. 

Thessalonica,  686 ;  apostolic 
visit  to,  687. 

Theudas,  the  revolt  under,  674. 

Thirtle,  J.  W.,  on  the  Titles  of 
tlie  Psalms.  576  n. 

'Thomas  Matthews,*  or  John 
Rogers,  Bible  translator,  155. 

*  Three  Heavenly  Witnesses,' 
the  text  discussed,  82. 

Tiglath-Pileser  (or  Pul),  King 
of  Assyria,  469. 

Time,  reckoning  of,  349 ;  lessons 
from,  350. 

Timothy,  his  training  and  cha- 
racter, 722  ;  connexion  with 
Paul,  ib. 

Tindale's  Version,  New  Testa- 
ment and  Pentateuch,  155. 

Tirshatha,  Nehemiah  the,  545. 

Tischendorf,  Constantine  von. 
Critical  Edition  of  New  Testa- 
ment, 62. 

Titles  of  the  Psalms,  572 ;  musi- 
cal, 575 ;  new  theory  respecting, 
576  w. 

Titus,  his  connexion  with  Paul, 
724 ;  his  mission  to  Corinth, 
696. 

Traditions,  Apostolic,  added  to 
the  New  Testament  text,  84. 

Tregelles,  Dr.  S.  P.,  Critical 
Edition  of  New  Testament, 
62. 

Trespass -offerings,  428. 

Truths  common  to  both  Testa- 
ments, 156. 

Tychicus,  mission  of,  to  Asia, 
711. 

Types  defined,  221  ;  illustrated, 
ib.  ;  interpretation  of,  227. 

Tyre  and  Sidon,  district  of,  303. 

Uncial  MSS.,  46  ;  list  of,  48. 

Unity  of  doctrine  throughout 
Scripture,  136  ;  of  purpose  in 
revelation,  135. 

Unreal  and  imaginary  difficul- 
ties, 260. 

Unsystematic  form  of  revela- 
tion, advantage  of,  142. 


Ur  of  the  Chaldees, 
*  Ur- Marcus,*  633. 
Uzziah,  King,  472. 


408. 


*  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,'  the, 

473- 
Variations,  textual,  illustrated, 

67. 
Variety  of  authorship  in  Scrip- 
ture, 177. 
Vashti,  546. 
Vellum,  use  of,  for  early  New 

Testament  MSS.,  45. 
Verbal  inspiration,  difficulties 

in  the  theory,  120. 
Vischer  on  authorship   of   the 

Apocalypse,  759. 
Visions  of  Ezekiel,  523-525  ;  of 

Daniel,  533-535  ;  of  Zechariah, 

551  ;  of  the  Apocalypse,  760. 
Vulgate,    the    (Latin),    6,    33 ; 

authorized     editions     of,    ib.  ; 

critical,     ib.  ;    New    Testament 

MSS.  of  the,  55. 


Walton,  Brian,  '  Polyglot '  text 
of  New  Testament,  60. 

Weights  and  Coins, 346(Tables). 

Weiss,  Bernhard,  Critical  Edi- 
tion of  New  Testament,  64. 

*  Wells,*  different  words  denot- 

ing, 287. 
Westcott,  Bishop  B.F.,  quoted, 

577,  658,  660,  663,  733;  on  early 

witness  to  the  Gospels,  635. 
Westcott,    Bishop,     and     Dr. 

Hort,  Critical  Edition  of  New 

Testament,  63. 

*  Western  *  type  of  New  Testa- 

ment text,  78. 
Weymouth,     Dr.,     '  Resultant 

Greek  Testament,'  and  '  Greek 

Testament  in  Modern  Speech,' 

64. 
Whitehouse,  Principal  Owen 

C,  translator  of  Schrader,   as 

above.       See     also     on     early 

Chronology,  772. 
Wilderness    of    Judah,     the, 

287. 


832 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX 


Wisdom  of  God,  the  incarnate, 

586. 
Wise  Men,  the,  among  the  Jews, 

Witnesses,  ecclesiastical,  to  the 
New  Testament,  57  (Table)  ;  to 
the  Gospels  (Table),  636. 

Words  and  the  Word,  35. 

Wordsworth,  Bishop  C,  690. 
739,  748,  760,  763. 

'World,*  various  meaningsof,i89. 


Writing,   the   art    of,   its   anti- 
quity, 388 
Wyclif 's  Bible,  154. 

Xenophon, '  Cyropsedia,'  538. 
Xerxes,   his   defeats    in  Greece, 
546. 

Zerubbabel    and    Sheshbazzar, 

541. 


Date  Due 

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